INDUSTERIAL ELECTRICAL

MACHINES AND DRIVES

SERVICING
Level II

LEARNING GUIDE #30

Unit of competence:-Industrial Electrical Machines
and Drives Servicing Level II
Module Title: Maintaining and repairing industrial
electrical machines and drives
LG Code: EEL EMD2 M08LO1 –LG 30
TTLM Code: EEL EMD2 TTLM081019V1

LO1: Plan, prepare and coordinate maintenance

works

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 Instruction Sheet :1
Learning Guide 30

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following learning outcome and content coverage
 Secure Safety permit/Hot work permit
 Identify potential hazards
 Electromagnetic principles
 Preparing Maintenance work schedule
 Identify and request/obtain Materials, tools, equipment, testing devices and
PPE
 Preparing Work instructions according to machine’s manual
 Informing the schedule of work for concerned department/personnel

This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome and contents stated in the
cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to:-

 Secure Safety permit/Hot work permit

 Identify potential hazards
 Apply Electromagnetic principles
 Prepare Maintenance work schedule
 Identify and request/obtain Materials, tools, equipment, testing devices
 Prepare Work instructions according to machine’s manual
 Inform the schedule of work for concerned department/personnel

Learning Instructions:
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the “Information Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3, Sheet 4,
Sheet 5, Sheet 6 and Sheet 7” in page 3, 5,9,14,18,79 and 82 respectively”.
4. Accomplish the “Self-check 1, Self-check 2, Self-check 3 , Self-check 4 , Self-check 5
, Self-check 6 and Self-check 7” in page 4, 8,13,17,76,81and 83 respectively”.
5. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation from the “Self-check” proceed to “Operation
Sheet 1 and Operation Sheet 2” in page 84and 85 respectively.
6. Do the “LAP test” in page 86

Information Sheet :1 Secure Safety permit/Hot work permit

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 1.1. Introduction

Safety is the number one priority in any job. Every year, electrical accidents cause
serious injury or death. Many of these casualties are young people just entering the
workplace. They are involved in accidents that result from carelessness, from the
pressures and distractions of a new job, or from a lack of understanding about
electricity. This chapter is designed to develop an awareness of the dangers associated
with electrical power and the potential dangers that can exist on the job or at a training
facility.

1.2. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Construction and manufacturing worksites, by nature, are potentially hazardous places.

For this reason, safety has become an increasingly large factor in the working
environment. The electrical industry, in particular, regards safety to be unquestionably
the most single important priority because of the hazardous nature of the business. A
safe operation depends largely upon all personnel being informed and aware of
potential hazards. Safety signs and tags indicate areas or tasks that can pose a
hazardto personnel and/or equipment. Signs and tags may provide warnings specific to
the hazard, or they may provide safety instructions (Figure 1-2).To perform a job safely,
the proper protective clothing must be used. Appropriate attire should be worn for each
particular job site and work activity.

The following points should be observed:

i. Hard hats, safety shoes, and goggles must be worn in areas where they are
specified. In addition, hard hats shall be approved for the purpose of the
electrical work being performed but metal hats are not acceptable!
ii. Safety earmuffs or earplugs must be worn in noisy areas.
iii. Clothing should fit snugly to avoid the danger of becoming entangled in
moving machinery. Avoid wearing synthetic-fiber clothing such as polyester
material as these types of materials may melt or ignite when exposed to high
temperatures and may hard hat Goggles Cotton only, no polyester Tight
sleeves and trouser legs No rings on fingers Safety shoe.

Self-Check -1 Written Test

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 Directions: Choose the best answer.

1. Which one of the following safety equipment?

A. Measuring instrument
B. Hand tool
C. Glave
D. All of the above
2. _______ must be worn in noisy areas.
A. Safety shoose
B. Ear plag
C. Hat
D. All of the above

Note: Satisfactory rating - 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Information Sheet :2 Identify potential hazards

2.1. Electrical Shock

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 The human body conducts electricity. Even low currents may cause severe health
effects. Spasms, burns, muscle paralysis, or death can result, depending on the amount
of the current flowing through the body, the route it takes, and the duration of exposure.
The main factor for determining the severity of an electric shock is the amount of electric
current that passes through the body. This current is dependent upon the voltage and
the resistance of the path it follows through the body. Electrical resistance ( R ) is the
opposition to the flow of current in a circuit and is measured in ohms (Ω).The lower the
body resistance, the greater the current flow and potential electric shock hazard. Body
resistance can be divided into external (skin resistance) and internal (body tissues and
blood stream resistance). Dry skin is a good insulator; moisture lowers the resistance of
skin, which explains why shock intensity is greater when the hands are wet. Internal
resistance is low owing to the salt and moisture content of the blood. There is a wide
degree of variation in body resistance. A shock that may be fatal to one person may
cause only brief discomfort to another.
Typical body resistance values are:
Dry skin—100,000 to 600,000 Ω
• Wet skin—1,000 Ω
• Internal body (hand to foot)—400 to 600 Ω
• Ear to ear—100 Ω
Thin or wet skin is much less resistant than thickor dry skin. When skin resistance is
low, the current may cause little or no skin damage but severely burn internal organs
and tissues. Conversely, high skin resistance can produce severe skin burns but
prevent the current from entering the body.

2.2. Rubber Protective Equipment

Rubber gloves are used to prevent the skin from coming into contact with energized
circuits. A separate outer leather cover is used to protect the rubber glove from
punctures and other damage. Rubber blankets are used to prevent contact with
energized conductors or circuit parts when working near exposed energized circuits. All
rubber protective equipment must be marked with the appropriate voltage rating and the
last inspection date. It is important that the insulating value of both rubber gloves and
blankets have a voltage rating that matches that of the circuit or equipment they are to
be used with. Insulating gloves must be given an air test, along with inspection. Twirl the
glove around quickly or roll it down to trap air inside. Squeeze the palm, fingers, and
thumb to detect any escaping air. If the glove does not pass this inspection it must be
disposed of.

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 2.3. Protection Apparel

Special protective equipment available for high-voltage applications include highvoltage

sleeves, high-voltage boots, nonconductive protective helmets, nonconductive eyewear
and face protection, switchboard blankets, and flash suits.

2.4. Hot Sticks

hot sticks are insulated tools designed for the manual operation of high-voltage
disconnecting switches, high-voltage fuse removal and insertion, as well as the
connection and removal of temporary grounds on high-voltage circuits. A hot stick is
made up of two parts, the head, or hood, and the insulating rod. The head can be made
of metal or hardened plastic, while the insulating section may be wood, plastic, or other
effective insulating materials.

2.5. Shorting Probes

Shorting probes are used on de energized circuits to discharge any charged capacitors
or built-up static charges that may be present when power to the circuit is disconnected.
Also, when working on or near any high-voltage circuits, shorting probes should be
connected and left attached as an extra safety precaution in the event of any accidental
application of voltage to the circuit. When installing a shorting probe, first connect the
test clip to a good ground contact. Next, hold the shorting probe by the handle and hook
the probe end over the part or terminal to be grounded. Never touch any metal part of
the shorting probe while grounding circuits or components.

2.6. Face Shields

listed face shields should be worn during all switching operations where there is a
possibility of injury to the eyes or face from electrical arcs or flashes, or from flying or
falling objects that may result from an electrical explosion. With proper precautions,
there is no reason for you to ever receive a serious electrical shock. Receiving an
electrical shock is a clear warning that proper safety measures have not been followed.
To maintain a high level of electrical safety while you work, there are a number of
precautions you should follow. Your individual job will have its own unique safety
requirements. However, the following are given as essential basics.

i. Do not close any switch unless you are familiar with the circuit that it controls
and know the reason for its being open.

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 ii. When working on any circuit, take steps to ensure that the controlling switch is
not operated in your absence. Switches should be padlocked open and
warning notices should be displayed (lockout/tag out).
iii. Avoid working on “live” circuits as much as possible.
iv. When installing new machinery, ensure that the framework is efficiently and
permanently grounded.
v. Always treat circuits as “live” until you have proven them to be “dead.”
Presumption at this point can kill you. It is a good practice to take a meter
reading before starting work on a dead circuit.
vi. Avoid touching any grounded objects while working on electrical equipment.
vii. When working on live equipment containing voltages over approximately 30-V,
work with only one hand. Keeping one hand out of the way greatly reduces the
possibility of passing a current through the chest.
viii. Safely discharge capacitors before handling them. Capacitors connected in
live motor control circuits can store a lethal charge for a considerable time
after the voltage to the circuits has been switched off. Although Article 460 of
the National Electric Code (NEC) requires an automatic discharge within 1
minute, never assume that the discharge is working! Always verify that there is
no voltage present. Confined spaces can be found in almost any workplace

Self-Check -2 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Choose the best answer.

1. ______ are insulated tools designed for the manual operation of high-voltage
disconnecting switches, high-voltage fuse removal and insertion.
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 A. Hot Sticks
B. Shorting probes
C. face shields
D. None of the above
3. ______ are used on de energized circuits to discharge any charged capacitors
A. Hot Sticks
B. Shorting probes
C. face shields
D. None of the above

Note: Satisfactory rating - 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Information Sheet :3
Electromagnetic principles

3.1. Introduction

A magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space. The magnetic field
surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph shown in fig 3.1. A

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 magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinklingt
he paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magneticforce
produced by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magneticfield exit
s the material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole along thelength of th
e magnet. It should be noted that the magnetic lines of force exist in three-
dimensions but are only seen in two dimensions in the image.

It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the
magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where
the exit poles are concentrated is called the magnet's north pole and the area where the
entrance poles are concentrated is called the magnet's south pol.Magnets come in a
varity of shapes and one of then more common is the horseshoe (U) magnet. Then
horse shoe magnet has north and south poles just like a barmagnet but the magnet is
curved so the poles lie in the poles as shown in fig. (3.2). Same plane, the magnetic
field is concentrated between the number of magnetic lines of force is known as
magnetic flux. The flux has the weber (wb) as its unit, The number of magnetic lines of
force cutting through a plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic
flux density B. The flux density or magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit. One tesla
is equal to one Newton/(A/m). From these units it can be flux density is a measure of
the force applide to a particle by the magnetic field.

3.2. Types of magnets

There are two kinds of magnets permanent and temporary magnets.

