DC FUNDAMENTALS

BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY

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 WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
Electricity, or electric current, is a motion or flow of electric charge, normally electrons. However, this definition begs the
question,“What is electric charge?” Trying to define electric charge is sort of like trying to define other deep concepts of nature
such as gravity, time, or mass. For our purposes, it is sufficient to define electric charge as a fundamental property of matter
that generates a field of electromagnetic force, and that experiences a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.

Electric charge comes in two types:

• positive
• negative

When a charge is not in motion, the static electric field produced by the charge results in static electricity, which can exert
attractive or repulsive electrostatic forces on other charges. By convention, static electric field lines are drawn toward negative
charges and away from positive charges.

Negative Charge Positive Charge

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 THE ATOM

Electron

-
Atoms are the basic building block of matter. They consist of negatively
charged electrons orbiting a nucleus containing positively charged
protons.
Proton
Normally, the protons and electrons in an atom are numerically equal, so
that the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. The number of protons
in an atom, the atomic number, is what determines what chemical
element the atom is. If an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively
+
charged because the number of negative charges exceeds the number
of positive charges. This is known as a negative ion. If an atom loses
electrons, it becomes positively charged. This is known as a positive ion.

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 THE ATOM

The law of charges states that opposite charges attract and like charges repel. This force is known as the electrostatic force. In an atom, the
attractive force between the negatively charged electrons and positively charged nucleus keeps the electrons in orbit.

Opposite Charges
Elecctron No Charge Attract Each Other

Nucleus

+ -
Elecctrostatic
Lines of Force + Two Positively Charged Two Negatively Charged
Objects Repel Each Other Objects Repel Each Other

Proton Neutron + + - -

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 FREE ELECTRONS

Valence Electron

Valence Shell

An atom has several orbits or shells where the electrons are contained.
Electrons located in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons.
A full valence shell has 8 electrons. If enough energy is applied, a valence
electron may escape its shell and become a free electron.

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 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Recall the definition of electric current: a flow of electric charge, in most cases a flow of free electrons.

Conductors are materials whose atoms have 1-3 valence Insulators are materials whose atoms have full or nearly full
electrons that are loosely bound. This permits the free flow of valence shells with electrons that are tightly bound. This
electrons, which is what constitutes an electric current. prevents the free flow of electrons, preventing the flow of
electric current.
Examples of conductors include metals such as:
• copper Examples of insulators include:
• silver • rubber
• aluminum • plastic
• gold • glass
• wood

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 SEMICONDUCTORS AND RESISTORS

Semiconductors are materials that fall in between conductors and insulators in terms of their ability to conduct electricity. Semiconductors
often have 4 valence electrons.

Examples of semiconductors include:

• carbon
• silicon
• germanium

Resistors are circuit components, often made from semiconductor materials, that conduct current but provide some opposition to the
current flow. The amount of resistance provided by a resistor is measured by a unit called the ohm, named after the physicist Georg Ohm.
The symbol for ohm is the Greek letter Omega Ω.

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 CHARGE AND THE COULOMB

The coulomb is the unit that measures electric charge. Named after the physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, one coulomb has the
equivalent charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons. Coulomb also discovered Coulomb’s Law, the formula for calculating the electrostatic force
between two charges:

q1 x q2
F=K
d2

F = force of electrostatic attraction or repulsion (Newtons)

K = constant of proportionality (N-m2/Coulomb2)
q1 = charge of first particle (Coulombs)
q2 = charge of second particle (Coulombs)
d = distance between two particles (Meters)

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 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND THE VOLT

The strength of the electrostatic force between two points is known as the potential difference or voltage. The unit of measure for potential
difference or voltage is the volt, named after the physicist Alessandro Volta.

Voltage is similar to pressure in a water pipe. It provides the force to move electrons through a conductor in a circuit. A voltage source is a
circuit component that provides the electrical force to move electrons through a conductor. Voltage produced by a voltage source is known as
electromotive force, or emf.

Examples of voltage sources include:

• batteries
• generators
• photovoltaic cells

Methods for producing voltage include:

• magnetism
• chemical action
• pressure
• heat
• friction
• light

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 CURRENT AND THE AMPERE

Gallons per Minute

Once again, recall that electric current is a flow of electric
Flow Meter
charge. In the manner that voltage is analogous to pressure Pump
in a water pipe, current in an electrical circuit is analogous to
water flow in a pipe.

Since the coulomb is the unit of charge, the flow rate of

electric charge, or electric current, is expressed in terms of
coulombs per second. 1 coulomb per second is equal to 1
ampere. The ampere, or amp for short, is the unit of measure
for electric current and is named after the physicist
André-Marie Ampère.
+ Coulombs per Second
Ammeter
Battery

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 CURRENT AND THE AMPERE
For historical reasons, there are two theories of current flow:
• electron flow
• conventional current flow

Electron flow is thought to more correctly describe the actual physical processes taking place in a circuit, but conventional current is important
because most circuit components are designed and labeled with positive and negative polarity markings in accordance with conventional
current flow. Electron flow is based on the fact that a voltage source sets up a separation of charges between two points. This separation of
charges consists of a surplus of negatively-charged electrons at the negative terminal and a deficiency of electrons at the positive terminal.

