RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL CHANNEL

SECTIONS USING COLD-FORMED STEEL PLATE USING

STAAD-Pro

Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
Undergraduate Degree in Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering
By
1. Kartik Deokate – C2010014
2. Jeevan Ghatge – C2010021
3. Swapnil Kalel – C2010025
4. Manjeet Pawar – C2010037
5. Shubham Pisal – C2010054

Under the Guidance of

Dr. P.G. Gaikwad

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Munshi Nagar, Andheri(W), Mumbai-400058
SESSION: 2023-2024

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Project Report “Retrofitting of Structural Steel Channel Sections
Using Cold Formed Steel Plate Using STAAD-Pro” is the bonafide work by Kartik
Deokate (C2010014), Jeevan Ghatge (C2010021), Swapnil Kalel (C2010025), Manjeet
Pawar (C2010037), Shubham Pisal (C2010054) who have carried out the project work
under my supervision.

Dr. P. G. Gaikwad Prof. K. A. Nadgouda

PROJECT GUIDE EXAMINER
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Civil Engineering Department Civil Engineering Department,
Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Bhavan’s Campus, Munshi Nagar, Bhavan’s Campus, Munshi Nagar,
Andheri(W), Mumbai-400058. Andheri(W), Mumbai-400058.

Dr. Hansa Jeswani Dr. M. M. Murudi

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL
Civil Engineering Department Civil Engineering Department
Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Bhavan’s Campus, Munshi Nagar, Bhavan’s Campus, Munshi Nagar,
Andheri(W), Mumbai-400058. Andheri(W), Mumbai-400058.

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 APPROVAL SHEET

This is to certify that this Project report Retrofitting of Structural Steel Channel Sections
Using Cold Formed Steel Plate Using STAAD-Pro is the bonafide work of Kartik Deokate,
Jeevan Ghatge, Swapnil Kalel, Manjeet Pawar and Shubham Pisal who carried out the project
work under my supervision.

Dr. P. G. Gaikwad
Associate Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Sardar Patel College of Engineering

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 DECLARATION

We declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own words and where
others ideas or words have been included, we have adequately cited and referenced the
original sources. We also declare that we have adhered to all principles of academic honesty
and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified ideas/fact/data/source in
our submission. We understand that any violation of the above will cause a disciplinary action
by the college and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been
properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.

________________
KARTIK DEOKATE

________________
JEEVAN GHATGE

________________
SWAPNIL KALEL

________________
MANJEET PAWAR

________________
SHUBHAM PISAL

Date:- ________________

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset of our project, we take this opportunity to express our sincere
heartfelt gratitude to our project guide and mentor, Dr. P.G. Gaikwad, who with
his guidance and valuable advice helped us in the project. We are thankful to the
Head of the Department Dr. Hansa Jeswani for exemplary guidance and
support. We pay our deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Ankit Asher for valuable
guidance and support throughout the project. We also acknowledge the support
of our college’s Library and Administrative staff, which helped us in providing
the necessary books and software, for the fulfillment of our project. We would
also like to thank our parents and colleagues for their constant support and
guidance.

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 ABSTRACT

The secret of change is to focus all your energy, not on fighting the old but
building the new.
-Socrates

In this report an effective retrofitting technique for hot rolled channel section
(HRS) is introduced. Effective technique includes transformation of hot rolled
channel section into closed composite section by encasing it with a cold formed
plate (CFS) which makes section stronger than other retrofitting techniques and
increases its torsional rigidity to restrain failure due to lateral-torsional buckling
(LTB). The analysis has been carried out using finite element modeling on
STAAD-PRO software. The unification of the HRS-CFS section was ensured by
assuming pure bonding between structural plates and rectangular closed
composite section to behave like a single unit. The test result indicates that the
load carrying capacity of composite HRS-CFS section increased upto 95% as
compared to control section. The structural behavior of the sections including
load- deflection curve were studied. This technique made a significant decrease
in local buckling of retrofitted sections. This partial retrofitting method turns out
to be more better as compared to another retrofitting method presented in this
report.

Keywords: Cold formed steel (CFS) retrofitting, finite element modeling

(FEM), restraining lateral torsional buckling (LTB).

Abstract 6

List of Figures 9

List of Tables 11

Chapter Topic Page

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 No. No.
1 Introduction 13

1.1 What is retrofitting? 13

1.2 Background 14

1.3 Strengthening methods 18

1.4 Aim and Objectives 20

2 Literature Review 21
2.1 General 21

2.2 Literature Review of research carried out on 21

retrofitting of structural steel
2.3 Summary 23

2.4 Cold-Formed Steel Failure Pattern 24

3 Methodology 26
3.1 General 26

3.2 Software Validation 26

3.3 Introduction to methodology 28

4 Results 34
4.1 General 34

4.2 Results of controlled section 35

INDEX

INDEX

Chapter Topic Page

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No. No.
4 Results 34

4.3 Results of Retrofitted section 43

4.4 Discussions and Comparisons 52

5 Conclusion 60
5.1 General 60
5.2 Conclusions 60
5.3 Future Scope 61
6 References 62

LIST OF FIGURES

Sr. Title Page

No. No.
1.1 Representing lateral torsional buckling of a beam 16

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 1.2 Common shapes of cold-form light gauge sections. 18