 Permanent magnet

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 Permanent magnet will retain or keep their magnetic properties for a very long time.
Permanen magnets are by placing pieces of iron cobalt, and nickel into strong magnetic
fields. Permanent magnets are mixtures of iron , nickel, or cobalt with other elements.
These are known as hard magnetic materials. The natural form of a magnet is called a
load stone, it contains iron. When man mixed the pure metals together
( ie. iron, nickel and cobalt ) we created an even stronger magnet which a.e the ones we
use most today

 Temporary magnets

Temporary magnets will loose all or most of their magnetic properties. Temporary magnets
are made of shuch materials as iron and nickel. There are two essential methods for
generating a magnetic field . Those two following methods

(a) Electromagnetic Fields

Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In 1820, Hans Christian oersterd
discovered that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic field. He found that the
magneticfield existed in circular form around the wire and that the intensity of the field was
directly proportional to the amount of current carried by the wire as shown in the fig.3.3.

Fig.3.3: Magnetic field around the wire carried current

There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the magnetic field around a
conductor. It is called the right-hand rule. If a person grasps a conductor in ones right
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the
conductor in the direction of the magnetic field as shown in fig.3.4.

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 (b) Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

Themagnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound
The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also
with each loop that is added to the coil. Coiling a current-carrying conductor around a
core material that can be easily magnetized, such as iron, can form an electro
magnetism. The magnetic field will be concentrated in the core. This arrangement is
called a solenoid.

 Induction

Faraday noticed that the rate at which themagnetic field changed also had an e
ffect on the amountof current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for an
uncoiled conductor state that the amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of flux lines cutting the conductor. Faraday's Law for a
straight wire is shown below.

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 Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H) which reflects this dependence on the rate
of change of the magnetic field. One henry is the amount of inductance that is required
to generate one volt of induced voltage when the current is changing at the rate of one
ampere per second. Note that current is used in the definition rather than magnetic field

 Self-inductance

When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is
called inductance (L) Self-inductance, or simply inductance is the property of a circuit
where by a change in current causes a change in voltage in the same circuit as shown
in fig 3.6.

The mmf required to produce the changing magnetic flux (Φ) must be supplid
by a changing current through the coil.Magnetomotive force generated by an electromag
oil is equal to the amount of current through that coil (in amps) multiplie by the number
of turns of that coil around the core (the unit for mmf is the amp-turn). Because the
mathematical relationship between magnetic flux and mmf is directly Proportional, and
because the mathematical relationship between mmf and current is also directly
proportional (no rates-of-change present in either equation), the current through the coil
will be in-phase with the flux waveform as shown in fig 3.7:

 Mutual-inductance

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 When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known
as mutual-inductance. The image to the right shows an example of mutual-inductance
as shown in fig 3.8. When an AC current is
flowing through a piece of wire in a circuit, an
electromagnetic field is produced that is constantly
growing and shrinking and changing direction due
to the constantly changing current in the wire. This
changing magnetic field will induce electrical
current in another wire or circuit that is brought
close to the wire in the primary circuit. The current
in the second wire will also be AC and in fact will fig 3.8. Mutual inductance

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 Self-Check -3 Written Test

Directions: Choose the best answer.

 ______ is measured in units of henneries (H)

A. Magnetic field C. Iduction
B. Electromagnet D. A and B
 The SI unit of magnetic flux is _____?
A. Magnet C. Electromagnet
B. Weber D. None of the above
 ________ is a change in energy with in a volume of space
A. Permanent magnet C. Magnetic Filed
B. Temporary Magenet D. All
 Magnet will return or keep their magnetic properties for a very long time?
A. Permanent magnet C. Magnetic Filed
B. Temporary Magenet D. All
 The number of magnetic lines of forces cutting through a plane of a given area at
a right angle is ________?
A. Flux C. magnetic filled
B. Magnetic flux density D. All

Note: Satisfactory rating - 3 and 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 and 5

points
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

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 Information Sheet :4 Preparing Maintenance work schedule and inform the
schedule of work for concerned department/personnel

4.1. Types of Maintenance

4.1.1. Breakdown maintenance

Breakdown maintenance is basically the “run it till it breaks” type of maintenance

mode. No actions or efforts are taken to maintain the equipment till its design life is
reached. Advantages are, Low cost, less staff. Disadvantages are: Increased cost due
to unplanned downtime of equipment. Increased labor cost, especially if overtime is
needed. Cost involved in repair or replacement of equipment. Possible secondary
equipment or process, damage from equipment failure, inefficient use of staff.

4.1.2. Preventive maintenance:

It is a daily maintenance procedure (cleaning, inspection, oiling and re-tightening),

designed to retain the healthy condition of equipment and prevent failure through the
prevention of deterioration, periodic inspection or equipment condition diagnosis by
measuring deterioration. Just like human life is extended by preventive medicine, the
equipment service life can be prolonged by doing preventive maintenance.

It is further divided into Periodic maintenance and Predictive maintenance.

a ) Periodic maintenance (Time based maintenance - TBM):

Time based maintenance consists of periodically (at pre-determined intervals)

inspecting, servicing and cleaning equipment and replacing parts to prevent sudden
failure and process problems.

b) Predictive maintenance:

This is a method in which the service life of important part is predicted based on
inspection or diagnosis, (for Ex., by testing the condition of the lubricating oil in a vehicle
for its actual condition and lubrication properties in a good testing centre instead of
changing every 5000kM), This type of maintenance allows us to use the parts/equipment
to the limit of their service life. Compared to periodic maintenance, predictive
maintenance is condition based maintenance. Basically, predictive maintenance differs
from preventive maintenance by basing maintenance need on the actual condition of the

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 machine rather than on some preset schedule. It is possible to schedule maintenance
activities to minimize or delete overtime cost. Also, inventory and order parts can be
minimized as required, well ahead of time to support the downstream maintenance
needs. It helps to optimize the operation of the equipment, saving energy cost and
increasing plant reliability.

4.1.3. Corrective maintenance:

It improves equipment and its components so that preventive maintenance can be

carried out reliably. Equipment with design weakness must be redesigned to improve
reliability or improving maintainability

4.1.4. Maintenance prevention:

It indicates the design of a new equipment. Weakness of current machines are

sufficiently studied (on site information leading to failure prevention, easier
maintenance and prevents of defects, safety and ease of manufacturing) and are
incorporated before commissioning a new equipment.

4.2. Preventive Maintenance of Electrical Equipments

Maintenance usually consists of regularly scheduled inspection, greasing, oiling and

possibly Minor repairs. Most causes of failure of alternator and electrical equipment are
poor maintenance procedure, which involves flushing out oil wells, greases cups, and
checking of rotor and slip rings for concentricity. Shop overhaul is essential for all
electrical equipment at least once in five years.

To avoid major repairs:

 Check all connections and wiring.

 Make sure that moisture does not penetrate the winding insulation. Presence of
moisture lowers insulation resistance. Test insulation using a megger.
 Remove the moisture by heating the windings using hot bulbs or applying low
voltage to winding to develop heat and dry. Do not allow the temperature to rise
above 900C, which may damage the insulation.
 Dust in the machine should be removed by using a blower with low
pressure of air.
 Remove grease and oil using carbon tetrachloride (CTC). While using CTC
the area should be well ventilated to avoid fumes and toxics.
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 Check voltage of alternator at terminals and panel boards. If the generator is
operating satisfactory, load the alternator gradually for 2 to 4 hours to evaporate
remaining moisture. While testing it should be within 5% of rated voltage and 3
phases load should be well balanced.
 Always open bus bar switches and then stop the alternator. Be sure that all the
switches are in ‘off’ condition before working on the equipment.
 Reversed coil connections of pole windings can be detected by passing Direct
current through winding and testing poles by soft iron strip or bar. If polarity is
correct soft iron piece will be held tightly. If not the bar will not be held in its
place. Great care is to be taken if D.C. exciter is to be removed for check up of
main alternator itself.
 Slip rings on rotor are made of Bronze or non ferrous metal which are polished
by fine sand paper or polishing stone. If the rings are worn-out excessively, the
rotor should be removed and the rings be reduced down in diameter on the
lathe machine. Insulation resistance is then measured by Megger, ring to ring
and ring to shaft. Accumulation of carbon or metal dust in the vicinity of rings
should be cleaned thoroughly.
 Before starting the motor or alternator – clean the motor/alternator surrounding
area to make sure that there is sufficient open space for air movement, also
be sure of dry windings.
Make sure from name plate data that type, design of the motor for that work and
load.
 Check that operating speed reaches in minimum time, if not there may be
overload or centrifugal switch or starting coil is defective. If motor is running in
improper direction check for the proper connections as per manufacturing data.
 Check for unusual noises. Poor alignment of end plates, which causes the rotor
core to strike against the stator core. Bearing may be defective. If motor
becomes overloaded and begins smoking, there may be over loading or
defective starting winding or switch. Clean the commutator or reset brushes or
adjust spring tension of brushes, if there is sparking at brushes.

Self-Check -4 Written Test

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 Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Choose the best answer

1. The maintenance work carried out on the machine after it has failed to work is
called

A) Breakdown maintenance B) Preventive maintenance

C) Periodic maintenance D) Predictive maintenance.
2. Moisture is the air is prevented from absorption in motor insulation by
A) laminating the windings B) applying varnish
C) Covering with plastic sheets D) vacuum sealing

Note: Satisfactory rating - 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Information Sheet :5 Identify and request/obtain Materials, tools, equipment,

testing devices and PPE

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 1. Introduction to Transformer

Transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and withouta
change in the frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the supplymains
is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electricalenerg
y to the load is called secondary winding.Actually the transformer is an electric energ
y conversion device, since the energyreceived by the primary is converted to usef
ul electrical energy in the other circuits(secondary winding circuit).If the secondary
winding has more turns than the primary winding, then thesecondary voltage
is higher than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-up
transformer. When the secondary winding has less turns than the primary
windings then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and
the transformer is called step down transformer.

The most important tasks performed by transformers are

i) Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems

ii) Matching source and load impedances for maximum powertransfer in
electronic and control circuit an
iii) Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another

Transformers are used extensively in ac power systems. AC electrical power can

be generated at one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission very
long distances at very low losses and its voltage stepped down again for final use.

1.1. Principles of transformer

Faraday summed up the results of the experiments in the form of following two laws,
known as Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. Faraday's first law states that
whenever the magnetic flux associated or linked with a closed circuit is changed, or
alternatively, when a conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in
the circuit resulting in an induced current. This emf is induced so long as the magnetic
flux changes.

