Operating System

Chapter 1: Introduction

❑ What Operating Systems Do

❑ Computer-System Organization
❑ Computer-System Architecture
❑ Operating-System Structure
❑ Operating-System Operations
❑ Computing Environments
 Objectives

❑ To describe the basic organization of computer systems

❑ To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
❑ To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
 What is an Operating System?

❑ An operating system acts as an intermediary between

computer user and the computer hardware.
❑ Operating system goals:
▪ Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
▪ Make the computer programs convenient to use.
▪ Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
What is an Operating System? (Cont.)

❑ An operating system is a program that

manages a computer’s hardware.
❑ It also provides a basis for application programs.
❑ Operating systems for mobile computers provide an
environment in which a user can easily interface with the
computer to execute programs.
❑ Because an operating system is large and complex, it must
be created piece by piece.
Abstract view of the Components of a Computer System
 What Operating Systems Do
❑ A Computer system can be divided into four components:
I. Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
II. Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
III. Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
IV. Users
People, machines, other computers
What Operating Systems Do (Cont.)

▪ To understand OS’s role, TWO viewpoints to be explored:

❑ User view:
▪ The user’s view of the computer varies according to
the interface being used.
▪ Users want convenience, ease of use and good
performance
❖ Don’t care about resource utilization
❑ System View:
The operating system is the program most intimately
involved with the hardware. In this context, we can
view an operating system as a resource allocator.
 Operating System Definition
❑ OS covers many roles and functions.
❑ We have no universally accepted definition of what is part
of the operating system.
❑ OS is a resource allocator
▪ Manages all resources.
▪ Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use.
❑ OS is a control program
▪ A control program manages the execution of user
programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer.
 Operating System Definition
▪ A more common definition, and the one that we usually
follow, is that the operating system
❑ isthe one program running at all times on the computer-
usually called the kernel.
❑ Along with the kernel, there are two other types of
programs:
❑ system programs, which are associated with the
operating system but are not necessarily part of the
kernel, and
❑ application programs, which include all programs not
associated with the operation of the system.
 Computer System Organization
I. Computer-system operation
▪ A modern computer system consists of one or more CPUs,
number of device controllers connected through common bus
provides access to shared memory.
▪ Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device
(for example, disk drives, audio devices, or video displays).

A modern computer system

 STORAGE
▪ Volatile (usually refer as Memory except ROM)
▪ Memory loses its data when power is lost
▪ E.g., internal memory / main memory (primary storage / RAM))

▪ Non-Volatile (usually refer as Storage)

▪ Retains its data when power is lost
▪ provide secondary storage as an extension of main memory.
The main requirement for secondary storage is that it be able to
hold large quantities of data permanently.
▪ E.g., hard disk, solid state drive
 Storage-Device Hierarchy
> SPEED

< STORAGE

> COST

< SPEED

> STORAGE

< COST
 STORAGE
▪ Main Memory:
▪ memory that can be directly accessible by the CPU –
RAM / ROM / Cpu Cache
▪ Accessible means – external to the CPU
 STORAGE
▪ Main Memory: RAM (random access memory)
▪ Reading takes roughly takes the same time regardless of the
location
▪ RAM – Quick read/write times – load open programs / OS
from the slower secondary storage (HD/SSD), so it can
access directly by cpu
▪ Volatile
▪ Main Memory: ROM (read only memory)
▪ can only be red, can't be changed once programmed
▪ Used in small amounts to store essential program
▪ E.g., those needed to be run order to boot the computer
(bios)
▪ Non-Volatile
 STORAGE
▪ Main Memory: CPU Cache
▪ A type of memory that stores copies of frequently used data
▪ Cache faster than RAM, lower capacity
▪ CPU cache is physically closer to the processor, it is checked
before RAM in the 'fetch' stage
 STORAGE - Caching
▪ Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,
no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

▪ Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
▪ Distributed environment situation even more complex
❑ Several copies of a datum can exist
 Storage Hierarchy

▪ Storage systems organized in hierarchy

❑ Speed
❑ Cost
❑ Size
❑ Volatility
 Process Management
▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
▪ Process needs resources to accomplish its task
▪ CPU time, memory, I/O, files
▪Initialization data
▪ Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
▪ Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
▪ Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs
▪ Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

▪ Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.

▪ Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
▪ Suspending and resuming processes.
▪ Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
▪ Providing mechanisms for process communication.
 Memory Management
▪ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in
memory
▪ All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
▪ Memory management determines what is in memory and when
❑ Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
▪ Memory management activities
❑ Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
❑ Deciding which processes (or parts of processes) and data to
move into and out of memory
❑ Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 Storage Management
▪ OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
❑ Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
❑ Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer
rate, access method (sequential or random)

▪ File-System management
❑ Files usually organized into directories
❑ Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
❑ OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories

 Mapping files onto secondary storage

 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
 Mass-Storage Management
▪ Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or
data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
▪ Proper management is of central importance
▪ Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
▪ OS activities
❑ Free-space management
❑ Storage allocation
❑ Disk scheduling
▪ Some storage need not be fast
❑ Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
❑ Still must be managed – by OS or applications
❑ Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)
 Protection and Security
▪ Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
▪ Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
▪ Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
▪ Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
❑ User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
❑ User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
❑ Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
❑ Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
 Computing Environments

How OS are used in a variety of computing

environments:
▪ Traditional Computing
▪ Mobile Computing
▪ Distributed Systems
▪ Client-Server Computing
▪ Peer-to-Peer Computing
▪ Virtualization
▪ Cloud Computing
Computing Environments (Traditional Computing)

▪ Stand-alone general purpose machines

▪ But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e.,
the Internet)
▪ Portals provide web access to internal systems
▪ Network computers (thin clients) are like Web
terminals
▪ Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
▪ Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems
use firewalls to protect home computers from Internet
attacks
Computing Environments (Mobile Computing)

▪ Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

▪ What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
▪ Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
▪ Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
▪ Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
▪ Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android
Computing Environments (Distributed Systems)
▪ Distributed computing
▪ Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
▪ Network Operating System provides features between systems
across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
 Illusion of a single system
Computing Environments (Client-Server Computing)
▪ Client-Server Computing
❑ Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
❑ Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to store
and retrieve files
Computing Environments (Peer-to-Peer Computing)

▪ Another model of distributed system

▪ P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
❑ Instead all nodes are considered peers
❑ May each act as client, server or both
❑ Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
 Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
❑ Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
Computing Environments (Virtualization)

▪ Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes

Vast and growing industry
▪ Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type
(i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
❑ Generally slowest method
❑ When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
▪ Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
❑ Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
❑ VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization
services
Computing Environments (Virtualization)

Rerefence:https://medium.com/teamresellerclub/type-1-and-type-2-hypervisors-what-makes-them-different-6a1755d6ae2c
Computing Environments (Cloud Computing)
▪ Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network
▪ Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the
base for it functionality.
❑ Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
▪ Many types
❑ Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
❑ Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
❑ Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
❑ Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
❑ Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application
use via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
❑ Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
Computing Environments (Cloud Computing)

Source: https://www.bigcommerce.com/