3.1 Methodology Flow Chart 27

3.3.1 Representing pre-processing step of controlled section 29

3.3.2 Representing solution step of controlled section 29

3.3.3 Representing post-processing step of controlled section 30

3.3.4 Representing (a) control specimen (b) retrofitted specimen 32

3.3.5 Meshing done for hot rolled specimen 33

3.3.6 Boundary conditions and loading pattern 33

4.2.1 Deflection in control ISJC200 section 35

4.2.2 Max Absolute in control ISJC200 section 36

4.2.3 Max von mis stress in control ISJC200 section 36

4.2.4 Sx and Sy(local) in control ISJC200 section 37

4.2.5 Deflection in control ISMC200 section 38

4.2.6 Max Absolute in control ISMC200 section 38

4.2.7 Max von mis stress in control ISMC200 section 38

4.2.8 Sx and Sy(local) in control ISMC200 section 39

4.2.9 Deflection in control ISLC200 section 40

4.2.10 Max Absolute in control ISLC200 section 40

–4.2.11 Max von mis stress in control ISLC200 section 40

4.2.12 Sx and Sy(local) in control ISLC200 section 41

4.3.1 Deflection in retrofitted ISJC200 section 44

4.3.2 Max Absolute in retrofitted ISJC200 section 45

4.3.3 Max von mis stress in retrofitted ISJC200 section 46

4.3.4 Sx and Sy(local) in retrofitted ISJC200 section 46

4.3.5 Deflection in retrofitted ISMC200 section 47

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4.3.6 Max Absolute in retrofitted ISMC200 section 47

4.3.7 Max von mis stress in retrofitted ISMC200 section 48

4.3.8 Sx and Sy(local) in retrofitted ISMC200 section 49

4.3.9 Deflection in retrofitted ISLC200 section 49

4.3.10 Max Absolute in retrofitted ISLC200 section 50

4.3.11 Max von mis stress in retrofitted ISLC200 section 51

4.3.12 Sx and Sy(local) in retrofitted ISLC200 section 51

4.4.4 ISJC200 Load vs deflection 55

4.4.5 ISMC200 Load vs deflection 56

4.4.6 ISLC200 Load vs deflection 57

LIST OF TABLES

Sr. Title Page

No. No.
3.1 Material Properties 31

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4.4.1 Comparison of controlled and retrofitted ISJC200 52

4.4.2 Comparison of controlled and retrofitted ISMC200 53

4.4.3 Comparison of controlled and retrofitted ISLC200 53

4.4.4 Comparison of deflection of sections 54

4.4.5 Comparison of deflection of ISJC200 55

4.4.6 Comparison of deflection of ISMC200 56

4.4.7 Comparison of deflection of ISLC200 57

4.4.8 Failure Analysis 58

ABBREVIATIONS

A Cross sectional area

d Depth of section

b Width of flange

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 tf Thickness of flange

Ixx Moment of inertia

Iyy Moment of inertia

Zpz Plastic section modulus

fy Yield stress

fu Ultimate stress

FOS Factor of safety

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

1.1 What is retrofitting?

Retrofitting involves improving the structural integrity of an already constructed

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building to protect it against potential risks like strong winds and seismic activity.
This practice is essential due to improvements in construction technology,
encompassing improved building techniques and materials, as well as an enhanced
understanding of various hazards and their impact on structures. A significant factor
driving the need for retrofitting is the fact that various existing buildings were
constructed at a time when limited knowledge existed regarding the frequency and
locations of hazardous events, as well as the appropriate protective measures for
buildings. Consequently, current construction projects stand to gain from ongoing
advancements and insights that may inform future improvements in building
practices.

Retrofitting is needed because of -

a) Seismic Reinforcement: To improve their ability to withstand earthquakes. By
adding or reinforcing steel elements, buildings become more resistant to
ground shaking and lateral forces.
b) Changes in Building Codes: Over the passage of time, building codes and
regulations evolve. Existing structures may not meet the current standards.
Therefore, retrofitting ensures compliance with updated codes and safety
requirements.
c) Structural Deficiencies: Older structures may exhibit signs of wear and tear,
corrosion, or deterioration due to factors like weathering, aging, or poor
workmanship. Retrofitting improves these deficiencies by important and
critical components, such as beams, columns, and connections.
d) Improved Overall Performance: Including longevity, load bearing capacity
and increase in safety of structure.

