MODULE 2: WIRELESS SENSOR ARCHITECTURES

Dayananda Sagar University

School of Engineering
Innovation Campus, Kudlu Gate, Hosur Road, Bengaluru
Department of Electronics and communication Engineering
Subject Name: WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Wireless sensor architectures refer to the structural design and organization of systems that
utilize wireless sensor technologies. These architectures are crucial in facilitating the
seamless functioning of wireless sensor networks, enabling the collection, transmission, and
processing of data from various sensing devices.
1. Sensor Nodes:

 The foundational elements equipped with sensors for data acquisition.

 Include sensing devices, processing units, and communication modules.
 Vary in complexity based on the specific application requirements.

2. Communication Protocols:

 Dictate how sensor nodes communicate with each other and the central system.
 Common protocols include Zigbee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, LoRa, and NB-IoT.
 Selection depends on factors like range, power consumption, and data rate.

3. Network Topology:

 Defines the arrangement of sensor nodes in the network.

 Common topologies include star, mesh, and cluster-based configurations.
 Influences communication efficiency, scalability, and fault tolerance.

4. Data Aggregation:

 Involves combining and summarizing data from multiple sensor nodes before
transmission.
 Reduces the volume of transmitted data, saving energy and bandwidth.
 Strategies include spatial and temporal aggregation techniques.

5. Power Management:

 Crucial for ensuring the longevity of battery-powered sensor nodes.

 Techniques like duty cycling, sleep modes, and energy-efficient algorithms are
employed.
 Harvesting energy from the environment is explored for sustainable operation.

6. Security Mechanisms:

 Address the protection of data integrity and confidentiality in wireless sensor

networks.
 Encryption, authentication, and intrusion detection systems are implemented.
 Essential to safeguard against unauthorized access and potential cyber threats.

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7. Centralized vs. Decentralized Architectures:

 Centralized architectures involve a single control point for managing the network.
 Decentralized architectures distribute control among sensor nodes.
 Selection depends on application requirements, scalability, and fault tolerance.

5. Application-Specific Considerations:

 Architectures are tailored based on the specific application domain (e.g., industrial,
healthcare, environmental monitoring).
 Considerations include data accuracy, latency, and adaptability to the application's
unique challenges.

2.1: Single-Node Architecture

A Single-Node Architecture refers to a system design where all essential components and
functionalities are integrated into a single unit. In the context of wireless sensors, a single-
node architecture implies that a standalone device incorporates the necessary elements for
sensing, processing, and communication within a single physical unit.
1. Sensor(s):

Types and Range: Depending on the application, sensors could include a variety of types
such as photodetectors, gas sensors, or proximity sensors. The range of measurement for each
sensor type should align with the intended use case.

Precision and Accuracy: Considerations for the precision and accuracy of sensors are crucial
to ensure reliable data collection. Calibration and sensor fusion techniques may be employed
to enhance accuracy.

2. Processing Unit:

Microcontroller/Microprocessor Specifications: Details about the microcontroller or

microprocessor, including processing speed, memory capacity, and any specialized features
relevant to the application.

Real-Time Capabilities: Some applications may require real-time processing capabilities, and
the microcontroller's ability to meet these requirements is a critical consideration.

3. Wireless Communication Module:

Communication Protocol Details: Specify the wireless communication protocol being used,
including version details and any specific configurations relevant to the application.

Data Transfer Rate: The rate at which data is transmitted between the single node and other
devices can impact the efficiency of the system.

Security Protocols: If applicable, mention any encryption or authentication protocols

implemented to secure wireless communication.

4. Power Supply:

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Battery Type and Capacity: Details about the type of battery used (e.g., lithium-ion, alkaline)
and its capacity in terms of milliampere-hours (mAh).

Power Consumption Profile: Information about the power consumption profile of the node,
detailing how power is utilized during sensor activation, data processing, and wireless
communication.

Expected Battery Life: An estimate of the expected battery life under typical usage
conditions.

5. Data Storage (Optional):

Storage Capacity: If the node includes local storage, specify the capacity of the storage
device in terms of gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB).