Faraday's second law states that the magnitude of the induced emf generated in a coil
is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. These two basic laws
discovered by Faraday changed the course of electrical engineering and led to the
development of generators, transformers, etc. The change of flux as discussed in the
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 Faraday's laws can be produced in two different ways:

(i) by the motion of the conductor or the coil in a magnetic field, i.e. the magnetic
field is stationary and the moving conductors cut across it. The emf generated
in this way is normally called dynamically induced emf;
(ii) by changing the current (either increasing or decreasing) in a circuit. There by
changing the flux linked with stationary conductors, i.e. the conductors or coils
remain stationary and the flux linking these conductors is changed. The emf is
termed statically induced emf. Statically induced emf can be further
subdivided into:
(a) Self-induced emf and
(b) Mutually induced emf.
The concept of dynamically induced emf gave rise to the development of generators,
whereas statically induced emf was helpful in developing transformers.

Figure 5.1.. Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an

alternating current Im starts flowing through N1 turns. The alternating mmf N1Im sets up an
alternating flux which is confined to the high permeability iron path as indicated in
Figure 5.1. The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary (P) and E2 in
secondary (S). If a load is connected across the secondary, load current starts flowing.

1.2. Ideal Two-Winding Transformer

For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as follows

1. Winding resistances are negligible.

2. All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e. all of the flux is
confined to the magnetic core.
3. The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible. Therefore, volt-
amperes input to the primary are equal to the output volt-amperes i.e.
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 V1I1= V2I2
Input VA= Output VA

4. The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the core is linear.

1.2.1. Voltage Transformation Ratio

Where : - E1 & I1 – for primery voltage & current respectively

N1 - for primery turn
E2 - for secondery voltage
N2 - for secondery turn
K – transformer ratio
Hence, the currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio.

i) If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
ii) If N2 < N1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down transformer.

1.2.2. Type of transformer

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary are wound on the
core, transformers are of two types viz., (i) core-type transformer and (ii) shell-type
transformer.

( i ) Core-type transformer.

In a core-type transformer, half of the primary winding and half of the secondary
winding are placed round each limb as shown in Fig. 5.2.This reduces the leakage
flux. It is a usual practice to place the low-voltage winding below the high-voltage
winding for mechanical considerations.

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 Fig .5.2. Core-type transformer Fig .5.3. Shell-type transformer

(iii) Shell-type transformer.

This method of construction involves the use of a double magnetic circuit. Both the
windings are placed round the central limb (See Fig. 5.3), the other two limbs acting
simply as a low-reluctance flux path.

The choice of type (whether core or shell) will not greatly affect the efficiency of the
transformer. The core type is generally more suitable for high voltage and small output
while the shell-type is generally more suitable for low voltage and high output.

1.3. Autotransformer

An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of winding is

common to both the primary and secondary circuits. Fig.(Fig.5.4 (i)) shows the
connections of a step-down autotransformer whereas Fig. (Fig.5.4 (ii)) shows the
connections of a step-up autotransformer. In either case, the winding ab having N1
turns is the primary winding and winding be having N2 turns is the secondary winding.
Note that the primary and secondary windings are connected electrically as well as
magnetically. Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the secondary
conductively as well as inductively (transformer action).

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 Fig. 5.4. Autotransformer

1.3.1. Welding Machine

Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials usually metals or thermoplastics,

by causing coalescence. Generally, most of the weldable common steels are preferred
to be join by welding method. The most popular of the welding machines uses the arc
welding methods, which include the (i) SMAW – The stick welding or shielded metal
arc welding (ii) GMAM – The tig welding gas metal arc welding (iii) GTAM – The tig
welding or gas tungsten arc welding. Others are brazing, soldering and oxyacetylene
welding. In the automobile industry the resistance spot welding (RSM) is one of the
most efficient material-joining processes, it utilizes currents in the range of 1 – 200KA
with durations ranging from a few cycles to one second to generate joule
heating. RSM transformers operates within a middle frequency range of around 1kHz.

The welding system constructed uses low frequency transformer that operate at the
utility mains frequency of 50 or 60 Hz with variable current selectors to avoid power
quality problem. Power quality problem refers to voltage current and frequency
deviation from nominal value in electrical distribution and utilization system.

Any significant deviation in the waveform magnitude, frequency or purity is a potential

power quality problem which may result in failure or malfunctioning of equipment. The
current selector introduced in this transformer help to maximize the power quality
problem association with a.c electric power systems, that operates at a sinusoidal
waveform of 50 or 60 Hz and rated voltage magnitude. The deviations depends on the
duration and magnitude which help to categorize the voltage deviation as voltage
sags, interruption, over voltage, under voltage, transients, voltage imbalance and
voltage

In many electric welding systems, a potential difference of 50-70 volts is required to

strike an electric arc. After the arc is struck, an essentially constant current supply is
desired .The welding transformer converts the high voltage and low current from
the utility mains into low voltage and high current, usually in the range of 55 –590
amperes. In this transformer the variable current selector help to maintain the
constant current supply desired.

1.3.2. Construction

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 The a.c welding machine design is a two pole circuit, with the first pole been the
primary circuit and the second pole is the secondary circuit.

i. The Primary Circuit (pole 1)

The primary circuit was design to vary in current selection without tempering
with the coil itself; it has a four step coil with three looping for the selection of
current capacity.

Fig 5.5: A circuit showing the four step circuit and the looping for the current selection

In the primary circuit the winding begins at the start point S and was given 80
turns with a copper wire of size gauge 13. The first looping was introduced after
the first winding and was labeled A, the winding continues with same size
gauge for another 20 turns before the second looping labeled B. The third
looping C and the last winding labeled E was given 20 turns each with same size
wire gauge 13. The beginning of the wire marks the starting point „ S‟ and the end
of the wire marks the ending point „ E‟, both point are use for connection
purposes.

ii. The Secondary Circuit (Pole 2)

The second circuit was design to consist of two coils over lapping each other. The
first coil is the primary coil wound with 114 turn’s size wire gauge 13 while the
secondary coil was 40 turn of tick size wire gauge 8 as shown in figure 5.6.The
starting point and ending point of the secondary coil serve as the welding terminals.

Fig 5.6: A circuit showing the secondary circuit with the over lapped primary circuit
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 The core is made of laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path
with a minimum of air gap included. The lamination steel help to minimize eddy
current loss and the thickness of the lamination varies from 0.35mm for a frequency of
50Hz 0.5mm for a frequency of 25Hz. The cores are cut in the form of long strips.
L‟s, E‟s and I‟ shapes as shown below.

Fig. 5.7: Diagrams showing the shapes of lamination

Fig. 5.8: Diagrams showing the arrangement of a laminated core on the coil

In other to avoid reluctance at the joins where the laminated cores are butted
against each other, the alternate layers are stacked differently with the shape I to
eliminated joins as shown below.

Fig 5.9: Diagrams showing the arrangement of the I lamination covering the butted joint.

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  Copper as my coil

Copper wire is of more advantage in winding process than that of aluminum. Copper
wire has more capacity and strong enough to resist the function of any kind of winding
for a longer time. It has different type of gauge and is coated with insulator to prevent
contact of wires when winding.

For the aluminum wire its very effective when used than the copper wire, it produces
stronger magnetic flux which makes the machine more powerful. The disadvantage of
an aluminum wire is that they are not insulated thereby need proper insulation before
it can be used for winding.

 Insulators

Insulators are materials that do not conduct electricity in any form. They are used to
separate two wires to avoid partial contact of any form.

 Connection

The major kinds of connections that can be given to this construction

include:
a) Star-delta connection or End to start connection
b) Star – star connection or start to start connection
c) Delta-Delta connection or End to End connection

The type of connection use in this work is the start to start connection; it involves the
starting wire hand of the primary circuit connected to the secondary circuit as shown
in figure below.

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 Fig 5.10: The detail connection of the primary circuit diagram

Owing to the connection between the primary pole and the secondary pole, the
primary turns will toggle with respect to the variation of the current thus, 254 turns
from S to A, 174 turn from A to B, 154 turns from B to C and 114 turns from C to E. At
the secondary circuit, the starting hand is connected to the earth of the welding side
and the end hand connected to the tong bearing the electrode.

 Testing

The testing of the machine confirmed the success of the design, construction and
connection of the work, as there was no spark or shock from the laminated core and
when connected to the welding apparatus, it was used for joning metals without any
problem. In the testing, the voltages at zero load and when in operation was measured
and recorded as shown in the result below.

1.3.3. Three-phase transformer

A three-phase system in used to generate and transmit electric power. Three- phase
voltages are raised or lowered by means of three-phase transformers. A three-phase
transformer can be built in two ways viz. (i) by suitably connecting a bank of three
single-phase transformers or (ii) by constructing a three-phase transformer on a
common magnetic structure. In either case, the windings may be connected in Y-Y,
Δ-Δ , Y-Δ or Δ-Y.

(i) Bank of three single-phase transformers

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 Three similar single-phase transformers can be connected to form a three-phase
transformer. The primary and secondary windings may be connected in star (Y) or
delta (Δ) arrangement. Fig. (5.11.(ii)) shows a Y – Δ connection of a three-phase
transformer.

The primary windings are connected in star and the secondary windings are connected
in delta. A more convenient way of showing this connection is illustrated in Fig.
(5.11.(i)). The primary and secondary windings shown parallel to each other belong to
the same single-phase transformer. The ratio of secondary phase voltage to primary
phase voltage is the phase transformation ratio K.

Fig. 5.11: connection of a three-phase transformer.

(ii) Three-phase transformer

A three-phase transformer can be constructed by having three primary and three

secondary windings on a common magnetic circuit. The basic principle of a 3- phase
transformer is illustrated in Fig. (5.12.(i)).The three single-phase core- type
transformers, each with windings (primary and secondary) on only one leg have their
unwound legs combined to provide a path for the returning flux. The primaries as well
as secondaries may be connected in star or delta. If the primary is energized from a 3-
phase supply, the central limb (i.e., unwound limb) carries the fluxes produced by the
3-phase primary windings. Since the phasor sum of three primary currents at any
instant is zero, the sum of three fluxes passing through the central limb must be
zero. Hence no flux exists in the central limb and it may, therefore, be eliminated.
This modification gives a three leg core- type 3-phase transformer. In this case, any
two legs will act as a return path for the flux in the third leg. For example, if flux is in
one leg at some instant, then flux is /2 in the opposite direction through the other
two legs at the same instant. All the connections of a 3-phase transformer are

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 made inside the case and for delta-connected winding three leads are brought
out while for star- connected winding four leads are brought out.

