Unit IV: Memory Management Bcs fy 2023-24

UNIT – IV
MEMORY MANAGEMENT

• Single Contiguous Allocation

• Introduction to Multiprogramming

• Partitioned Allocation
• Relocatable Partitioned Memory Management
• Paged Memory Management

• Demand- Paged Memory Management

• Segmented Memory management

Introduction

• In computing, memory refers to a device that is used to store information for immediate
use in a computer or related computer hardware device.

• The memory management modules of an Operating System are concerned with the
management of primary memory.

• Primary memory we mean the memory that the processors directly access for instructions
and data.

• Primary memory is often called as core memory

• The term "memory" is often synonymous with the term “primary storage".

Types of Memory:

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer can’t
perform simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic types – Internal Memory (Primary
memory) and External Memory (Secondary memory).

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Memory management concerned with four functions:

• Keeping track of the status of each location of primary memory.

• Determining allocation policy for memory. i.e. deciding to whom it should allocates, how
much, when, and where.

• Allocation technique – once it is decided to allocate memory.

• Deallocation technique and policy

Single Contiguous allocation:

Memory conceptually divided into three contiguous regions.

1. A portion of memory permanently allocated to the operating system.

2. All of the remaining memory is available and allocated to the single job being processed.

3. Allocated but unused memory (Wasted)

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Single Contiguous allocation algorithm: Single Contiguous allocation

• Bit map keeps track of free blocks in memory, it has one bit for one memory block, bit 0
shows that the block is free and bit 1 shows the block is allocated to some file or a process.

• Contiguous memory allocation leads to fragmentation (breakup). Further fragmentation

can either be external or internal.

• Contiguous memory allocation leads to memory wastage and inflexibility.

• If the operating system uses buffered I/O during processing, then contiguous memory
allocation can enhance processing speed.

Advantages of Single Contiguous allocation:

• Allocating memory is easy and cheap.

• OS can take first one out of list.

• Eliminates external fragmentation

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• Data (page frames) can be scattered all over PM

• Pages are mapped appropriately anyway.

• Allows demand paging and pre-paging

• More efficient swapping.
• No need for considerations about fragmentation.

• Just swap out page least likely to be used.

Disadvantages of Single Contiguous allocation:

• Longer memory access times (page table lookup)

• Can be improved using TLB

• Guarded page tables.

• Inverted page tables.
• Memory requirements (one entry per VM page)

• Improve using Multilevel page tables and variable page sizes (super-pages)
• Guarded page tables
• Page Table Length Register (PTLR) to limit virtual memory size.

• Internal fragmentation.

Fragmentation:

• Fragmentation is an unwanted problem in the operating system in which the processes are
loaded and unloaded from memory, and free memory space is fragmented. Processes
can't be assigned to memory blocks due to their small size, and the memory blocks stay
unused.

Types of Fragmentation

1. Internal Fragmentation

2. External Fragmentation

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When a process is allocated to a memory block, and if the process is smaller than the amount
of memory requested, a free space is created in the given memory block. Due to this, the free
space of the memory block is unused, which causes internal fragmentation.

External fragmentation happens when a dynamic memory allocation method allocates some
memory but leaves a small amount of memory unusable. The quantity of available memory is
substantially reduced if there is too much external fragmentation. There is enough memory
space to complete a request, but it is not contiguous. It's known as external fragmentation.

Paged Memory Management

• A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on the
system. This extra memory is actually called virtual memory.

• Paging technique plays an important role in implementing virtual memory.

• Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is broken

into blocks of the same size called pages.

• The size of the process is measured in the number of pages.

• Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical) memory
called frames.

• The size of a frame is kept the same as that of a page to have optimum utilization of the
main memory and to avoid external fragmentation.

• Page address is called logical address and represented by page number and the offset.
Logical Address = Page number + page offset

• Frame address is called physical address and represented by a frame number and
the offset. Physical Address = Frame number + page offset

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• A data structure called page map table is used to keep track of the relation between a page
of a process to a frame in physical memory.

• When the system allocates a frame to any page, it translates this logical address into a
physical address and create entry into the page table to be used throughout execution of the
program.

• When a process is to be executed, its corresponding pages are loaded into any available
memory frames. When a computer runs out of RAM, the operating system (OS) will

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move idle or unwanted pages of memory to secondary memory to free up RAM for other
processes and brings them back when needed by the program.

Advantages :

1. It solves the fragmentation problem without physically moving the pages in memory.
2. This allows a higher degree of multiprogramming.
3. The compaction in relocatable partitioned allocation is eliminate.