Retrofitting is important –
a) IncreaseSafety:
Improve regulations to create safer buildings for people to live and work.
b) Financially Protect Your Investment: You have invested a lot of time and
capital into your building. The proper retrofitting solution can help protect that
investment
c) Protect Your Community: Retrofitting your building not only helps you to
protect your own investment, but also protects your entire community.
d) EnvironmentalImpact:

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 Retrofitting is important to reduce the environmental impact of the building, re
duce energy consumption and increase the comfort of building occupants.

1.2 Background

In current construction practices, steel structures have become common. Historically,

steel structures were seldom utilized in construction due to cost constraints and
limited availability of Hot rolled steel from manufacturing companies. This resulted
in a preference for conventional materials such as timber and concrete. The
production process of Hot rolled steel is different from that of cold formed steel.
Hot-rolled steel is fabricated through a metal working technique which involves the
passage of a metallic alloy through paired rolls to determine its shape and
dimensions. This metal forming process is categorized as either hot-rolling or cold-
rolling. Hot-rolled steel is created at temperatures greater than the recrystallization
temperature of steel, while steel produced through rolling at temperatures below this
threshold is knownascold-rolledsteel.
Starting materials for the rolling process include large semi-finished products such a
s billets, blooms and sheets. In continuous operation, these metal products are fed dir
ectly into the rolling machine at a temperature suitable for rolling. Conversely,
smaller metal working tasks take place at room temperature, necessitating
preheating. Heating methods may involve oil or gas-fired soaking pits for larger
workpieces, while induction heating is more efficient for smaller components.
Throughout the material processing, it is important to maintain temperatures above
the recrystallization point of steel, necessitating continuous temperature monitoring.
Reheating is required if the material temperature falls below the finishing
temperature, typically set at 50° to 100° Celsius (122° to 212° Fahrenheit) above the
recrystallization temperature.

1.2.1 Hot rolled steel properties

a) Almost all hot rolled products exhibit high ductility and flexibility in small
bar dimensions.
b) Hot-rolled plate surfaces typically have a coarse texture.
c) Hot-rolled steel typically has a dimensional tolerance of approximately ±0.01
inches or greater, whereas cold-rolled steel maintains tolerances of less than
0.01 inches. The advantageous welding characteristics and assured strength of

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 hot-rolled structural steel make it applicable for various uses.
d) Hot-rolled structural steel used for pipe manufacturing is suitable for
fabricating pipes utilized in fluid and gas transportation.
e) The final dimensional allowances for hot-rolled steel products are relatively
lenient.
f) Hot-rolled steel items are typically coated with mill scale on their surfaces.
g) Hotrolled real steel has gained popularity as a material, especially in aging str
uctures that require increased loads or fabrication that results in poor perform
ance. This degradation may also affect other products of the same model. In t
his case, a major problem for beams is lateral torsional buckling (LTB).

Lateral torsional buckling is observed in beams that are considered unrestrained whe
n the compression flanges can move laterally and rotate freely. The occurrence of
lateral torsional buckling is evident when an external load induces both lateral
displacement and twisting of a structural member, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. When
a vertical load is applied, it induces compression and tension in the flanges of the
section. The compression flange seeks to deflect laterally from its initial position,
while the tension flange endeavors to maintain the member's straightness. The lateral
bending of the section creates opposing restoring forces as the section naturally aims
to remain straight. Although these restoring forces are insufficient to completely
prevent lateral deflection, they, in conjunction with the lateral component of the
tensile forces, plays a crucial role in determining the beam's resistance to buckling.

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 Figure 1.1 Representing lateral torsional buckling of a beam (civildigital.com)

Researchers are working hard to find solution on the problem of deteriorating steel
components and increasing their strength. Although there are many conventional
ways present to reinforce steel sections, using high stiffness materials like fibre-
reinforced polymer (FRP) is a frequently used strategy (Selvaraj, S., and M.
Madhavan, 2016). FRP has a various number of disadvantages despite being widely
used, most especially its bonding with steel parts. As they age, FRP laminates are
easily disassembled, requiring expert work for installation. Furthermore, the strength
and stiffness of FRP are directional, meaning that proper material orientation calls
for knowledge. The expense of FRP is a major drawback that makes it inconvenient
for small-scale projects. Carbon fibre reinforced polymer has become a new material
for composites in addition to FRP. A unique technology including the transformation
of structural steel with CFRP wraps after it has been increased in cross-sectional area
by a mortar core was done by Ekiz and El-Tawil (2008). The study found that the
choice of core material affects retrofitting performance and that extra CFRP wraps
increases the member's compressive strength by 17%. However, installing CFRP
requires specialized personnel skill and is also expensive. As a result, a material that
can give greater strength, quality, availability, and cost-effectiveness in place of
traditional methods is required.

It is crucial to study on alternate tactics in order to go past the difficulties related to

materials made of carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) and fibre reinforced
polymer (FRP). One possible strategy is to use steel, which is a material that is both
more affordable and strength than hot rolled steel. In this situation, cold-formed steel
(CFS), which is distinguished from hot-rolled sections by its slim profile and
increased strength, looks like a viable choice. In a recent study, Selvaraj and
Madhavan (2018) introduced a novel technique for retrofitting hot rolled channel
sections with cold-formed steel, which significantly increased the load carrying
capacity of the samples by up to 60% in comparison to control samples. The best
option for strengthening hot rolled steel sections, according to the researchers, is
found that cold-formed steel.