Fig.(5.12) construction of three phase transformer

For the same capacity, a 3-phase transformer weighs less, occupies less space
and costs about 20% less than a bank of three single-phase transformers.
Because of these advantages, 3-phase transformers are in common use, especially
for large power transformations.

A disadvantage of the three-phase transformer lies in the fact that when one
phase becomes defective, the entire three-phase unit must be removed from
service. When one transformer in a bank of three single-phase transformers
becomes defective, it may be removed from service and the other two
transformers may be reconnected to supply service on an emergency basis until
repairs can be made.

1.3.4. Three-Phase Transformer Connections

A three-phase transformer can be built by suitably connecting a bank of three

single-phase transformers or by one three-phase transformer. The primary or
secondary windings may be connected in either star (Y) or delta (Δ) arrangement. The
four most common connections are (i) Y-Y (ii) Δ-Δ (iii) Y- Δ and (iv) Δ -Y. These four
connections are shown in Fig. (5.13).In this figure, the windings at the left are the
primaries and those at the right are the secondary’s. The primary and secondary
voltages and currents are also shown. The primary line voltage is V and the primary
line current is I. The phase transformation ratio K is given by;

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 Fig.( 5.13) three-phase transformer connection

Secondary phase voltage = N2

K=
Primary phase voltage N1
(i) Y-Y Connection. In the Y-Y connection shown in Fig. (5.13 (i)), 57.7% (or
1/√3 ) o f the line voltage is impressed upon each winding but full line current
flows in each winding. Power circuits supplied from a Y-Y bank often create
serious disturbances in communication circuits in their immediate vicinity.
Because of this and other disadvantages, the Y-Y connection is seldom used.
(ii) Δ-Δ Connection. The - connection shown in Fig. (5.13 (ii)) is often used for
moderate voltages. An advantage of this connection is that if one transformer
gets damaged or is removed from service, the remaining two can be
operated in what is known as the open-delta or V-V connection. By being
operated in this way, the bank still delivers three-phase currents and voltages
in their correct phase relationships but the capacity of the bank is reduced to
57.7% of what it was with all three transformers in service.
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 (iii) Y- Δ Connection. The Y- Δ connection shown in Fig. (5.13 (iii)) is suitable for
stepping down a high voltage. In this case, the primaries are designed for
57.7% of the high-tension line voltages.
(iv) Δ -Y Connection. The Δ –Y connection shown in Fig. (5.13(iv)) is commonly
used for stepping up to a high voltage

1.3.5. Applications of Transformers

There are four principal applications of transformers viz.

(i) power transformers (ii) distribution transformers

(iii) autotransformers (iv) instrument transformers

(i) Power Transformers. They are designed to operate with an almost constant
load which is equal to their rating. The maximum efficiency is designed to be at
full-load. This means that full-load winding copper losses must be equal to the
core losses.

(ii) Distribution Transformers. These transformers have variable load which is

usually considerably less than the full-load rating. Therefore, these are
designed to have their maximum efficiency at between 1/2 and 3/4 of full- load.

(iii) Autotransformers. An autotransformer has only one winding and is used in

cases where the ratio of transformation (K), either step-up or step down, differs
little from 1. For the same output and voltage ratio, an autotransformer requires
less copper than an ordinary 2-winding transformer. Autotransformers are used
for starting induction motors (reducing applied voltage during starting) and in
boosters for raising the voltage of feeders.

(iv) Instrument transformers. Current and voltage transformers are used to extend
the range of a.c. instruments.

(a) Current transformer

A current transformer is a device that is used to measure high alternating current in a

conductor. Fig. (5.14.) illustrates the principle of a current transformer. The conductor
carrying large current passes through a circular laminated iron core. The conductor
constitutes a o n e - t u r n p r i m a r y w i n d i n g . T h e s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g
consists of a large number of turns of much fine wire wrapped around the core as

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 shown. Due to transformer action, the secondary current is transformed to a low
value which can be measured by ordinary meters.

Fig. (5.14): current transformer

(b) Voltage transformer

It is a device that is used to measure high alternating voltage. It is essentially a step-

down transformer having small number of secondary turns as shown in Fig. (5.15).The
high alternating voltage to be measured is connected directly across the primary. The
low voltage winding (secondary winding) is connected to the voltmeter. The power
rating of a potential transformer is small (seldom exceeds 300W) since voltmeter is
the only load on the transformer.

Fig.( 5.15): Voltage Transformer

1.3.6. Testing of transformer

(a) open-circuit and short-circuit tests
These two tests on a transformer help to determine
(i) The parameters of the equivalent circuit
(ii) The voltage regulation and
(iii) Efficiency
The equivalent circuit parameters can also be obtained from the physical dimensions of
the transformer core and its winding details. Complete analysis of the transformer can
be carried out, once its equivalent circuit parameters are known. The power required

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 during these two tests is equal to the appropriate power loss occurring in the
transformer.

(b) Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test

The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase transformer is
given in Figure 5.16 (a).In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are
shown connected on the low voltage side of the transformer. The high voltage side is
left open circuited. The rated frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low voltage
side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transformer. When the voltmeter
reading is equal to the rated voltage of the L.V. winding, all three instrument readings
are recorded.

Fig: 5.16: open circuit test

The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current Ie. Since Ie is quite small
(2 to 6%) of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible,
and for all practical purposes, the applied voltage V1 is equal to the induced emf E1.

(c) Short-Circuit Test

The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the instruments are placed
on the high voltage side, as illustrated in Figure .

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 Fig: 5.17: short circuit test

The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current Ie. Since Ie is quite small
(2 to 6%) of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible,
and for all practical purposes, the applied voltage V1 is equal to the induced emf E1.

The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the

high voltage side. In a transformer, the primary m.m.f. is almost equal to the secondary
m.m.f., therefore, a rated current in the H.V. winding causes rated current to flow in the
L.V. winding

1.4. Types and operation of DC Machine

1.4.1. Introduction

Electric motors and generators are referred to as electric machines. Electricians are
most frequently concerned with electric motors; due to their extensive application.The
electric motor must be one of man’s most useful inventions. In the manufacturing
industries they are used in large numbers, to drive lathes, drilling and milling machines,
augers, conveyors, cranes, hoists, lifts, fans and steel rolling equipment. In the process
industries they are used to pump liquids and gases. They are used in transport to start
engines,

operate windscreen wipers, open and close windows and power electric vehicles. In
domestic situations they are used in washing machines, clothes dryers, cookers,
fridges, freezers, vacuum cleaners, food mixers, audio / video equipment, cameras,
clocks etc.Electric motors are popular because they are compact, reliable, and cheap,
need little attention, and are convenient to use. They can be provided in a wide range of

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 sizes and can be designed to have different characteristics for various applications.
Also, there is a readily available supply of electricity.

In these machines, conversion of energy result

results from the follow
llowing two
electromagnetic phenomena:

i. When a conductor moves in a magn

magnetic
etic field
field voltag
voltage is induced in the conductor
(generator action
action))
ii.When
When a current –carr
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a mechanical force (Motor action)

Note that the two syst

systems in fig.above, electr
electrical and mechanical, are different in
nature.
ature.

 In elect
electrical system the primary quant
quantities involved are volt
voltage & current
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  While in mechanical system, the analogous quantit
quantities are torque & speed.

The coupling medium between these different systems is the magne

magnetic field.
ield The dc
machines are versatile and extensively used in industry. A wide variety of volt-ampere
or torque-speed characteristics can be obtained from various connections of the field
winding. Dc machines can work as generators, motors & brakes.

 In the generator mode the machine is driven by a prime mover (such as a

steam turbine or a diesel engine) with the mechanical power converted into
electrical power.
 While in the motor mode, the machine drives a mechanical load with the
electrical power supplied converted into mechanical power.
 In the brake mode, the machine decelerates on account of the power supplied
or dissipated by it and, therefore, produces a mechanical braking action.

1.4.2. Construction

The dc machines used for industrial applications have essentially three major parts:

a) Field system (Stator)

b) Armature (Rotor) and

c) Commutator

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 Fig.5.2. Cutaway view of DC Machines away view of DC Machines

a) Filled system

The field system is located on the stationary part of the machine called stator. The
field system is designated for producing magnetic flux and, therefore, provides the
necessary excitation for operation of machine.
The stator of dc machines comprises of
i. Frame(yoke)
ii. Main poles
iii. Inter-poles

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  Stator

The stator of a dc machines consists of a frame or yoke, and poles, which support the
field windings.

 The frame or yoke in addition to being a part of a magnetic circuit serves as

mechanical support for entire assembly.

i. Yoke

Earlier, cast iron was used for the construction of yoke but it has been replaced by
cast steel.
 This is because cast iron has saturation density of 0.8 Wb/m2 while
2
saturation occurs in cast steel at density of approximately 1.5 Wb/m .
 Thus, the cross section of the cast steel frame or yoke is half that of iron cast
and hence cast steel is used in case it is desired to reduce the weight of
machine.
 Fabricated steel yokes are commonly used, as they are economical and have
consistent magnetic & m e c h a n i c a l properties used.

ii. Main poles

 Poles are made of sheet steel laminations of 1,0 to 1,2mm thickness

(nowadays the thickness becomes 0.4-0.5mm)

 The pole shoes support the field coils placed on the pole body and
also spread the total flux over a greater area, thereby reduce the air gap
reluctance and giving the desired flux distribution to limit saturation in the
teeth of the armature.

 The poles are secured to the yoke by means of bolts. In small machines the
pole are built of steel forgings, bolted directly to the yoke.

 In case of machines having compensating windings, the pole face is

slotted to accommodate the windings.

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 iii. Interpole

 In addition to the main poles, modern direct current machines are also provided
with interlopes with windings on them in order to improve commutation under
loaded conditions.
 They are arranged midway between the mains poles and are bolted to the yolk .
 Laminated interlopes are used in machine with sever commutator
problems.
 For small and medium size machines they could be solid

b) Armature

 The armature is the rotating part (rotor) of the dc machine where the
process of electromechanical energy conversion takes pace.
 The armature is a cylindrical body, which rotates between the magnetic poles.
 The armature and the field system are separated from each other by an
air gap.
The armature consists of:
 Armature core with slots and
 Armature winding accommodated in slots
 The armature of the dc machines is a cylindrical shape, consists of slots, teeth,
winding and the core.
 The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in the uniform
magnetic field and to induce an alternating emf in its winding.
 The armature core is normally made from high permeability silicon- steel
laminations of 0.4-0.5mm thickness, which are insulated from one another by
varnish or ceramic insulation.

