UNIT I

What is biology?

BIOLOGY- is the study of living organisms which includes:

- Structural function
- Origin
- Evolution classification, interrelationships
- Ecology

Fields of Biology

2 Major Divisions

1. BOTANY- the scientific study of plants

2. Zoology- deals with the study of all aspects of animal life.

Branches of Zoology

1. Anatomy – the study of body parts and their location

2. Ecology – study of interrelationship o organisms in the habitat.
3. Embryology- it is the study of the formation and development of an individual from gametes
to an organism
4. Gross Anatomy – it is a study of microscopic structure of tissues and organs. (mix anatomy
and histology)
5. Paleozoology- the study of animal fossils
6. Physiology- the study of how body parts function and how they work.

Other specialize sciences

A. Taxonomy – naming, describing, classifying living organism.

Some Variations:
a. 1. Apiculture – study of bees
b. 2. Anthropology – study of a man
c. 3. Carcinology- study of crabs
d. 4. Conchology- study of shells

Other Science linked to Biology

1. Astronomy
2. Chemistry
3. Geology
4. Mathematics
5. Physics

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Science is an objective, logical and repeatable attempt to understand the principles and
forces operating the natural universe.
Derived from Latin verb “scientia” which means “to know”

Process of Science

Scientific Method- way of gaining information about the world by forming possible
solutions to questions followed by rigorous testing to determine if the proposed solutions are valid.

Ideal Steps to scientific process

1. Observation- defining the problem

2. Question formulation- asking about your observation
3. Exploration of alternative Resources - gathering more information about the observation.
4. Hypothesis formation- one or more falsifiable explanation for the observation.

What are the Limitation of Science?

Limitation of Science:

1. The type of questions can be answered

2. The time it may to find and answer
3. The lack of absolute certainty in the answer
4. The inability to make moral or value judgments.

HOW DO WE START TO STUDY IN BIOLOGY?

To start with biology we deal in by component parts (units) because life was placed in
hierarchy of organization with the smallest and simplest units at the bottom and the largest and
most complex at the top.

1. ATOMS- the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist alone or in combination.
2. MOLECULES – a small unit of matter.
3. CELL- the fundamental until of living things.
4. TISSUE- a group of cells with similar function. For ex. Areolar tissue (the shown figure)
5. ORGAN- a group of tissues with overall function. For example HEART.
6. ORGAN SYSTEM- a group of cell, tissues and organs that perform a specific major function
7. INDIVIDUAL/ COMPLEX ORGANISM- the total interaction of the organ systems
8. POPULATION- group of similar individual who tend to mate with each other in a limited
geographic area
9. COMMUNITY- the relationships of smaller groups of organisms with each other and their
environment.
10. ECOSYSTEM- the relationship of smaller groups of organisms with each other and their
environment.
11. BIOSPHERE- the natural nature.
Emergent Properties of life

The distinguishing properties that are unique to living things.

1. Organization
2. Energy acquisition and release
3. Reproduction and Heredity
4. Growth and Development
5. Homeostasis
6. Adaptation
7. Detection and response to stimuli
8. Interactions

You've listed the key emergent properties of life! These properties are not present in
non-living things and are what define life itself. Here's a breakdown of each:

1. Organization:

 Definition: Living things exhibit a high degree of order and complexity, from the
molecular level to the level of entire ecosystems.
 Examples: Cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into organ
systems, and organ systems into organisms.
 Why it's important: Organization allows for specialization of function and
efficient operation.

2. Energy Acquisition and Release:

 Definition: Living organisms obtain energy from their surroundings and use it to
perform life processes.
 Examples: Plants capture sunlight for photosynthesis, animals consume food for
energy, and all organisms release energy through cellular respiration.
 Why it's important: Energy is essential for growth, movement, reproduction,
and maintaining internal order (homeostasis).

3. Reproduction and Heredity:

 Definition: Living organisms produce offspring that inherit characteristics from

their parents.
 Examples: Sexual reproduction involves the combination of genetic material
from two parents, while asexual reproduction involves a single parent.
  Why it's important: Reproduction ensures continuity of life and allows for
genetic variation, which is essential for adaptation.

4. Growth and Development:

 Definition: Living organisms increase in size and complexity over time.