1.2.2 Cold formed steel properties

a) It is possible to produce cross-sectional shapes with exact tolerances that can be

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 constantly repeated as needed.
b) A practical technique for producing a large variety of forms in different lengths
cold rolling can be used.
c) Improved corrosion resistance and a visually acceptable surface quality can be
achieved by using pre-galvanized or pre-coated metals.
d) Conventional joining methods like adhesives, bolting, riveting, and welding can
also be applied.
e) Products that are cold-rolled have a high strength-to-weight ratio and are often
lightweight, making assembly and shipping simple.

Press brakes or cold rolling can be used to create lightweight structural components
from flat steel sheets that are normally not more than 12.5 mm. For more economical
and conventional mass production, cold rolling is the strongly matched technique;
press brakes work better for smaller-scale, specialized form creation. Similar to the
adaptability of reinforced concrete in its applications, the flexibility of press brakes
allows for a wide range of shape variation, making this construction proposal very
adaptable to specific project requirements. Press brakes are used in India to produce
light gauge members in small scale, whereas cold rolling is used for bigger
production runs different techniques like spot, fillet, plug, or slot welding, bolts,
screws, cold rivets, or specialty fasteners are used to combine these parts together.
Applications such as channeled roofing sheets and those with low weights and spans
for which using thicker hot-rolled shapes is uneconomical are common uses for cold-
formed components. These lightweight components can be used to form a variety of
structures like as roof trusses, girts, purlins, joists, and entire frame systems for one-
to two-story residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. The common shape of
cold formed light gauge section are as shown in fig 1.2 below.

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 Figure 1.2 common shapes of cold-form light gauge sections. (Research Gate)

1.3 Strengthening methods

Rehabilitation and Retrofit Guide (Brockenbrough 2002). Other publications for

further reference are ASCE 41-06 2006, FEMA 274 1997, and FEMA 547 2006[1].

1. Passive against active methods

2. Strengthening techniques:

a) Reinforcing beams by welding (enlarge section with plates).

b) Reinforcing (or weakening) connections:
• Framing.
• Seated angles.
• Partial-depth end plate.
• Replace with high-strength fasteners.
• Add welds at the perimeter of the connection and/or properly clean existing welds.
• Converting single- to double-shear connections by adding angles or plates
. • Add a web stiffener plate
. • Add steel cover plates.
• Enhance column splices.
• Enhance braced frame connection.
c) Shortening span (provided that there are no fitting issues)

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• Add beams.
• Add columns and girders.
• Add diagonal braces.
• Add walls with openings.
• Add steel braced frame.
• Add concrete, masonry, or steel plate walls.
• Enhance strength and ductility of braced frames.
D) The introduction of composite action is a crucial step in enhancing the
effectiveness of a system.

• Steel (partially or fully) encased with concrete.

• Shear connectors.
e) Post-tensioning of beams and connections, considering eccentricities of brackets,
is crucial for protection against corrosion, fire, and vandalism, considering member
capacity.

f) To ensure proper openings in existing beams, use thermal cutting (plasma arc
cutting) faster than oxy-fuel, and place reinforcement like stiffeners before cutting
holes.
g) Replacement of members (may be economical).
h) Strengthening columns.
i) Convert gravity frame to moment-resisting frame.

1.4 Aim & Objectives

Aim: Retrofitting of Structural Steel Channel Sections Using Cold-Formed Steel

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Plate Using STAAD-Pro for analyzing ISJC200, ISMC200, ISLC200 sections for
checking deflection and plate stress contours.

Objectives:
1. To model, analyze and compare the selected sections using STAAD-
Pro for deflection and plate stress contours.
2. To test the controlled and retrofitted section for deflection, max and
min stresses along with plotting of stress contours.
3. To compare the output of controlled HRS section and retrofitted HRS-
CFS Section
4. To retrofit the selected section and control the lateral torsional
buckling.

CHAPTER 2
Literature Review

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 2.1 General

Extensive research is carried out various authors in the field of structural steel
retrofitting such as beam, column etc. But somehow less was done on channel
sections.

2.2 Literature review of research carried out on retrofitting of structural steel

Selvaraj, (2018) - The researcher conducted a four-point bending experiment to

assess the potential of utilizing cold-formed steel (CFS) channels for reinforcing
open hot rolled steel (HRS) channels through a retrofitting process. This involved
converting the open channel configuration into a closed one by enveloping it with a
cold-formed steel channel section, with the aim of enhancing its resistance to lateral
torsional buckling (LTB).