Data Retention: Information on how long the device can store data locally before reaching
storage capacity.

6. Control Logic:

Event Triggering Mechanisms: Describe the mechanisms that trigger events within the
device, such as predefined thresholds, user inputs, or external stimuli.

Configuration Options: If the device allows user configuration, provide details on the
available options and how users can interact with the device.

7. Housing/Enclosure:

IP Rating: If applicable, specify the Ingress Protection (IP) rating indicating the level of
protection against dust and water.

Material Durability: Details on the durability and ruggedness of the materials used for the
housing, especially if the device is intended for outdoor or harsh environments.

8. Security Measures :

Encryption Algorithm: If encryption is used, specify the encryption algorithm employed and
any key management mechanisms.

Authentication Methods: Describe the methods used to authenticate the identity of the device
and ensure secure communication.

2.1.1 - Hardware Components

Sensor Node Hardware Overview:

Functionality: A sensor node is a compact device designed for data acquisition, processing,
and communication in a wireless sensor network.

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Compact Form Factor: Typically, sensor nodes are designed to be small, lightweight, and
energy-efficient for easy deployment in various environments.
Wireless Capability: Equipped with wireless communication modules to transmit data to
other nodes or a central system.
Basic sensor node comprises five main components

Figure: Overview of main sensor node hardware components.

1. Controller:

Microcontroller/Microprocessor:
Acts as the brain of the sensor node, responsible for processing data and controlling overall
functionality.
Examples include ARM Cortex-M series microcontrollers, AVR microcontrollers, or custom-
designed microprocessors.

2. Memory:

RAM (Random Access Memory):

Temporarily stores data during the operation of the sensor node.
Flash Memory:
Stores the firmware and essential data persistently.
Examples include EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) for
non-volatile storage.
Communication Device:

3. Wireless Communication Module:

Facilitates communication between sensor nodes or with a central system.
Examples include Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, LoRa, or cellular modules depending on the
application requirements.
4. Sensors and Actuators:

Sensors:
Collect data from the environment.
Examples include temperature sensors, humidity sensors, accelerometers, gas sensors, etc.
Actuators:
Devices that perform actions based on received data.
Examples include motors, valves, or other devices depending on the application.

5. Power Supply of Sensor Nodes:

Battery:
Commonly powered by batteries due to their portability.

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Examples include lithium-ion, alkaline, or rechargeable batteries.

Energy Harvesting (Optional):
Harvests energy from the environment (e.g., solar, kinetic, thermal) to supplement or replace
battery power.

These components work together to enable the sensor node to sense its environment, process
data, and communicate wirelessly with other nodes or a central system. The choice of
components depends on the specific application requirements, including the types of sensors
needed, communication range, power constraints, and environmental conditions.

2.2: Energy Consumption of Sensor Nodes

Energy consumption is a critical consideration in the design and deployment of wireless

sensor nodes. The goal is to maximize the operational lifetime of the sensor nodes, especially
in applications where changing batteries or maintaining power sources is challenging.
1. Operational States:

 Active Mode:

In the active mode, sensor nodes are fully operational, actively sensing the environment,
processing data, and communicating with other nodes or a central hub.
Energy consumption is generally highest during this state due to the simultaneous operation
of sensors, microcontroller, memory, and radio transceivers.
 Sleep Mode:

Sleep mode is a low-power state where non-essential components are turned off to minimize
energy consumption.
Sensor nodes often transition to sleep mode during idle periods to conserve energy.
The trade-off is a longer wake-up time since the node must power up components before
resuming normal operations.
2. Microcontroller Energy Consumption:

 Active Processing:

The microcontroller's power consumption is influenced by its clock frequency, voltage, and
the complexity of the tasks it performs.
Higher clock frequencies and more complex computations generally lead to increased energy
consumption.
 Idle State:

Microcontrollers often feature low-power modes or idle states where they consume less
energy by reducing clock frequency and disabling non-essential functions.
Sleep modes allow microcontrollers to maintain some functionality while minimizing power
consumption.
3. Memory:

 RAM and Flash Memory:

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Reading and writing to memory consume energy, with dynamic RAM (DRAM) typically
consuming more power than non-volatile memory like Flash.
Efficient memory management involves minimizing unnecessary data transfers and utilizing
sleep modes with memory retention.
 Sleep Mode with Retention:

Some microcontrollers support sleep modes that retain the contents of RAM. This allows the
system to quickly resume operation without reloading data from non-volatile memory.
4. Radio Transceivers:

 Transmission:

Transmitting data wirelessly is one of the most energy-intensive tasks. Power amplifiers and
signal modulation contribute to higher energy consumption during transmission.
Transmitting data in bursts and using low-power transmission modes can help reduce energy
consumption.
 Reception:

While receiving data consumes less energy than transmission, it still contributes significantly
to power consumption.
Implementing efficient reception protocols and minimizing the time the radio is active can
help conserve energy.
5. Relationship between Computation and Communication:

 Data Aggregation:

Local processing and data aggregation reduce the frequency and volume of wireless
communication.
Aggregating data before transmission can minimize the overall energy consumption by
reducing the time the radio transceiver is active.
 Efficient Protocols:

Choosing energy-efficient communication protocols and optimizing data transmission

methods strike a balance between computation and communication energy.
Adaptive protocols that adjust data transfer rates based on the application's needs can further
optimize energy usage.
6. Power Consumption of Sensors:

 Active Sensing:
Sensors consume energy when actively measuring environmental parameters. Power
consumption depends on the sensor type and the duration of the sensing operation.
Implementing duty cycling, where sensors are turned on intermittently, helps reduce overall
power consumption.
 Power Consumption of Actuators:

Actuation:
Actuators consume energy when performing physical actions based on sensor data.
Energy-efficient actuators and control strategies that optimize the actuation process
contribute to overall power efficiency.
7. Energy Harvesting:

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 Supplementing Power:
Energy harvesting techniques, such as solar cells or piezoelectric generators, can supplement
or replace battery power, enhancing overall sustainability.
Efficient energy harvesting systems require careful matching with the power requirements of
the sensor node.
 Dynamic Power Management:

8. Adaptive Control:
Dynamic power management involves adapting the sensor node's operational state based on
workload, environmental conditions, or specific events.
Adaptive strategies optimize energy consumption by dynamically adjusting the duty cycle
and operational parameters.
9. Energy Monitoring and Optimization:

 Continuous Monitoring:

Energy monitoring features enable developers to analyze power consumption patterns in real-
time.
Developers can identify energy-intensive components and optimize their operation to
improve overall efficiency.
 Algorithmic Optimization:

Implementing energy-aware algorithms for both computation and communication can

significantly impact overall energy efficiency.
Algorithms can adapt to the changing requirements of the system, optimizing resource usage
and minimizing unnecessary energy consumption.

2.2.1: Energy Consumption of Sensor Nodes-Operation states with

different power consumption:

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2.3: Operating Systems and Execution Environments

1. Embedded Operating System:

 Characteristics:

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 Resource Constraints:

o Embedded systems often operate with limited resources such as RAM, ROM, and
processing power. The OS must be designed to efficiently utilize these resources.
o Lightweight kernels and minimalistic designs are common to ensure optimal
performance.
 Real-time Capabilities:

o Real-time operating systems (RTOS) are prevalent in embedded systems where tasks
must be executed within specific time constraints.
o Deterministic behavior is crucial, ensuring that tasks are performed reliably and
predictably.
 Specific Functionality:

o Embedded OS is tailored to the specific requirements of the embedded application.

For example, an OS for a medical device would have different features than one for
an automotive control system.
This customization often involves selecting only the necessary components to minimize the
footprint.
Examples:

FreeRTOS:

o An open-source real-time operating system kernel designed for embedded systems.

o Supports various microcontroller architectures and is known for its small footprint.
VxWorks:

o A real-time operating system used in critical applications such as aerospace, industrial

automation, and medical devices.
o Provides a deterministic and reliable environment.
Embedded Linux:

o A customized version of the Linux operating system designed for embedded systems.
o Offers a balance between the flexibility of Linux and the resource constraints of
embedded devices.
2. Programming Paradigms and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs):
 Programming Paradigms:

o Imperative/Procedural:

 Focuses on describing step-by-step procedures to solve problems.