The use of high grade steel is made:

 To keep hysteresis loss low, which is due to cyclic change of

magnetization caused by rotation of the core in the magnetic field
and

 To reduce the eddy current in the core which are induced by the rotation of
the core in the magnetic field

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  In order to dissipate the heat produced by hysteresis and eddy
current losses etc, ventilating ducts are provided.

By the fanning action of the armature, air is drawn in through these ducts, thus
producing efficient ventilation.

 The commutator is mounte on the rotor of a dc machine and it performs

with help of brushes a mechanical rectification of power from
 ac to dc in case of generators and
 dc to ac in case of motors.

 Brushes And Brush Holder

 Brushes are needed to collect the current from the rotating commutator or to
lead the current to it.

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  Normally brushes are made up of carbon and graphite, so that while in contact
with the commutator, the commutator surface is not spoiled.
 The brush is accommodated in the brush holder where a spring presses ita
2
gains the commutator with pressure of 1,5 to 2,0 Ncm
 A twisted flexible copper conductor called pigtail securely fixed in to the
brush is used to make the connection between the brush and its brush
holder.
 Normally brush holders used in dc machines are of box type.
 The numbers of brush holders usually equal to the number of main poles in
dc machines.

1.4.3. Dc Motor Principle

As showed in the illustration below the stator consists of a permanent magnet, a DC

voltage is applied to the brushes, a current flows into the rotor coil. The excitation
field applies a force to the rotor coil and a torque is exerted, the rotor starts rotating.
When passing the horizontal position, the commutator reverses the polarity of the
current, but since position of the rotor is also reversed the current flows in the same
direction, exerting the torque in the same direction.

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 Machine that converts dc power into mechanical energy is known as dc motor. Its
operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction of the force is
given by Fleming ’s left hand rule.

1.4.4. Working of D.C. Motor

When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d.c. supply:

(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) The armature conductors carry ^currents.

All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors
under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction. Suppose the conductors under N-
pole carry currents into the plane of the paper and those under S-pole carry currents out
of the plane of the paper

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 1.4.5. Back or Counter E.M.F.

When the armature of a D.C. motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence e.m.f. is induced in
them as in a generator. The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied
voltage Consider a shunt wound motor shown in.

When d.c. voltage V is applied across the motor terminals, the field magnets are excited
and armature conductors are supplied with current. Therefore, driving torque acts on the
armature which begins to rotate. As the armature rotates, back e.m.f. Eb is induced
which opposes the applied voltage V. The applied voltage V has to force current
through the armature against the back e.m.f. Eb. The electric work done in overcoming
and causing the current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy
developed in the armature. It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a d.c. motor is
only possible due to the production of back e.m.f. Eb.
Net voltage across armature circuit = V - Eb
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then Ia =V –Eb/Ra
Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current drawn by
the motor. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e.m.f.

 Significance of Back E.M.F.

The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e.,it
makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the
torque required by the la. Armature current Ia=V-Ea/Ra

Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

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  Let in a d.c. motor
 V = applied voltage
 Eb = back e.m.f.
 Ra = armature resistance
 Ia = armature current
 Since back e.m.f. Eb acts in opposition to the
 Applied voltage V, the net voltage across the armature circuit is V- Eb. The
 armature current Ia is given by
 V-Ea/Ra
 V=Ea+IaRa

1.4.6. Types of D.C. Motors Shunt

i. Shunt Wound Motor

In shunt wound motor the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature. The
current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current. Shunt
field windings are designed to produce the necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively
large number of turns of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt
field current is relatively small compared with the armature current. Application of d,c shunt
motor fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, machine tools

 Characteristics of Shunt Motors

Shows the connections of a D.C. shunt motor. The field current Ish is constant since
the field winding is directly connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be
constant. Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is approximately constant.00 for short
periods125% to 200% full load torque starting torque

ii. Series Wound Motor

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 In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature [See
Fig.below]. Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current. Since the current
passing through a series field winding is the same as the armature current, series field

windings must be designed with much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same
m.m.f.Therefore, a series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire
and, therefore, will possess a low resistance.

iii. Compound Wound Motor

Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor
connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is directly connected across
the armature terminals it is called short-shunt connection. When the shunt winding is so
connected that it shunts the series combination of armature and series field it is called
long-shunt connection.

 Performance is roughly between series-wound and shunt-wound

 Moderately high starting torque
 Moderate speed control
 Inherently controlled no-load speed
– safer than a series motor where load may be disconnected
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 e.g. cranes

1.4.7. Starting Methods of DC Motor

If we apply full voltage to a stationary DC motor, the starting current in thearmature will
be very high and we run the risk of
– Burning out the armature;
– Damaging the commutator and brushes, due to heavy sparking;
– Overloading the feeder;
– Snapping off the shaft due to mechanical shock;
– Damaging the driven equipment because of the sudden mechanical hammer
blow.
All dc motors must, therefore, be provided with a means to limit the starting current
to reasonable values, usually between 1.5 and twice full-load current. One solution is
to connect a rheostat in series with the armature. The resistance is gradually reduced
as the motor accelerates and is eventually eliminated entirely.

1.5. Dc Generator

An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical

energy. An electric generator is based on the principle that whenever flux is cut by a
conductor, an e.m.f. is induced which will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit
is closed. The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given by Fleming’s right
hand rule. Therefore, the essential components of a generator are:

(a) a magnetic field

(b) conductor or a group of conductors
(c) Motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field

1.5.1. Construction of d.c. Generator

The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. In fact, when
the machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a d.c.
generator or motor. Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa. All
d.c. machines have five principal components viz. (i) field system (ii) armature core (iii)
armature winding (iv) commutator (v)brushes.

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 Fig. 5.3.1 d.c. generators

 Field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the
armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient poles (of course, even number)
bolted to the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke). The m.m.f. developed by
the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the air gap,
the armature and the frame.

Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. Since armature
and field systems are composed of materials that have high permeability, most of the
m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air
gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number of turns).

 Armature core

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It
consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to
form a cylindrical core as shown in Fig below. The laminations (See Fig. below) are
individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical
contact with each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy
current loss. The laminations are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical
security to the armature winding and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between
the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

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 Fig. 5.3.2. Armature Core

1.5.2. Armature winding

The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a
suitable manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which
“working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel;
the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel
paths so as to increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-
circuit winding; the conductors being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a
closed loop or series of closed loops.

1.5.3. Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated

in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is made
of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft
of the machine. The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in a
suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding. Depending upon the manner in
which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are
two types of armature winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave winding

1.5.4. Brushes

The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating

commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and
rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs
(See Fig. 5.4.3). If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the

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 commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact
with the commutator may produce sparking.

Fig. 5.4.3.

Multi pole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected
together so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal.

1.6. Types and operation of AC Machines

1.6.1. Introduction

Ac machine are motor that convert a.c electrical energy to mechanical energy and
generator that convert mechanical energy to a.c electrical energy. A set of three phase
a.c voltage is induced in to the stator armature winding of an a.c machine by the rotor
field winding (generator action). AC machines, also known as induction machines, use
ac (alternating current i.e. sinusoidal) voltages and currents to establish the required
magnetic fields, and utilize ac values at its terminals .Induction machines are the most
widely used type of electric machine, and can range in size from small sub one-
horsepower machines to large many thousands of horsepower machines. The larger ac
machines use what is known as three phase power and will be the type of machine we
will focus on.

When a single-phase supply is connected to a single stator winding it provides an

alternating rather than a rotating magnetic field and the rotor will not turn. However,
single-phase motors will run successfully provided that an initial start is given to the
rotor. They will run in either direction depending on the direction of the initial start. This
initial start is produced by providing an artificial phase, which simulates a two-phase
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 supply. In order to create this artificial phase, single-phase induction motors are
manufactured with two separate windings. These windings are connected in parallel
with each other during starting. One winding is called the Main Winding (or Run Winding
),while the other winding is called the Auxiliary Winding ( or Start Winding ). The main
winding is always left in circuit, but the auxiliary winding may be disconnected once the
motor has started.

They are in common use, particularly in domestic, agricultural and commercial spheres.
Single-phase induction motors cannot compete with the performance or efficiency of
three-phase induction motors. They are more troublesome, mainly on account of the
ancillary starting equipment required. They are also physically larger than equally rated
three-phase motors.

1.6.2. Parts of Ac Motor

1.6.3. AC Motor Data Plate

Each motor has a plate mounted on its frame, with electrical and mechanical
information.

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 1.6.4. Types of AC Motors

1.6.4.1. Single-phase Induction Motor

single phase a.c motors as the name suggests, these motors are used on single-phase
supply. Single phase motors are the most familiar of all electric motors because they
are extensively used in home appliances, shops, offices etc. It is true that single phase
motors are less efficient substitute for 3-phase motors but 3-phase power is normally
not available except in large commercial and industrial establishments. Since electric
power was originally generated and distributed for lighting only, millions of homes were
given single-phase supply. This led to the development of single-phase motors. Even
where 3-phase mains are present, the single-phase supply may be obtained by using
one of the three lines and the neutral. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the
construction, working and characteristics of commonly used single-phase motors

 Construction single phase induction motor

A single phase induction motor is very similar to a 3-phase squirrel cage induction
motor. It has (i) a squirrel-cage rotor identical to a 3-phase motor and (ii) a single-phase
winding on the stator. Unlike a 3-phase induction motor, a single-phase induction motor
is not self-starting but requires some starting means. The single-phase stator winding
produces a magnetic field that pulsates in strength in a sinusoidal manner. The field

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 polarity reverses after each half cycle but the field does not rotate. Consequently, the
alternating flux cannot produce rotation in a stationary squirrel-cage rotor. However, if
the rotor of a single-phase motor is rotated in one direction by some mechanical means,
it will continue to run in the direction of rotation. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly
accelerates until it reaches a speed slightly below the synchronous speed. Once the
motor is running at this speed, it will continue to rotate even though single-phase current
is flowing through the stator winding. This method of starting is generally not convenient
for large motors. Nor can it be employed fur a motor located at some inaccessible spot.

Fig 5.4.1. Single-phase induction motor

Having a squirrel cage rotor and a single phase distributed stator winding. Such a motor
inherently docs not develop any starting torque and, therefore, will not start to rotate if
the stator winding is connected to single-phase a.c. supply. However, if the rotor is
started by auxiliary means, the motor will quickly attain me final speed.