Selvaraj, (2017) - The researcher conducted an experimental investigation on

simply supported built-up beams, specifically those consisting of a plate on top of a
channel section, to evaluate the effectiveness of two distinct methods of reinforcement
using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) fabrics applied externally through
bonding. These methods included flange strengthening and modified cross section
strengthening. A total of seven strengthening configurations were developed based on
these two approaches. The findings of the study suggest that the flange strengthening
technique may not be an optimal retrofitting solution for converting open channel
sections into longer lengths. Furthermore, the results indicate that the occurrence of
wrinkling can be mitigated by increasing the number of confinement wraps through
the use of bidirectional CFRP fabrics.

Selvaraj, (2016) - An experiment was conducted to improve the strength of a

structural steel channel section by applying six different carbon fiber-reinforced
polymer (CFRP) wrappings. The study aimed to convert the singly symmetric open
channel section into a closed section through CFRP wrapping to enhance stiffness
and strength. A total 21 specimens, including controlled steel and CFRP-reinforced
specimens was subjected to four point bending test. Two different types of CFRP
approaches (unidirectional and bidirectional fabrics) were used for wrapping the

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specimen. The unidirectional layers were found to increase stiffness and strength,
while the bidirectional layers work for former and increase the resistance to lateral
torsional buckling (LTB) in the specimen.

Deng et al. (2015) - Glass- fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) was used to
restrained buckling of steel braces and enhance strength of controlled steel section in
study. Essentially casted GFRP tubes were used to connect to controlled section in
order to alter its cross- section properties. The results of the study suggest that local
stability of section was significantly increased through this section transformation. A
new type of GFRP steel buckling restrained braces was introduced first time in
research. Static test was done on six full scale specimens, were conducted to check
the performance of the GFRP steel BRB under cyclic loading condition. Less
number of tests conducted that’s why more comprehensive investigation is
recommended for future research endeavor.

Feng et al. (2012) - This study involved performing axial compressive experiment
on 18 specimens that were reinforced with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) fabric and
bamboo sticks to increase their resistance to buckling. The steel core material is
initially wrapped along the length with bamboo sticks using steel wires, followed by
longitudinally and lateral wrapping with the FRP fabric. Due to addition of these
reinforcement there is increase in the bending stiffness and load-bearing capacity of
the specimens, with the bamboo sticks works as lightweight component in the
overall system. This research based on three main parameters: cross section shape of
the specimen, the slenderness ratio of the steel members and number of layers of
FRP fabric wrapped.

Ju et al. (2009) - The study observed that as number of floors increases in

building, the building height also increases. To address this issue and reduce floor to
floor height, composite beam was created using asymmetrical steel section with web
opening. The composite beam not included shear connector. The resultant bond
strength between concrete and steel provides longitudinal shear strength and bearing
capacity in open web area. The researcher calculated the flexural performance of the
composite beam through a simple beam test comparing it with slim floor beam and
bare steel beam tested for construction load resistance. The composite beam shows
satisfactory horizontal shear resistance. A new steel concreate composite was

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developed by fixing two channels on each side of the I-section web resulting in
increase in the shear capacity due to improvement in section properties. Test result
showed that the composite beams ultimate capacity is more than design capacity,
with large increase in the shear strength and ductility.

Ekiz and El-Tawil (2008) - The researcher conducted an experiment on steel

section wrapped with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). They studied that
there is less enhancement in stiffness and strength of structural element. and there is
no change in failure pattern in case of open sections unless there is substantial
modification in geometry like convert it to closed shape. Then, they invented the
new technique that involved both altering the cross section of a structural steel
element to new shape and increase its area by incorporating a cement mortar in core
followed by multiple CFRP wraps. Result of these research indicates that an increase
in the number of CFRP layers results in the enhancement in the compressive strength
of the material.

Black et al. (2004) - Researcher studied the structural stability of steel core
section with buckling braces. The unbounded braces consist of steel core encased in
steel tube filled with concrete. This configuration shows ductile and stable behavior.
The assembly was done so that axial load was carried out by the steel core while the
outer tube, via the concrete provides lateral support to the core and prevent global
buckling. The researcher concluded that the plastic torsional buckling of the inner
core is the critical stability mode.

2.3 Summary

From the above literature we can conclude that a lot of research was done on the
structural steel section but very less was done on channel sections. Conventional
methods are also available but they come with some disadvantages like economy,
bonding between steel and conventional material, etc. to eliminate those issues one
author suggested that steel can be treated with steel itself so method is introduced to
retrofit the hot rolled channel section with a cold form steel channel.

2.4 Cold-Formed Steel Failure Pattern

There are differences between the production process of cold formed steel and hot

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rolled steel sections due to this the structural behavior of them is also different. Hot
rolled steel shape is given above the temperature of crystallization i.e more than
10000C and for cold formed steel the shape is given above the temperature of
crystallization. Also the smaller thickness of cold formed steel makes its behavior
different than hot rolled steel. The design criteria regarding buckling, torsional
rigidity, web crippling, bending strength and deflection of cold formed steel are
different from hot rolled steel.