 Well-suited for low-level programming and tasks requiring explicit control over
hardware resources.
o Object-Oriented:

 Organizes code into objects, encapsulating data and behavior.

 Promotes code reuse, modularity, and easier maintenance.
o Functional:

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 Treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions.

 Emphasizes immutability and avoids changing the state of variables.

 Application Programming Interfaces (APIs):

o OS-level APIs:

Provide a set of functions and procedures for applications to interact with the operating
system.
Examples include the Win32 API for Windows and POSIX for Unix-like systems.
o Library APIs:

Collections of functions and routines that can be used by applications.

The Standard Template Library (STL) in C++ is an example, providing generic algorithms
and data structures.
o Web APIs:

Enable communication between different software systems over the internet.

RESTful APIs are common in web development, facilitating data exchange between web
servers and clients.

2. 1 Concurrent Programming:
Definition:

Concurrent programming is a paradigm where multiple tasks or processes execute

independently but may be interleaved over time. It deals with managing the execution of
multiple tasks simultaneously to improve system efficiency, responsiveness, and resource
utilization.

Concurrency vs. Parallelism:

Concurrency: Tasks progress independently but not necessarily simultaneously. It's more
about dealing with many things at once.
Parallelism: Tasks are executed simultaneously, usually on multiple processors.
Thread-based Concurrency:

Using threads (lightweight processes) to perform multiple tasks concurrently within a single
process.
Threads share the same memory space, making communication between them easier.
Shared Memory vs. Message Passing:

Shared Memory: Threads share a common address space. Changes in one thread are visible to
others.
Message Passing: Threads communicate by sending messages. Processes may have separate
address spaces.

2. Process-Based Concurrency:
Definition:

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Process-based concurrency involves executing multiple processes independently. Each

process has its own memory space, resources, and execution flow.
Key Concepts:

Processes:

An independent program running in its own memory space.

Processes do not directly share memory, necessitating inter-process communication (IPC)
mechanisms.
Advantages:

Isolation: Processes are well-isolated, enhancing fault tolerance and security.

Stability: A crash in one process does not affect others.
Disadvantages:

Overhead: Creating and managing processes can have higher overhead compared to threads.
Communication: Inter-process communication can be more challenging.

3. Event-Based Programming:
Definition:

Event-based programming focuses on handling events (user actions, system notifications,

etc.) and responding to them with appropriate actions. The flow of the program is determined
by events rather than a sequential execution model.
Event Loop:

Central to event-driven systems. The program continuously listens for events and triggers
associated callbacks or handlers.
Typically used in graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and asynchronous I/O operations.
Callbacks:

Functions or methods that are registered to handle specific events.

Executed when the associated event occurs.
Asynchronous Programming:

Execution doesn't block on a single task; it continues with other tasks until the asynchronous
task completes.
Common in web development for handling non-blocking I/O.
Advantages:

Responsiveness:

Well-suited for applications requiring responsiveness to user actions.

Allows handling multiple events concurrently without blocking.
Scalability:

Efficient for applications dealing with a large number of simultaneous events.

Disadvantages:

Complexity:

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Asynchronous and event-driven code can be more complex than synchronous, sequential
code.
Requires careful handling of state and potential race conditions.

3. Structure of Operating System:

Kernel:

o Monolithic Kernel:

All operating system services run in kernel space.

Provides efficient communication between components but is less modular.
Microkernel:

Core functions are kept in the kernel space, while other services run in user space.
Offers better modularity and easier maintenance.
o Hybrid Kernel:

Combines elements of both monolithic and microkernel architectures.

Balances performance and modularity.
o Device Drivers:

Software components that enable the operating system to communicate with hardware
devices.
Translate generic OS commands into specific commands understood by the device.
o File System:

Manages storage and retrieval of data on storage devices.

Provides a hierarchical structure for organizing files and directories.
o User Interface:

Allows users to interact with the system.