A potential difference, or voltage, is thus set up between the two terminals. When a conducting flow path is established between the
two terminals by connecting the voltage source to a circuit, surplus electrons will flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Conventional current flow is the opposite, and states that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This way of
thinking about current is still in use since virtually all circuit components are marked according to this convention, and many people find it
easier to think of flow as occurring from top to bottom or from positive to negative.

Since electrons are flowing from negative to positive in electron flow, as an electron flows and vacates its atom, it leaves behind a positive
charge in the form of its original atom. This positive charge is thought of as a hole, and these holes migrate in a direction opposite to the
moving electrons. This is the basis of conventional current flow. It is important to understand that both theories of current flow will work
equally well and provide the correct answers in circuit analysis problems, as long as consistency is maintained in the usage of plus and minus
signs to denote the polarities of voltages across circuit components.
Free Electrons
Conductor Conventional Flow

Electron Flow

Battery

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 CURRENT AND THE AMPERE

Current, whether it is conceptualized as electron flow or conventional current flow, is known as direct current, or DC, if it
flows in one direction only. Current is known as alternating current, or AC, if it reverses direction on a periodic basis. For
example, the electric power system in the United States is AC, because it alternates, or reverses direction, at a frequency of
60 cycles per second, or 60 hertz.

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

Voltage 0 Voltage 0

Time Time

This presentation and course focuses on DC circuits, and uses the electron current flow model.

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 OHM’S LAW

Now that we have defined the basic electrical quantities of voltage, current, and resistance, can we relate them all to each other? We can,
and Mr. Ohm did, when he formulated Ohm’s Law in 1827.

Ohm’s Law states that the voltage V across a resistor (measured in volts) is directly proportional to its resistance to current flow R (measured
in ohms), multiplied by the current I flowing through it (measured in amperes). Stated mathematically: V = I times R. In other words, 1 volt is
the amount of force required to force one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance. Solving Ohm’s Law for I, we have I = V divided
by R, from which we can see that as the resistance increases, the current decreases for a given voltage, or that as the voltage applied to
the resistor is increased, the current flow will increase. Note that the letter E, which stands for electromotive force, is sometimes used to
represent voltage instead of V.

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 POWER AND THE WATT

When electric current is made to flow through a circuit, useful work of all kinds can be performed.

The applications are almost beyond count, but examples include:

• television
• living room lamp
• battery-operated mobile phone
• electrical system in a car
• motor driving a conveyor belt in a factory

Quite simply, modern civilization owes its existence in part to electricity. Power is the rate at which work can be performed in a physical
system. In electrical systems, power is measured by a unit known as the watt, named after the scientist James Watt. Other units for measuring
power, such as the horsepower, are also used, but for calculating electrical power, the watt is used. There are approximately 746 watts in 1
horsepower, so 1 watt = 1/746 of a horsepower.

The electrical power P, measured in watts, that is consumed by a circuit component or generated by a voltage source in a circuit can be
determined by multiplying the voltage V across the component (measured in volts) by the current I flowing through it (measured in amperes).
P = V times I.

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 UTILIZING OHM’S LAW AND THE POWER FORMULA

Ohm’s Law: V = IR
Power Formula: P = VI
Therefore P = V I = (IR) x I = I2R

By using Ohm’s Law together with the electrical power formula, we can algebraically re-arrange and substitute quantities in the formulas
to solve for a particular electrical quantity when two other quantities are known. For instance, Ohm’s Law states that V = IR and the power
formula states that P = VI. If we substitute IR for V in the power formula, we end up with P = IR times I, or I squared times R. This means
we can calculate the power dissipated in a resistor if we know its resistance and the current flowing through it.

For example, if a 100 ohm resistor has 0.2 amps of current flowing through it, the power dissipated in the resistor would be 0.2 amps
squared times 100 ohms, which equals 4 watts.

If we wanted to know the voltage across this same resistor, simply use Ohm’s Law: Voltage = 0.2 amps times 100 ohms = 20 volts.

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 Utilizing Ohm’s Law and the Power Formula

V2 V
R R P
IR
2
V
P
The formulas for calculating voltage, current, resistance,
and power in DC circuits, derived from Ohm’s Law and the
power formula, are shown in this formula chart. To solve for
a particular quantity, select the symbol for the quantity in
VI P I √ R
the inner circle, then select the appropriate formula in the

V R
corresponding quadrant of the outer circle.

For instance, to solve for voltage when the power and √PR V
current are known, select the formula P divided by I: V = P/I.
I
P V2
I IR P P
I2

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