2.4.1 Buckling

The thickness of the cold formed steel section is very thin compared to its width.
This property makes the section slender and due to that susceptible to buckling.
When compression or bearing is applied to these cold formed members, they can
buckle before reaching yield point. So, buckling is the most important criteria to be
considered in case of design of cold formed steel members. Four type of buckling is
seen in this type of members like local buckling, global buckling, distortional
buckling, shear buckling. Local buckling is the buckling of the individual element.
Global buckling is generally observed in columns and beams. Without showing any
cross-section distortion, the members goes through buckling called flexural buckling
and lateral torsion buckling. In case of distortion buckling the distortion of the cross
section of the member happens and its wavelength state I intermediate to global and
local buckling.

2.4.2 Torsional Rigidity

As cold formed steel has very thin in thickness, so it is vulnerable to torsion.

Torsional rigidity of an open section depend on its thickness and proportional to the
cube its thickness. A beam with channel shaped is shown in figure 3, which twists
when the load is applied to the plane of web. It can be noticed that the shear center
exist at the out side of the web and the rotation is initiated by the applied load. The
torsional-flexural buckling of the cold formed structural compression elements can
be a very critical factor. This can happen due to the cold-formed structural steel
elements have a relative lower thickness and sometimes the centroid of the section
and the shear do not coincide. In some cases of cold- formed beam or columns
distortional buckling can be an important factor and govern the design criteria for

24
these members.

2.4.3 Web Crippling, Bending Strength and Deflection

Web crippling is an important criterion for cold formed steel members. On basis of
many researches was done in the North American specification provides guidelines to avoid
web crippling. Web crippling can happen due to no application of load bearing and end
bearing stiffeners, very small thickness of the web, inclination of the web etc. are the most
important reason behind the web crippling of the cold formed steel embers. Bending strength
and deflection are the very important design criteria for flexural members. These members
must have enough bending strength to deal with flexural effect. The deflection of these
flexural members also must not beyond the limiting value under service load.

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 CHAPTER 3
Methodology

3.1 General
The big problem observed in industries is strength of structure after its aging and
different structures have different solutions to minimize or terminate those strength
issues of aging material. Best solution for strengthening is retrofitting the structure
instead of changing with a new one. For the structural steel channel section the
conventional method of retrofitting was wrapping with FRP and CFRP. The
disadvantage of FRP and CFRP is bonding with structural steel. Some authors made
their conclusion regarding bonding of FRP and CFRP with structural steel. At the
initial stage the strength of the section gets increased due to retrofitting by FRP layer
whether it is unidirectional or bidirectional but after aging it gets decreased due to
bonding failure or delamination. So, to avoid those bonding failures the best way is to
retrofit the structural steel with cold form steel structure.

3.2 Software Validation

Currently, many companies utilize STAAD-Pro for conducting material testing prior to the
launch or manufacturing of their products. To illustrate, when considering a product that is
intended for production, the initial step involves creating prototypes of the product and
subjecting them to various worst-case scenarios that could potentially cause harm or damage
to the product. These extreme conditions are imposed on the material to assess its strength
and evaluate its performance. The same methodology is employed in the present study.
Specifically, boundary conditions are imposed on a beam to simulate real-world behavior,
such as fixed supports applied on one end of the beam. The report also includes a preliminary
design analysis for a retrofitted section. It is important to highlight that there is no established
design procedure available for the built-up section, namely the retrofitted section HRS-CFS.
However, distinct design guidelines exist for hot rolled channel sections and cold formed
channel sections.

26
 Introduction

Literature Review

Modelling the selected section

using STAAD-Pro

for
Parameter
ISJC200 Deflection
s

ISMC200

ISLC200 Plate Stress Contour

Par
ameters

Absolute Max von Sx and Sy

Maximum Mises (Local)

HRS-CFS Modelling

Comparison

Conclusion

27
 Figure 3..1 Methodology Flow Chart
3.3 Introduction to methodology
Software STAAD-Pro V8i SS6 is used for modeling and analyzing. In order to determine
the deflection of the control specimen and retrofitted specimen, three sections were selected
for analysis: ISJC-200, ISMC-200, and ISLC-200. The reason behind choosing depth as 200
mm is that we tested ISMC75 and ISMC300 sections. The ISMC75 section failed in
deflection to the applied load whereas ISMC300 section was ultimately stable. To get the
optimum result of deflection and stress contours so we choose 200mm as the section depth.
The length of the channel section was standardized at 800mm and plate thickness is 2mm to
facilitate subsequent calculations. A Cantilever support configuration was employed, with
two loads of 5 KN each applied at the free end of the cantilever channel section.
Quadrilateral meshing techniques were utilized for both the control and retrofitted
specimens. Analysis and results of control and retrofitted specimens were recorded.

Control Specimen is basically a hot rolled C channel section. Retrofitted specimen is a

composite section of hot rolled steel channel section and cold formed plate having thickness
2mm.