Can be command-line interfaces (CLI) or graphical user interfaces (GUI).
o System Libraries:

Collections of precompiled routines, functions, and procedures that a program can use.

4. Protocol Stack:

OSI Model Layers:

o Physical Layer:

Concerned with the physical connection between devices, specifying hardware

characteristics.
o Data Link Layer:

Manages node-to-node communication, addressing, error detection, and flow control.

o Network Layer:

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Responsible for logical addressing, routing, and forwarding of data packets.

o Transport Layer:

Ensures reliable end-to-end communication, error recovery, and flow control.

o Session, Presentation, and Application Layers:

Handle session management, data presentation, and application-level functionalities.

TCP/IP Model Layers:

o Link Layer:

Combines functions of OSI's Data Link and Physical Layers.

Concerned with the physical and data link aspects of network communication.
o Internet Layer:

Equivalent to OSI's Network Layer, managing logical addressing and routing.

o Transport Layer:

Similar to OSI's Transport Layer, ensuring reliable end-to-end communication.

o Application Layer:

Combines functionalities of OSI's top three layers, providing network services to

applications.

5. Dynamic Energy and Power Management:

Strategies:

o Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS):

Adjusts the voltage and frequency of a CPU based on the workload to optimize power
consumption.
Reduces power during periods of low activity.
o Sleep Modes:

Puts certain components or the entire system into low-power states during periods of
inactivity.
Wake-up mechanisms ensure rapid responsiveness when needed.
o Task Offloading:

Transfers computing tasks to more energy-efficient components or devices.

Distributes the workload to optimize power consumption.
o Challenges:

Balancing Performance and Power Efficiency:

Requires intelligent algorithms to dynamically adjust performance levels based on workload.

o Maintaining Responsiveness:

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Systems must remain responsive even when components are in low-power states.
o Adapting to Varying Workloads:

Strategies need to adapt to changing computational demands to ensure efficiency.

2.4 Sensor Network Scenarios- types of sources and sinks

2.4.1 Single-Hop Networks:

1. Definition:

In a single-hop network, communication occurs directly between two nodes without any
intermediate nodes.
Nodes are within direct radio range of each other, and there is no need for relaying through
other nodes.
2. Characteristics:

Simplicity: Communication is straightforward as there is a direct link between

communicating nodes.
Low Latency: Generally has lower latency as there are no intermediate hops.
Limited Range: Nodes need to be within the direct radio range for communication to take
place.
3. Applications:

Point-to-Point Communication: Suitable for scenarios where communication is primarily

between two specific nodes.
Ad Hoc Networks: Small-scale networks where nodes are in close proximity.
Example:

Bluetooth Connections: Bluetooth devices establish single-hop connections for direct

communication within a short range.

Figure 2.1 in first case the sink could belong just another sensor/ actuator. In the second case,
the sink can take on various forms, serving as a versatile component within the Wireless
Sensor Network (WSN) architecture. Figure 2.1 visualizes this flexibility by presenting two
main types of sinks engaged in direct communication with sensor nodes. One representation
of the sink involves a physical device, such as a hand-held device or Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA), directly interacting with the sensor network. This configuration allows for
on-site data gathering, control, or monitoring, making it suitable for scenarios where real-
time, hands-on management is required.

Alternatively, the sink can serve as a gateway to a broader network, as exemplified in Figure
2.1. In this context, the sink functions as an intermediary connecting the sensor network to a
larger network, such as the Internet. Requests for information may originate from nodes
situated at a distance, indirectly connected to the sensor network. This type of sink facilitates
remote data access and control, extending the reach of the sensor network to external entities.

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Figure 2.1: Three types of sinks in very simple, single-hop sensor networks

2.4.2 Multihop Networks:

1. Definition:

Communication between nodes occurs through multiple intermediate nodes, creating a series
of hops from the source to the destination.
2. Characteristics:

Extended Range: Communication is not limited to direct radio range; data can be relayed
over multiple hops to reach distant nodes.
Redundancy: Offers redundancy and alternative paths, enhancing robustness against node
failures.
Scalability: Can be more scalable as nodes collaborate to extend the network's reach.
3. Applications:

Wireless sensor networks.