 Types of Single-Phase Motors

Single-phase motors are generally built in the fractional-horsepower range and may be
classified into the following four basic types:
(a) Single-phase induction motors
(i) Split-phase type
(ii) Capacitor type
(iii) Shaded-pole type
(b) A.C. series motor or universal motor
(c) Repulsion motors
(i) Repulsion-start induction-run motor

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 (ii) Repulsion-induction motor

(a) Single-phase induction motors

i. split-phase induction motor

The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an auxiliary or starting

winding S in addition to the main or running winding M. The starting winding is located
90° electrical from the main winding and operates only during the brief period when the
motor starts up. The two windings are so resigned that the starting winding S has a high
resistance and relatively small reactance while the main winding M has relatively low
resistance and large reactance consequently, the currents flowing in the two windings
have reasonable phase difference c (25° to 30°)

ii. capacitor-start motor

The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase motor except that the starting
winding has as many turns as the main winding. Moreover, a capacitor C is connected
in series with the starting winding .The value of capacitor is so chosen that Is leads
Induction motor by about 80° (i.e., 75~ 80°)which is considerably greater than 25° found
in split-phase motor . Consequently, starting torque (Ts = k Im Is sin &) is much more
than that of a split-phase motor Again, the starting winding is opened by the centrifugal
switch when the motor attains about 75% of synchronous speed. The motor then
operates as a single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches
the normal speed

 Characteristics of single phase capacitor-start motor

Although starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor are better than those of a

split-phase motor, both machines possess the same running characteristics because
the main windings are identical. The phase angle between the two currents is about 80°
compared to about25° in a split-phase motor. Consequently, for the same starting
torque, the current in the starting winding is only about half that in a split-phase motor.
Therefore, the starting winding of a capacitor start motor heats up less quickly and is
well suited to applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.

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 Fig 5.4.2. Capacitor-start motors Fig 5.4.2. phaser diagram

Capacitor-start motors are used where high starting torque is required andwhere the
starting period may be long e.g., to drive:
– compressors
– large fans
– Pumps
– high inertia loads
The power rating of such motors lies between 120 W and 7-5 kW.

iii. capacitor-start capacitor - run motor

This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor except that starting winding is not
opened after starting so that both the windings remain connected to the supply when
running as well as at starting. Two designs are generally used. (i) In one design, a
single

capacitor C is used for both starting and running as shown in Fig.(5.4.3. (i)). This design
eliminates the need of a centrifugal switch and at the same time improve the power
factor and efficiency of the motor.

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 Fig 5.4.3. Capacitor-start capacitor - run motor

In the other design, two capacitors C1 and C2 are used in the starting winding as shown
in Fig. 5.4.3. (ii)). The smaller capacitor C1 required for optimum running conditions is
permanently connected in series with the starting winding. The much larger capacitor
C2 is connected in parallel withC1 for optimum starting and remains in the circuit during
starting. The starting capacitor C1 is disconnected when the motor approaches about
75%of synchronous speed. The motor then runs as a single-phase induction
motor

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 iv. shaded-pole motor

The shaded-pole motor is very popular for ratings below 0.05 H.P.(~ 40 W) because of
its extremely simple construction. It has salient poles on the stator excited by single-
phase supply and a squirrel cage rotor as shown in Figure 5.2.4. A portion of each pole
is surrounded by a short-circuitedturn of copper strip called shading

Figure 5.4.4. Shaded-pole motor

 Characteristics shaded-pole motor

 The salient features of this motor are extremely simple construction and absence of
centrifugal switch.

 Since starting torque, efficiency and power factor are very low, these motors are only
suitable for low power applications e.g., to drive:
– small fans
– toys
– hair driers
– desk fans etc.
The power rating of such motors is up to about 30 W.

(b) A.c series motor or universal motor

A d.c. series motor will rotate in the same direction regardless of the polarity of the
supply. One can expect that a d.c. series motor would also operate on a single-phase
supply. It is then called an a.c. series motor. However, some changes must be made in
a d.c. motor that is to operate satisfactorily on a.c. supply.

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  Operation of universal motor

When the motor is connected to an a.c. Supply, the same alternating current flows
through the field and armature windings. The field winding produces an alternating flux
that reacts with the current flowing in the armature to produce a torque. Since both
armature current and flux reverse simultaneously, the torque always acts in the same
direction. It may be noted that no rotating flux is produced in this type of machines; the
principle of operation is the same as that of a d.c. series motor.

 Characteristics of universal motor

The operating characteristics of an a.c. series motor are similar to those of a d.c. series
motor.
 The speed increases to a high value with a decrease in load. In very small series
motors, the losses are usually large enough at no load that limits the speed to a
definite value (1500 - 15,000 r.p.m.).
 The motor torque is high for large armature currents, thus giving a high starting
torque.
 At full-load, the power factor is about 90%. However, at starting or when carrying
an overload, the power factor is lower

 Applications of universal motor

The fractional horsepower a.c. series motors have high-speed (and corresponding small
size) and large starting torque. They can, therefore, be used to drive:

– high-speed vacuum cleaners

– sewing machines
– electric shavers
– drills
– machine tools etc

c) Single-Phase Repulsion Motor

A repulsion motor is similar to an a.c. series motor except that brushes are not
connected to supply but are short-circuited [See Fig.5.2.5). Consequently, currents are
induced in the armature conductors by transformer action. the field structure has non-

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 salient pole construction. By adjusting the position of short-circuited brushes on the
commutator, the starting torque can be developed in the motor.

Fig. 5.4.5. repulsion motor

 Construction Single-Phase Repulsion Motor

The field of stator winding is wound like the main winding of a split-phase motor and is
connected directly to a single-phase source. The armature or rotor is similar to a d.c.
motor armature with drum type winding connected to a commutator (not shown in the
figure). However, the brushes are not connected to supply but are connected to each
other or short-circuited. Short-circuiting the brushes effectively makes the rotor into a
type of squirrel cage. The major difficulty with an ordinary single-phase induction motor
is the low starting torque. By using a commutator motor with brushes short-circuited, it is
possible to vary the starting torque by changing the brush axis. It has also better power
factor than the conventional single-phase motor.

 Characteristics of single phase repulsion motor

 The repulsion motor has characteristics very similar to those of an a.c. series
motor i.e., it has a high starting torque and a high speed at no load.

 The speed which the repulsion motor develops for any given load will depend
upon the position of the brushes.
 In comparison with other single-phase motors, the repulsion motor has a high
starring torque and relatively low starting current.

1.6.4.2. The three-phase induction motors

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  Introduction

The three-phase induction motors are the most widely used electric motors in industry.
They run at essentially constant speed from no-load to full-load. However, the speed is
frequency dependent and consequently these motors are not easily adapted to speed
control. We usually prefer d.c. motors when large speed variations are required.
Nevertheless, the 3-phase induction motors are simple, rugged, low-priced, easy to
maintain and can be manufactured with characteristics to suit most industrial
requirements. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the general principles of
3-phase induction motors.
Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator
carries a 3-phase winding (called stator winding) while the rotor carries a short-circuited
winding (called rotor winding). Only the stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply. The
rotor winding derives its voltage and power from the externally energized stator winding
through electromagnetic induction and hence the name. The induction motor may be
considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary and it can, therefore, be
described as a “transformer type” a.c. machine in which electrical energy is converted
into mechanical energy.

 Advantages 3-phase induction motor

 It has simple and rugged, almost un breakable construction.

 It is relatively cheap.
 It requires little maintenance.
 It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.
 It has self starting torque

 Disadvantages

 It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be

changed easily.
 Its starting torque is inferior to d.c. shunt motor.

 Construction of A 3-phase induction motor

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 A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii) rotor. The rotor is
separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4mm to 4mm,
depending on the power of the motor.

 Stator

It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses. A number of
evenly spaced slots are provided on the near periphery of the lamination A 3-phase
induction motor. The insulated connected to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta
connected circuit. The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as
per requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor
and vice-versa. When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic
field of constant magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor
by electromagnetic induction.

Fig.5.2.6. stator winding

 Rotor

The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer
periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the
following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage rotor
(ii) Wound rotor

i. Squirrel cage rotor.

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer periphery.
One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at each
end by metal rings called end rings. This forms a permanently short-circuited winding
which is indestructible. The entire construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel
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 cage and hence the name. The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but has
current induced in it by transformer action from the stator. Those induction motors which
employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage induction motors. Most of 3-phase
induction motors use squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably simple and robust
construction enabling it to operate in the most adverse circumstances. However, it
suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars are
permanently short-circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the
rotor circuit to have a large starting torque.

Fig. 5.4.7. squirrel cage rotor

ii. Wound rotor.

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3-phase winding, similar to the
one on the stator. The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually
star-connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to three
insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring.
The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. At starting, the
external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting torque.
These resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed. The
external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor attains
normal speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a
squirrel cage rotor.

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 Fig. 5.4.8. wound rotor motor

 Principle of Operation

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field
is produced. This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator
but go on shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating
Held. It can be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5
m where m is the maximum flux due to any phase .To see how rotating field is
produced, consider a 2-pole,phase winding a The three phases X, Y and Z are
energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases are indicated as Ix, Iy
and Iz the fluxes produced by these currents are given by Here m is the maximum flux
due to any phase. Fig.5.2.9. shows the phasor

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 Fig 5.4.9 the phasor diagram

Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor. The operation of the motor can be
explained as when 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a
rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed Ns
(= 120 f/P).The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors,
which as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is
short-circuited, currents start flowing in the rotor conductors. The current-carrying rotor
conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator. Consequently,
mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical forces on all
the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same
direction as the rotating field. The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e.,
rotor moves in the direction of stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to
this law, the direction of rotor currents will be such that they tend to oppose the cause
producing them. Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative speed
between the rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce this
relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of stator field and
tries to catch it.

 Direction of rotating magnetic field

The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator winding is X-Y-Z.
If this sequence is changed to X-Z-Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field
is reversed i.e., the field rotates counterclockwise rather than clockwise. However, the
number of poles and the speed at which the magnetic field rotates remain unchanged.
Thus it is necessary only to change the phase sequence in order to change the direction
of rotation of the magnetic field. For a three-phase supply, this can be done by
interchanging any two of the three lines. As we shall see, the rotor in a 3-phase
induction motor runs in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, the

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 direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be reversed by interchanging any
two of the three motor supply lines.