In the methodology chapter a brief information regarding analysis of control

specimens as well as for retrofitted specimens is mentioned. Step by step procedure
of analysis is mentioned above for easy understanding and design procedure for hot
rolled specimens is also done here. For designing retrofitted specimens some
assumptions were made and from those assumptions calculated results were analyzed.

Assumptions:

● Bonding between structural plates is pure bonding.

● Section is considered to behave like a single unit.

● Shape of a Section is taken as closed rectangular shape instead of two different sections.

Modeling, Analyzing and Comparing section using STAAD-Pro V8i. Testing hot rolled
section for Torsional bending, Maximum and Minimum stress and also Finding stress

28
contours. Testing retrofitted hot rolled section with cold formed section for Torsional
bending, Maximum and Minimum stress and also Finding stress contours. Comparing
outputs for hot rolled section and retrofitted HRS-CFS section.

Steps followed in methodology:

A. Pre-processing step:

1. Defining the model

2. Define the material properties of the elements.
3. Define the geometric properties of the elements (length, area, etc)
4. Define the element connectivity (mesh the model).
5. Define the physical constraints (boundary conditions).
6. Define the loadings.

Figure 3.3.1 Representing pre-processing step of controlled section

B. Solution step:

In the solution phase, STAAD-Pro computes the unknown values of the primary field
variable(s) such as reaction forces, element stresses, deflection, stress contours etc.

29
 Figure 3.3.2 Representing solution step of controlled section

C. Post-processing step:

The analysis and evaluation of the solution results is referred to as post-processing.

Figure 3.3.3 Representing post-processing step of controlled section

3.3.1 Sectional and Material Properties

Three sections were selected for analysis: ISJC-200, ISMC-200 and ISLC-200. Properties
of this sections are as follows:
A. ISJC-200

● Cross sectional area (A) = 1777 mm2

30
 ● Depth of section (d) = 200 mm

● Width of Flange (b) = 70 mm

● Thickness of flange = 7.1 mm

● Thickness of web = 4.1 mm

● Moment of inertia (Ixx) = 1161.2 x 104 mm4

● Moment of inertia (Iyy) = 84.2 x 104 mm4

● Plastic section modulus (Zpz) = 133.12 x 104 mm4

B. ISMC-200

● Cross sectional area (A) = 2821 mm2

● Depth of section (d) = 200 mm

● Width of Flange (b) = 75 mm

● Thickness of flange = 11.4 mm

● Thickness of web = 6.1 mm

● Moment of inertia (Ixx) = 1819.3 x 104 mm4

● Moment of inertia (Iyy) = 140.4 x 104 mm4

● Plastic section modulus (Zpz) = 211.25 x 104 mm4

C. ISLC-200

● Cross sectional area (A) = 2622 mm2

● Depth of section (d) = 200 mm

31
 ● Width of Flange (b) = 75 mm

● Thickness of flange = 10.8 mm

● Thickness of web = 5.5 mm

● Moment of inertia (Ixx) = 1725.5 x 104 mm4

● Moment of inertia (Iyy) = 146.9 x 104 mm4

● Plastic section modulus (Zpz) = 198.77 x 104 mm4

D. HRS-CFS Modelling
A new approach is made to retrofit the hot rolled channel encasing it with a cold
formed channel section having plate thickness 2mm. For this approach, analysis
is carried out and step wise procedure is mentioned below.
Material Properties:
In finite element analysis characteristics of material is most important thing as they give
mathematical correlation between the applied load and the response. The properties of material
are important because engineers and architects can design different types of sections that are
sound in nature structurally and can carry different types of loading conditions under various
types of stresses such as earthquake, wind and fire. Material properties can affect durability and
longevity. Properties of material differentiate one material from another. The properties of
material has been taken from IS-800 and steel table. The properties of material are as shown in
table 3.1 below :

Table 3.1 Material Properties

Measured Results
Specimen
E Fy Fu
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
HRS, Control Specimen 2 x 105 250 410

CFS Plate 2.2 x 105 240 400

32
 3.3.2 Element Type
For getting better results it is actually important to select the appropriate elements which can
accurately forecast the conditions. In STAAD-Pro software various types of element types are
available and they are basically categorized based on characteristics of the elements. Common
types of elements used in structural analysis include link, plane, beam, solid, and shell elements.
In this study, the element is specifically defined as 4-node beam elements on bottom and 4-node
beam element on top as well as 4-node element of the vertical plate. Six models were created
using the STAAD-Pro software, with the modeling, analysis, and finalization stages all conducted
within the same software platform. Figure 3.3.4 illustrates the modeling process of the control
specimen, which features a hot rolled channel section, as well as the retrofitted specimens.

(a) (b) (c)

All dimensions
are in mm

(d)

Figure 3.3.4 Representing (a) cross section of control specimen, (b and c) cross section of
retrofitted specimen, (d) 3D view of retrofitted specimen

3.3.3 Finite element mesh

The mesh size is a crucial factor in analysis and has a great impact on the outcomes of the result.
As we decrease the mesh size the accuracy of the modelling is increased. In STAAD, meshing can
be performed in either polygonal or quadrilateral way based on the requirements of the design.