Mobile ad hoc networks.
Large-scale networks where nodes are distributed over a wide area.
4. Advantages:

Extended range and coverage.

Redundancy improves network robustness.
Scalability for larger networks.
5. Disadvantages:

Increased latency due to multiple hops.

Complexity in routing algorithms and network management.
Potential for interference and collisions in crowded networks.

Moreover, to achieve energy efficiency, sensor nodes communicate in multi-hop network to

forward messages to the sink because achieving a reliable transmission with a distant
destination needs high transmission power. This concept is illustrated in Figure 2.2 and it is
attractive for WSN. Since the sensor nodes themselves can act as such relay without the need
to additional device.

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Figure 2.2: Multihop Networks: As direct communication is impossible because of distance

and/or obstacles, multihop communicaation can circumvent the problem.

2.4.3 Three types of Mobility

One of the main benefits of wireless communication is its ability to support mobile
participants. In wireless sensor networks, mobility can appear in three forms:

2.4.3.1: Node mobility

Depend on the application of WSN the nodes themselves could be mobile. In this situation,
the network has to reorganize itself frequently enough to be able to function correctly. This
shows that there are trade-offs between the frequency and speed of node movement on the
one hand and the energy required to maintain a desired level of functionality in the network
on the other hand. An example for this kind of node mobility is in livestock surveillance,
where sensor nodes attached to cattle.

2.4.3.2 Sink mobility:

When a mobile requester requests a data that is not locally available but it must be retrieved
from a remote part of the network (Fig. 2.3). And since the requester can communicate only
with neighbour nodes, it has to move to that remote part of the network. Here the network,
possibly with the assistance of the mobile requester, must make provisions that the requested
data actually follows and reaches the requester despite its movements. Information requesting
by a human user, by a PDA (mobile sink), where he is not part of sensor network, while
walking in an intelligent building, is a good example for this kind of mobile information
sink. Figure 2.3 illustrate the mobile sink.

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Figure 2.3: A mobile sink moves through a sensor network as information is being retrieved
on its behalf.

2.6.3 Event mobility

An example for this kind of
mobility is in applications like
event detection, the cause of
the events or the objects to be
tracked can be mobile. Usually
the observed events
covered by number of sensors
at all time. So, sensors will
wake up around the object to
observe it and then go back
to sleep. As the event source
moves through the network, it

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is accompanied by an area of
activity within the Network.
This notion is described by
Figure 8, where the task is to
detect a moving elephant and
to observe it as it moves
around [18].
2.6.3 Event mobility
An example for this kind of
mobility is in applications like
event detection, the cause of
the events or the objects to be
tracked can be mobile. Usually
the observed events
covered by number of sensors
at all time. So, sensors will
wake up around the object to
observe it and then go back
to sleep. As the event source
moves through the network, it

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is accompanied by an area of
activity within the Network.
This notion is described by
Figure 8, where the task is to
detect a moving elephant and
to observe it as it moves
around [18].
2.4.3.3 Event mobility:

An example for the kind of mobility is in application like event detection, the cause of the
events or the objects to be tracked can be mobile. Usually the observed events covered by
number of sensor at all time. So, sensors will wake up around the object observe it and then
go back to sleep. As the event source moves through the network, it is accompanied by an
area of activity within the Network. The notion is described by Figure 2.4, where the task is
to detect a moving elephant and to observe it as it moves around.

Fig. 2.4: Area of sensor nodes detecting an event – an elephant – that moves through the
network along with the event source (dashed line indicate the elephant’s trajectory; shaded
ellipse the activity area following or even preceding the elephant).

Considerations for Choosing Between Single-Hop and Multihop:

1. Range Requirements:

Single-Hop: Suitable for scenarios where all nodes are within direct communication range.
Multihop: Ideal for applications requiring communication over an extended area.

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2. Network Size:

Single-Hop: Effective for small-scale networks with limited nodes.

Multihop: More scalable for larger networks, providing extended coverage.
3. Robustness and Redundancy:

Single-Hop: Vulnerable to node failures affecting direct communication.