 Slip

We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction of rotating field. In
practice, the rotor can never reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no
relative speed between the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents
and, therefore, no torque to drive the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately
cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the rotor speed (N) is always less than the suitor
field speed (Ns). This difference in speed depends upon load on the motor. The
difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator field and the actual
rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous
speed.
i.e. % age slip, s=Ns-N/Nsx100
i. The quantity Ns N is sometimes called slip speed.
ii. When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.
iii. In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-load is hardly 0.1%
to 3% so that it is essentially a constant-speed motor

 Rotor Current Frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative speed between a
vending and a magnetic field is given by the general formula
Frequency=NP/120

where N = Relative speed between magnetic field and the winding

P = Number of poles
For a rotor speed N, the relative speed between the rotating flux and the rotor is Ns =N.
Consequently, the rotor current frequency f' is given by; f’=(Ns-N)/120
S=Nsp/120=Sf
S=Ns-N/Ns

f=Nsp/120

 Squirrel cage motors

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 The speed of a squirrel cage motor is changed by changing the number of stator poles.
Only two or four speeds are possible by this method. Two-speed motor has one stator
winding that may be switched through suitable control equipment to provide two speeds,
one of which is half of the other. For instance, the winding may be connected for either
4 or 8 poles, giving synchronous speeds of 1500 and 750 r.p.m. Four-speed motors are
equipped with two separate stator windings each of which provides two speeds. The
disadvantages of this method are:
i. It is not possible to obtain gradual continuous speed control.
ii. Because of the complications in the design and switching of the interconnections
of the stator winding, this method can provide amaximum of four different
synchronous speeds for any one motor

 Wound rotor motors

The speed of wound rotor motors is changed by changing the motor slip. This can be
achieved by;
i. varying the stator line voltage
ii. varying the resistance of the rotor circuit
iii. inserting and varying a foreign voltage in the rotor circuit

 Power Stages in an Induction Motor

The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted into mechanical
power at the shaft of the motor. The various losses during the energy conversion
are:
 Fixed losses

i. Stator iron loss

ii. Friction and windage loss

The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor currents under normal
running condition is small.

 Variable losses

i. Stator copper loss

ii. Rotor copper loss

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 Electric power fed to the stator of an induction motor suffers losses and finally
converted into mechanical power. The following points may be noted from the above
diagram:
(a) Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator losses
= Stator output + Stator Iron loss + Stator Cu loss
(b) input, Pr = Stator output

It is because stator output is entirely transferred to the rotor through airgap by

electromagnetic induction.
(c) Mechanical power available, Pm = PrRotor Cu loss

This mechanical power available is the gross rotor output and will produce a gross
torque Tg.

(d) Mechanical power at shaft, Pout = Pin Friction and windage loss

Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft torque Tsh. Clearly,
Pm Pout = Friction and windage loss

Fig. 5.4.10. stator and rotor loss

1.6.5. Ac generator

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 An electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form
of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating
magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating
armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical
generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating
machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines. An alternator
that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators in
power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz
three phase alternators in power plants generate most of the world's electric power,
which is distributed by electric power. all electrical generators, whether dc or ac, depend
upon the principle of magnetic induction. An emf is induced in a coil as a result of

 a coil cutting through a magnetic field, or

 a magnetic field cutting through a coil. As long as there is relative motion
between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in the
conductor.
That part of a generator that produces the magnetic field is called the field. That part in
which the voltage is induced is called the armature. For relative motion to take place
between the conductor and the magnetic field, all generators must have two mechanical
parts a rotor and a stator. The Rotor is the part that Rotates; the Stator is the part that
remains Stationary. In a dc generator, the armature is always the rotor. In alternators,
the armature may be either the rotor or stator.

1.6.5.1. Types of ac generators

Various types of alternating current generators are utilized today ,whoever they all
perform the same basic function .the types discussed in the following paragraphs are
typical of the more predominant ones in use .

i. Rotating armature alternator

In the rotating armature AC generator as illustrated in Fig 5.4.11, the stator provides a
stationary electromagnetic field. The rotor, acting as the armature, rotates i n the
field, cutting the lines of force and producing the desired output voltage. The output
voltage is taken from the rotor by the slip rings and brushes. One slip ring is attached
to each end of the rotating loop.

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 The brushes make sliding electrical contact with the slip rings. The generator's AC
output voltage can be transferred from the slip ri ngs through the brushes to an
external circuit.

Rotating armature alternator is essentially a loop rotating through a stationary

magnetic fealties cutting action of the loop through the magnetic field generates ac
in the loop. This ac is removed from the loop by means of slip rings and applied to
an external load.

Fig 5.4.11 Rotating armature alternator

Rotating armature AC generators are typically used i n applications involving small

amounts of power. With larger amounts of power, a great deal more current flow
occurs through the slip ri ngs and brushes. It is difficult and expensive to bui ld slip
rings and brushes to carry large amounts of current. Therefore, most large AC
generators are rotating field generators.

ii. Rotating Field Generator

The rotating field AC generator as illustrated in Fig 5.4.12. is by far the most widely
used generator. In this type of generator, direct current from a separate source is
passed through wi endings on the rotor by means of slip ri ngs and brushes.

This maintain ns a rotating electromagnetic field of fi xed polarity (similar to a

rotating bar magnet). The rotating magnetic field of the rotor extends outward and
cuts through the armature windings embedded in the surrounding stator. As the
rotor turns, alternating voltages are induced i n the windings because magnetic
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 fields of first one polarity and then the other cut through them. Because the output
power is take n from stationary windings, the output may be connected through fixed
terminals. The advantage i n this type of construction is that larger amounts of
currents can be handled because there are no sliding contacts and the whole
output circuit is continuously insulated.

Figure 5.4.12. Rotating Field Generator

Slip rings and brushes are adequate for the DC field supply because the current
level in the is much smaller than in than in the armature circuit.

The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and a rotating-field

winding, view B The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the
generated voltage can be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature requires
slip rings and brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load. The
armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-overs and short
circuits can result at high voltages. For this reason, high-voltage alternators are usually
of the rotating-field type. Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc,
the problem of high voltage arc-over at the slip rings does not exist. The stationary
armature, or stator, of this type of alternator holds the windings that are cut by the
rotating magnetic field. The voltage generated in the armature as a result of this cutting
action is the ac power that

will be applied to the load. The stators of all rotating-field alternators are about the
same. The stator consists of a laminated iron core with the armature windings
embedded in this core as shown in figure 5.4.12.The core is secured to the stator
frame.

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 Fig. 5.4.12. stator frame

1.6.5.2. SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATORS

A generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage is known as a

SINGLE-PHASE alternator. All of the alternators that have been discussed so far fit
this definition. The stator (armature) windings are connected in series. The individual
voltages, therefore, add to produce a single-phase ac voltage. Fig.5.3.3. shows a
basic alternator with its single-phase output voltage.

Figure 5.4.13. Single-phase alternator.

Now, it may be easier to think of the word phase as meaning voltage as in single
voltage. The need for a modified definition of phase in this usage will be easier to
see as we go along.

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 Single-phase alternators are found in many applications. They are most often used
when the loads being driven are relatively light. The reason for this will be more
apparent as we get into multiphase alternators (also called polyphase).

Power that is used in homes, shops, and ships to operate portable tools and small
appliances is single-phase power. Single-phase power alternators always generate
single-phase power. However, all single-phase power does not come from single-
phase alternators. This will sound more reasonable to you as we get into the next
subjects.

Figure 5.4.15. Voltage Output of a Three-Phase Generator

6. Insulation Resistance Testor (Megger)

If the motor is not put into operation immediately upon arrival, it is important to protect
it against external factors like moisture, high temperature and impurities in order to
avoid damage to the insulation. Before the motor is put into operation after a long
period of storage, you have to measure the winding insulation resistance.

If the motor is kept in a place with high humidity, a periodical inspection is

necessary. It is practically impossible to determine rules for the actual minimum
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 insulation resistance value of a motor because resistance varies according to method
of construction, condition of insulation material used, rated voltage, size and type. In
fact, it takes many years of experience to determine whether a motor is ready for
operation or not.

A general rule-of-thumb is 10 Megohm or more.

Insulation resistance value Insulation level

2 Meg ohm or less Bad

2-5 Meg ohm Critical

5-10 Meg ohm Abnormal

10-50 Meg ohm Good

50-100 Meg ohm Very good

100 Meg ohm or more Excellent

The measurement of insulation resistance is carried out by means of a meg ohmmeter

– high resistance range ohmmeter. This is how the test works: DC voltage of 500 or
1000 V is applied between the windings and the ground of the motor.

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 Figure 5.4.16: Ground insulation test of a motor

During the measurement and immediately afterwards, some of the terminals carry
dangerous voltages and MUST NOT BE TOUCHED.

Now, three points are worth mentioning in this connection: Insulation resistance,
Measurement and Checking.

i. Insulation resistance

4. The minimum insulation resistance of new, cleaned or repaired windings with

respect to ground is 10 Meg ohm or more.
5. The minimum insulation resistance, R, is calculated by multiplying the rated
voltage U n, with the constant factor 0.5 Meg ohm/kV.

For example: If the rated voltage is 690 V = 0.69 kV, the minimum insulation
resistance is: 0.69 kV x 0.5 Meg ohm/kV = 0.35 Meg ohm

ii. Measurement

 Minimum insulation resistance of the winding to ground is measured with 500 V

DC. The winding temperature should be 25°C ± 15°C.
 Maximum insulation resistance should be measured with 500 V DC with the
windings at a operating temperature of 80 – 120°C depending on the motor type
and efficiency.

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 iii. Checking

 If the insulation resistance of a new, cleaned or repaired motor that has been
stored for some time is less then 10 Mohm, the reason might be that the
windings are humid and need to be dried.
 If the motor has been operating for a long period of time, the minimum insulation
resistance may drop to a critical level. As long as the measured value does
not fall below the calculated value of minimum insulation resistance, the motor
can continue to run However, if it drops below this limit, the motor has to be
stopped immediately, in order to avoid that people get hurt due to the high
leakage voltage.

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 Self-Check -5 Written Test

Directions: Choose the best answer.