 Examples: A plant grows taller and develops roots, leaves, and flowers. An
animal develops from a fertilized egg through a series of stages.
 Why it's important: Growth and development are essential for reaching
maturity and fulfilling an organism's life cycle.

5. Homeostasis:

 Definition: Living organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite

external changes.
 Examples: Maintaining a constant body temperature, regulating blood sugar
levels, and maintaining fluid balance.
 Why it's important: Homeostasis is essential for the proper functioning of cells,
tissues, organs, and the entire body.

6. Adaptation:

 Definition: Living organisms evolve over time to better suit their environment.
 Examples: The development of camouflage in animals, the evolution of antibiotic
resistance in bacteria, and the adaptation of plants to different climates.
 Why it's important: Adaptation is the driving force behind evolution and
ensures the survival of species in changing environments.

7. Detection and Response to Stimuli:

 Definition: Living organisms can sense and respond to changes in their

environment.
 Examples: Plants growing towards light, animals fleeing from predators, and cells
responding to chemical signals.
 Why it's important: Responses to stimuli allow organisms to avoid danger, find
food, and maintain homeostasis.

8. Interactions:
  Definition: Living organisms interact with each other and their environment.
 Examples: Predator-prey relationships, competition between species, and
symbiotic relationships.
 Why it's important: Interactions shape ecosystems, influence evolution, and
contribute to the balance and diversity of life.

These eight emergent properties, taken together, define what it means to be alive. They
are the result of complex interactions and relationships between the components of
living systems, and they illustrate the incredible complexity and diversity of life on Earth.

The living kingdoms

Kingdoms are divisions of living nature categorizing living thins to express their line of
phylogeny.

When these kingdoms of life established?

UNIT II.

In the beginning …………

There are two (2) kingdoms establish by CAROLUS LENNAEUS (1778) he pioneered the biological
nomenclature.

Regnum Animale (Animal Kingdom)

Life

Regnum Vegetabile (Plant Kingdom)

-In 1674, Antonie Van Leeunwenhoek

The “father of Microscopy” invented the simple microscope and observed the single celled
organisms.

-1866 Richard Owen, John Hogg and Ernst Haeckel proposed the 3rd kingdom

Kingdom Protista

Life Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Plantae

Here's a breakdown of the major kingdoms:

  Plantae: Multicellular organisms that are photosynthetic (make their own food).
Examples: trees, flowers, ferns.
 Animalia: Multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic (obtain food from other
organisms). Examples: humans, insects, birds, fish.
 Fungi: Heterotrophic organisms that obtain food by absorbing nutrients from
their environment. Examples: mushrooms, molds, yeasts.
 Protista: A diverse group of mostly single-celled organisms that don't fit into
other kingdoms. Examples: algae, amoeba, slime molds.
 Monera: This kingdom is now considered outdated. It was originally used to
classify bacteria and archaea, but these groups are now recognized as distinct
domains

1938 Herbert Copeland

Proposed the fourth kingdom, after the invention of the electron microscope.

Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Protista

Life Kingdom plantae

Kingdom Monera (Bacteria, blue-green algae)

Prokaryotes -kingdom Monera (bacteria, Blue-green algae)

Life Kingdom Animalia

Eukaryotic Kingdom Protista 1960 – as proposed by Edouard Chalton

Kingdom Plantae

1970 onwards………..

- Increasing emphasis on molecular level comparisons of genes.

Carl Woese divided the prokaryotes (kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria
and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two
groups as between either of them and all Eukaryotes.
6 Kingdoms
Domain Bacteria Kingdom
Bacteria

Domain Archaea kingdom

Archaea

Life Kingdom
Protista

Kingdom
Plantae
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom
Fungi

Kingdom
Animalia

The six kingdom system is still recognizably an expansion of the original two- kingdom system:
Animalia remains; the original category of plants has been split into Plantae and Fungi; and single-
celled organisms have been introduced and split into Bacteria, Archaea and Pritista.

In 2004, a review article by Simpson and Roger noted that the Protista were “a grab-bag for all
eukaryotes that are not animals, plants or fungi”. They argued that only monophyletic groups – an
ancestor as formal ranks in a classification.