Dis-Advantages :

1. Page address mapping hardware increase the cost of the computer system.
2. Extra core or extra registers needed for page map tables.
3. There is a possibility of internal fragmentation (or) page breakage may occur.
4. Some memory will still unused if the number of available page frames are not sufficient
for the Job's page.

Demand Paged Memory Management

• In the demand paged memory allocation one programmer assumes

infinite memory called virtual memory. In which the Job operates under demand.
•
• Paging virtual memory is large in size then the available memory the demand paging
allocation is shown in figure.
•
• In demand pages memory allocation a particular page is swapped from the secondary
storage device if it is required for execution.

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• In the above fig. Job address space consists of 10,000B of programs called page
and we have only 3000B of memory available. This 10,000B program run in 3000B
of memory by using demand paging.

Advantages :
1.Fragmentation is eliminated.
2.Large Virtual memory is available.
3.More efficient use of memory.
4.Demand paging is valuable in time sharing, systems.
Dis-Advantages :
1. Page address mapping hard ware increases the cost of the computer system
2.Extra memory, extra register needed for page map table.

• The page map table consists of a page number, page frame number, status and judgement
field. Initially the allocation algorithm places the first three pages of a program in the main
memory. The job starts execution in one of these pages. Suppose in page O there isa
transfer instruction to the location 9055. The hard ware mechanism uses 9 as index tothe
page lable that is page 9 is required in the execution. then the pagemap table is checked to
find whether the page in the main memory job not if the required page is not in the main
memory then the page fault occurs, then the hard ware generates interrept to

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the operating system then the operating system searches the secondary storage device
for page 9 and brought into the memory by replacing one of the pages in the memory It
may use a page remove algorithms like FIFO(First in first out) LRU(Least Recently Use)
for removing a page. The decision which page has to replace it with judgement field in the
page map table. It is desirable to keep highly used pages in the memory.
• A demand paging system is quite similar to a paging system with swapping where
processes reside in secondary memory and pages are loaded only on demand, not in
advance.

• When a context switch occurs, the operating system does not copy any of the old
program’s pages out to the disk or any of the new program’s pages into the main
memory Instead, it just begins executing the new program after loading the first page
and fetches that program’s pages as they are referenced.

Segmented Memory Allocation

- A well structured program consists of modules and also the relations between the modules
or designed data a module is also known as a segment.
- A segment can be defined as logical group of information such as a subroutine or data area
A segment may be a program of subprogram or a data base. A program and its data can be
viewed as linked segment each segment has a name and offset.
- The physical addresses assigned to the segments are maintained in a segment table the
memory management technique that allocates main memory to segments is called
segmentation.

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- Virtual memory can also be accomplished segmentation.

- Initially all the segments are stored secondary storage device. At the time of execution,
there is a call statement that requires one segment when the required segment is not in the
memory then the operating system searches the secondary storage device and bought into
the memory.
- In this way the operation system links the calling segment to its coiler. The operation
system must find a room for new segments by using compacting technique or by
removing one of the segments in the memory.

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• While executing a program, if the program references a page which is not available in the
main memory because it was swapped out a little ago, the processor treats this invalid
memory reference as a page fault and transfers control from the program to the operating
system to demand the page back into the memory.

Advantages:
1. It eliminates fragmentation.
2. It avoids virtual memory.
3. It helps in dynamic linking.

Dis-Advantages:
1. There is a difficulty in managing segments of different sizes on secondary storage
device.
2. The maximum size of the main memory.
3. Memory compacting is required.
4. Increases the hardware cost.

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*Differentiate Paged and Segmentation memory management technique

Demand Page Segmentation

Definition

Paging is a memory management On other hand segmentation is a memory

technique in which process address space management technique in which each job is divided
is broken into blocks of the same size into several segments of different sizes, one for
called pages. each module that contains pieces that perform
related functions.

Block Size

As mentioned above in Pagination On other hand in Segmentation process address

process address space is broken into fixed space is broken in varying sized blocks which are
sized blocks which are called as pages. called as sections. So block size is not fixed in case
So block size is fixed in case of of Segmentation.
Pagination.
Block size dependency

In Pagination the size of blocks is In Segmentation the size is not dependent on system
dependent on system memory and gets memory and is all up to user's choice that of what
assigned accordingly. size blocks are needed.
Performance

In context of performance Pagination is Segmentation is slower in speed as compared to

faster as compared to Segmentation. Pagination.

Data Load

In case of Pagination pages get loaded in In case of Segmentation all the sections get loaded
main memory at runtime when user at the time of compilation.
demands it.
Data Record

In case of Pagination Page map table in In case of Segmentation, Segment map table in
demand paging manages record of pages segmentation demonstrates every segment address
in memory. in the memory.

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