Multihop: Offers redundancy and alternative paths, enhancing network robustness.
4. Latency Considerations:

Single-Hop: Lower latency as there are no intermediate hops.

Multihop: Increased latency due to relaying through multiple nodes, but this can be optimized
with efficient routing algorithms.

2.5: Optimization Goals and Figures of Merit

Optimization goals and figures of merit in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are essential
for enhancing the overall performance and efficiency of these networks.
2.5.1: Optimization Goals:

1. Quality of Service (QoS):

 Latency: Minimizing communication latency to meet real-time requirements.

 Reliability: Ensuring reliable and accurate data transmission.
 Throughput: Maximizing the amount of data delivered successfully within a given
time frame.
 Prioritization: Managing traffic and data prioritization to meet different application
requirements.

2. Energy Efficiency:

 Low-Power Protocols: Implementing communication protocols that minimize energy

consumption during data transmission.
 Energy Harvesting: Exploring and implementing techniques for harvesting energy
from the environment to sustain sensor nodes.
 Duty Cycling: Introducing sleep-wake cycles to conserve energy during idle periods.

3. Scalability:

 Node Density and Placement: Optimizing the deployment of sensor nodes to

accommodate a growing number while maintaining coverage.
 Routing Efficiency: Implementing scalable routing protocols that can handle a larger
number of nodes without compromising performance.
 Data Aggregation: Employing techniques to aggregate data efficiently, reducing the
amount of information transmitted and processed.

4. Robustness:

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 Fault Tolerance: Designing networks to withstand node failures or environmental

challenges without significant performance degradation.
 Adaptive Routing: Implementing adaptive routing algorithms that can dynamically
adjust to changes in network conditions.
 Self-Healing Mechanisms: Incorporating mechanisms that allow the network to
recover from disruptions autonomously.

2.5.2: Figures of Merit:

1. QoS Metrics:

 Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR): Represents the ratio of successfully delivered packets
to the total sent.
 End-to-End Delay: Measures the time taken for data to travel from source to
destination.
 Jitter: Examines variations in packet arrival times, contributing to the stability of
communication.

2. Energy Consumption Metrics:

 Energy Consumption per Bit: Quantifies the energy used for transmitting each bit of
data.
 Network Lifetime: Reflects the duration for which the network can operate efficiently
before needing recharging or replacement of nodes.

3. Scalability Metrics:

 Throughput Scaling: Assesses the network's ability to maintain high throughput as the
number of nodes increases.
 Network Diameter: Measures the maximum number of hops between the farthest
nodes in the network.

4. Robustness Metrics:

 Resilience to Node Failures: Evaluates how well the network performs in the presence
of node failures.
 Adaptability: Measures how well the network adjusts to dynamic changes in the
environment or topology.

2.6 Gateway concepts

2.6.1: The need for gateways

 For practical deployment, a sensor network only concerned with itself is insufficient.
 The network rather has to be able to interact with other information devices, for
example, a user equipped with a PDA moving in the coverage area of the network or
with a remote user, trying to interact with the sensor network via the Internet (the
standard example is to read the temperature sensors in one’s home while traveling and
accessing the Internet via a wireless connection).

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 To this end, the WSN first of all has to be able to exchange data with such a mobile
device or with some sort of gateway, which provides the physical connection to the
Internet.
 This is relatively straightforward on the physical, MAC, and link layer – either the
mobile device/the gateway is equipped with a radio transceiver as used in the WSN,
or some (probably not all) nodes in the WSN support standard wireless
communication technologies such as IEEE Either option can be advantageous,
depending on the application and the typical use case (Fig. 2.5).

Fig. 2.5: A wireless sensor network with gateway node, enabling access to remote clients via
the internet.