1. Which of the following is type of special transformer that is used only for motor
control system to reduce the starting current of big motor?
A. Auto transformer
B. Welding transformer
C. Power transformer
D. All of the above
2. From the given alternative one is not included in instrumentation transformer
A. Current transformer
B. Voltage transformer
C. Auto transformer
D. All of the above
3. A type of three phase transformer which is commonly used for stepping up to a
high voltage.
A. Δ –Y connection C. Δ – Δ connection
B. Y – Δ connection D. All of the above
4. The primery and secondary voltage is 220v and 110v respectively, Calculate the
secondary number of turn if the primery turn is 100 turns.
A. 200 turns C. 60 turns
B. 100 turns D. 50 turns
5. If N2 < N1 then the transformer is known as
A. step-up transformer
B. step-down transformer
C. A and B
D. None of the above
6. _______ convert a.c electrical energy to mechanical energy?

A. Single phase motor C. Dc motor

B. Three phase motor D. A and B

7. _______ is the advantage of a three phase induction motor?

A. It has self starting torque C. It is relatively cheep

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 B. Little maintenance D. All

8. One is not a type of single phase motor?

A. Shaded pole motor C. Universal motor

B. Capacitor start motor D. Squiral cage rotor motor

9. From the given alternative one is not self starting motor?

A. Shaded pole motor C. Wound rotor motor

B. Squirrel cage rotor motor D. B and C

10. The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is______?

A. Centrifugal switch C. slip

B. Voltage regulator D. All of the above

11. Machine that converts dc power into mechanical energy is known as

A. dc motor C. ac motor

B. ac generator D. dc generator

12. In ________ motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature

A. Shunt wound C. Compound wound

B. Series wound D. All of the above

13. An electric machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

A. Generator C. Transformer

B. Motor D. None of the above

14. A D.C. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent
external D.C. source.

A. Self excited generator C. A and B

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 B. Separately excited generator D. None of the above

I. Mach column A with column B.

Column A Column B

1. Motor A. Convertion from mechanical to electrical.

2. Dc machines B. The rotating part of DC machine.

3. Generator C. Convertion from electrical to mechanical

4. Rotor D. if the electrical system is DC

Note: Satisfactory rating - 10points Unsatisfactory - below 10 points

Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

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 Information Sheet :6 Prepare Work instructions according to machine’s manual

6.1. Introduction to work instructions

 More than nine out of 10 workplace accidents are due to human error. These result
in serious injuries and cost industry billions of dollars every year. Yet much of this
could be avoided with better, clearer work instructions. This guide will show you
how to write work instructions – or Standard Operating Procedures.
 Knowing how to write work instructions, or SOPs (Standard Operating
Procedures), clearly and concisely for your colleagues ensures they know exactly
how their various tasks should be performed. It reduces risk because the likelihood
of things going wrong is lessened. It also improves efficiency; work instructions
ensure the very best way of doing a job is clear and known to the people doing it.
 Work instructions are also called work guides, Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs), job aids or user manuals, depending on the situation. In any case, the
purpose of work instructions is to clearly explain how a particular work task is
performed. They’re like the step-by-step instructions we receive when we learn to
drive a car: check gear stick is in neutral, start ignition, press clutch, change to first
gear and so forth.
 What’s important is that work instructions should not be confused with processes
or process maps. Let’s quickly look at where work instructions fit into our overall
process documentation levels:

6.2. Important of work instructions

 They reduce the impact when key people leave

Work instructions, or SOPs, build and preserve the knowledge inside a company. When
“how things are done” are passed on verbally, there is room for interpretation and
human error. And knowledge about how to most efficiently perform a task is lost when
said employee leaves the company and takes the knowledge with them. Good work
instructions avoid all this.

 Work instructions reduce risk

They reduce risk because the safest way of doing a job is clear and known by the
people that matter.

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  Avoid errors and “the blame game”

Clarity avoid errors. Crucially, this avoids the blame game. When things go wrong the
tendency is to blame or hold people responsible, which is natural. But if this happens
often it can have an impact on staff morale. Having clear work instructions minimises
this problem.

 Save time

The chart below shows Glue’s own research on the Return on Investment when writing
work instructions. The point is that your initial investment in time is paid back once your
work instruction has been used just three times. This only refers to time-saving – we
haven’t even mentioned the value of avoiding errors and rework. This is also referred to
as “Standard Work” within Lean:

6.3. How to write the work instruction

Next, the method of filling in the work instruction will be explained.

(1) Part number/part name

(2) Required amount/Classification number

(3) Affiliation/name

(4) Operation details

(5) Quality

(a) Checks - write the frequency by which the quality of assembled parts is
checked, how often do we check an item (or perform one check).
Examples: (This is in the normal operation details)
 1/1 – The check is performed every cycle.
 1/10 – One item of every ten items is checked.
 1/H – One item is checked every hour.
 2/Shift – Two checks per shift.
 1/D – One check per day.

(b) Gauges - write the type of measuring instruments (gauges) should be used
to check the part.
(6) Key Points - Write the key points required (Corresponding to the work instructions).
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 Self-Check -6 Written Test

Directions: Choose the best answer

Directions: say true or false

1. More than nine out of 10 workplace accidents are due to human error

2. Work instructions are also called work guides

3. Gauges - write the type of measuring instruments (gauges) should be used to check
the part.

Note: Satisfactory rating - 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

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 Information Sheet :7 Inform the schedule of work for concerned department/personnel

7.1.Report Writing

7.1.1. Formal Reports

A formal report contains the following:

 Title Page: includes the title of the project/report, to whom the report is submitted,
by whom it isprepared, the date it is written (not the date the report is due!),
 Abstract: a short paragraph indicating what the project was and what solution was
found
 Table of Contents: contains page numbers of the titles and subtitles of different se
ctions of the report.
 Introduction: a brief description of the problem, how it was approached, and what
procedure wasused to solve it. It may also give the reader some information on w
hat was done in the sections followingthe introduction (for longer reports).
 Development: describes the details of the methods, procedures, techniques, etc.,
used in solving theproblem. This section usually has subsections such as model
development, calculations, experimentalprocedure, applications, etc.
 Discussion: a discussion of the findings and any discrepancies.
 Conclusion and Suggestions: This section is a brief summary of what the findings
were and what thesignificance of the work is. If it is a research project, it also cont
ains suggestions about future researchareas.

7.1.2. Informal Reports

An informal report consists of a memo plus attachments and contains the following section
s
 Heading (required): To whom the report is submitted, who wrote it, when it w
as written (not the datethe report is due!), and what it is about. (An example of t
he first page of an informal report is included onthe following page.)
 Summary (required): The summary is a brief (one or two paragraphs) descriptio
n of the project andthe results, plus a brief mention of cost and schedule (so that m
anagers don’t have to read the entire reportto find this information). It should never
extend onto the second page of the report and in most cases willnot contain figures
, tables, or equations.
 Design (optional): Describes how the circuit or system was designed.

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  Testing (optional): Describes how the circuit or system was constructed and test
e
 Results or Conclusion (required): This section summarizes the results of the
project, compares themeasured results to the design goals and numerical sim
ulations, gives detailed breakdowns of costs andtime spent (if required), etc.

Self-Check -4 Written Test

Directions: say true or false

1. Conclusion and Suggestions:the section is a brief summary of what the findings were
and what thesignificance of the work.

2. describes the details of the methods, procedures, techniques, etc., used in solving
theproblem.

3. The summary is a brief (one or two paragraphs) description of the project andthe re
sults

Note: Satisfactory rating - 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

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 Operation Sheet :1
Assemble and Disassemble of Dc Motor

Procedures for Assemble and Disassemble of Dc Motor then identify each

constructional parts

1. First unfasten (Unlock) all tighten screws by using Allen key, socket wrench or
adjustable wrench.

2. Disassemble the end plate of the motor part at both sides.

3. Takeout the armature from the inside of stator.

4. Identify each part of series, shunt and compound wound Dc motors.

5. Assemble all constructional parts of DC motor, according to disassembling

procedure or sequence.

6. Set (bring back) all tools and equipment from picked up store room at proper
placement.

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 Operation Sheet :2
Assemble and Disassemble of Ac Motor

Procedures for Assemble and Disassemble of Ac Motor then identify each

constructional parts

1. First lose all tighten bolts from their constructional body and carefully collect all
bolts and set up in one place.

2. Marked all dismantle parts by marker with their corresponding part.

3. Take out the armature from the inside of stator.

4. Identify each part of squirrel cage and wound rotor Ac motors.

5. Assemble all constructional parts of AC motor, according to disassembling

procedure or sequence.

6. Set (bring back) all tools and equipment from picked up store room at proper
placement.

7. Assemble all parts from their exact place.

8. Set up (bring back) all tools and equipment from picked up store room at proper
placement.

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 LAP Test
Practical Demonstration

Name: _____________________________ Date: ________________

Time started: ________________________ Time finished: ________________

Instructions: Given necessary templates, tools and materials you are required to
perform the following tasks within 2hour.

Task 1. Assemble and disassemble Dc motor then identify each constructional parts.

Task 2. Assemble and disassemble Ac motor then identify each constructional parts.

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 List of Reference Materials

1. A. Bellini, F. Filippetti, C. Tassoni, G. A. Capolino, "Advances in diagnostic

techniques for induction motors", IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 55, no. 12,
pp. 4109-4126, Dec. 2008.

2. M. J. Devaney, L. Eren, "Detecting motor bearing faults", IEEE Instrum. Meas.

Mag., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 30-50, Dec. 2004.

3. J. Faiz, B. M. Ebrahimi, "Mixed fault diagnosis in three-phase squirrel-cage

induction motor using analysis of airgap magnetic field", in Proc. Prog. Electro-
Magn. Res. Symp., pp. 239-355, 2006.

4. M. E. H. Benbouzid, "A review of induction motors signature analysis as a

medium of faults detection", IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 47, no. 5, pp. 984-
993, Oct. 2000.

5. Eectric Machinery, 6e, Fitzgerald.

6. Principles of electrical machines(mehta)

7. Theraja

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 The trainers (who developed the Learning Guide)

No Trainer Name Education back graund Region

1 SERKABEBA ABERA MSC DEBUB

2 MULU DAMANE MSC ADDIAABEBA

3 ABERA GEBRE BSC DIRADAWA

4 ESUBALEW AMSALU MSC HARER

5 MERON HUSEN BSC HARER

6 SHIMELS CHEKOLE BSC AMHARA

7 FISIHA BIREHANU MSC AMHARA

8 YIMER SEID MSC AFAR

9 HINDA IBRAHIM BSC SOMALI

10 TADDELE GASHAW MSC SOMALI

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