2.6.2: WSN to Internet communication

 Assume that the initiator of a WSN – Internet communication resides in the WSN– for
example, a sensor node wants to deliver an alarm message to some Internet host.
 The first problem to solve is akin to ad hoc networks, namely, how to find the
gateway from within the network. Basically, a routing problem to a node that offers a
specific service has to be solved, integrating routing and service discovery

Enabling communication between a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and the Internet
involves addressing various architectural considerations and application challenges. In such
scenarios, the deployment of a gateway becomes imperative, acting as a pivotal link that
seamlessly integrates routing and service discovery mechanisms. The gateway serves as a
bridge between the constrained and often resource-limited sensor nodes in the WSN and the
broader Internet infrastructure. One of the primary challenges is selecting the "best" gateway
when multiple options are available, a decision that requires a careful balance between factors
like proximity, bandwidth, and reliability. Additionally (Fig. 2.6), determining the location or
IP address of a specific destination, such as finding Alice or Alice's IP, poses a unique
challenge. This involves incorporating robust mechanisms for addressing and name
resolution within the WSN architecture. Techniques like Domain Name System (DNS)
services or distributed databases may be employed to facilitate the translation of human-
readable names, such as "Alice," into corresponding IP addresses. Effectively addressing
these issues is crucial for seamlessly delivering essential messages, such as alarm
notifications, from the WSN to Internet hosts, ensuring the reliability and efficiency of the
communication pathway.
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Figure 2.6: An event notification to “Alice” needs decision about, among others, gateway
choice, mapping “Alice” to a concrete IP address, and translating an intra-WSN event
notification message to an internet application message.

2.6.2: Internet to WSN communication

Enabling communication from the Internet to a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) involves
navigating intricate decisions and challenges (Fig. 2.7). Determining the right WSN to
address a specific need requires careful consideration of target networks and the selection of
an appropriate gateway node within the chosen network. This ensures that the request reaches
the relevant sensor nodes capable of fulfilling the intended purpose, such as collecting
specific environmental data. Simultaneously, translating from Internet Protocol (IP) to WSN
protocols demands addressing disparities in semantics, data formats, and communication
methodologies. A notable example is the utilization of 6LowPAN, where IPv6-enabled
sensor networks rely on gateways to bridge the communication gap between the IPv6 Internet
and resource-constrained WSNs. These gateways play a crucial role in adapting application-
layer protocols, managing differences in addressing, data representation, and communication
methods between the Internet and WSNs. In the context of remote requests for sensor
network information, judicious choices are essential to determine the target network, select
the appropriate gateway node, and define the methods for adapting application-layer
protocols. This strategic decision-making ensures effective communication between the
Internet and WSNs, with accurate data routing through gateways facilitating seamless
translation between the two environments.

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Figure 2.7: Requesting sensor network information from a remote terminal entails choices
about which network to address, which gateway node of a given network, and how and where
to adapt application-layer protocol in the Internet to WSN-specific protocols.

 The case of an Internet-based entity trying to access services of a WSN is even more
challenging.
 This is fairly simple if this requesting terminal is able to directly communicate with
the WSN, for example, a mobile requester equipped with a WSN transceiver, and also
has all the necessary protocol components at its disposal.
 In this case, the requesting terminal can be a direct part of the WSN and no particular
treatment is necessary
 Once the requesting terminal has obtained this information, how to access the actual
services?
 Clearly, addressing an individual sensor (like addressing a communication peer in a
traditional Internet application) both goes against the grain of the sensor network
philosophy where an indi- vidual sensor node is irrelevant compared to the data that it
provides and is impossible if a sensor node does not even have an IP address

2.6.2: WSN tunneling

In addition to these scenarios describing actual interactions between a WSN and Internet
terminals, the gateways can also act as simple extensions of one WSN to another WSN.
The idea is to build a larger, “virtual” WSN out of separate parts, transparently “tunneling”
all protocol messages between these two networks and simply using the Internet as a
transport network (Fig. 2.8).

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Figure 2.8: Connecting two WSN with a tunnel over the internet.

F
n example for this kind of
mobility is in applications like
event detection, the cause of
the events or the objects to be
tracked can be mobile. Usually
the observed events
covered by number of sensors
at all time. So, sensors will
wake up around the object to
observe it and then go back

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to sleep. As the event source

moves through the network, it
is accompanied by an area of
activity within the Network.
This notion is described by
Figure 8, where the task is to
detect a moving elephant and
to observe it as it moves
around [18].

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