33
The mesh size can be adjusted easily within STAAD-Pro software, allowing for results to be
obtained at any specific element point. Sufficient element sizing is employed for meshing on both
specimens, including manual contact regions to give accurate value calculations at each point.
Figure 3.3.5 illustrates the meshing of the control specimen.

Figure 3.3.5 Meshing done for hot rolled specimen.

3.3.4 Boundary conditions and loading

Boundary conditions are very difficult to assign but of very much importance. The boundary
condition can impact their result status during the loading conditions can affect the results proper
precaution should be taken during assigning the boundary conditions. The boundary conditions
were assigned so that the structure could act realistic so the boundary condition and loading of
specimen were taken same. Fixed supports were taken at both the ends to restrain the torsional
buckling.
Then force was applied over the specimens and the applied loads is in the form of point loads i.e.
two loads of 5 KN each which are kept constant for all the three control and retrofitted sections
and are applied at free end of channel section. Figure 3.3.6 illustrates the boundary conditions and
loading

Figure 3.3.6 Boundary conditions and loading pattern

CHAPTER 4

34
 Results

4.1 General

Total 6 specimens were analyzed using STAAD-Pro V8i SS6. As discussed in the
previous chapter. The study includes length 800mm, thickness of CFS channels as 2mm
and two-point loads of 5KN are applied at the free end of the cantilever section.

Parameters like deflection, plate stress contours (max absolute, max von mis stress, Sx-
local, Sy-local) were used for analysis. The detail about following parameters are as
follows:

I. Deflection: In structural engineering terms, refers to the movement of a beam or

node from its original position due to the forces and loads being applied to the
member. It is also known as displacement and can occur from externally applied
loads or from the weight of the structure itself, and the force of gravity to which
this applies. Unit of measurement is mm.

II. Plate Stress Contour: Are a color-based plot of the variation of stress or moment
across the surface of the slab or a selected portion of it.

1. Max Absolute: The absolute maximum principal stress calculated from

the top and bottom surfaces of each plate element. Basically, it is the
maximum stress value along the length of the structural element. Unit
of measurement is N/mm2.

2. Max von Mises: The von Mises stress is a measure of the maximum
distortion energy or strain energy of a material. It is used to predict
potential failure points in materials under varying conditions. The
maximum von Mises stress criterion is based on the von Mises-Hooke
theory, also known as the Shear-energy theory or the Maximum
distortion energy theory. The theory states that a ductile material starts
to yield at a location when the von Mises stress becomes equal to the
stress limit. Unit of measurement is N/mm2.

35
 3. Sx and Sy (local): Membrane stress means the component of normal
stress that is uniformly distributed and equal to the average value of
stress across the thickness of the section under consideration. Unit of
measurement is N/mm2.

4.2 Results of controlled section

Control specimens in structural steel refer to specific samples or test pieces used for
quality control and evaluation in the context of structural engineering.

A. ISJC 200

A model of a hot rolled channel section was fabricated and subjected to an

ultimate load of 10 KN at the free end of a cantilever configuration. The failure
mode observed was identified as lateral torsional buckling, with a maximum
resultant deformation recorded as 259.112mm. Figure 4.2.1 depicts the
deflection in the section.

Figure 4.2.1 Deflection in ISJC200

The plate stress contour patterns were observed and noted.

36
(i) Max Absolute – The minimum of max absolute was 0 N/mm 2 and
maximum was 673.128 N/ mm2. Figure 4.2.2 Shows max absolute.

Figure 4.2.2 Max absolute

(ii) Max von mises - The lowest value observed for the maximum absolute
stress was 0 N/mm2, while the highest recorded value was 732.883 N/mm 2.
Figure 4.2.3 illustrates the maximum von Mises stress.

Figure 4.2.3 Max von mises stress

(iii) Sx and Sy (local) – The lowest value of membrane stress in x-

37
 direction was -15.213 N/mm2, while maximum was 14.972 N/mm2.
Similarly, the minimum value of membrane stress in y-direction was -1.914
N/mm2, while maximum was 0.722 N/mm2.Figure 4.2.4 illustrates Sx and Sy
local membrane stresses.

Figure 4.2.4 Sx and Sy(local)

B. ISMC 200

A fabricated hot rolled channel section model was tested under an ultimate load
of 10 KN applied at the free end of a cantilever setup. The failure mode
observed was determined to be lateral torsional buckling, resulting in a
maximum deformation of 268.638 mm. Figure 4.2.5 illustrates the deflection
within the section.

38
 Figure 4.2.5 Deflection in ISMC200

The plate stress contour patterns were observed and noted.

(i) Max Absolute – The minimum of max absolute was 0 N/mm2 and
maximum was 704.186 N/ mm2. Figure 4.2.6 Shows max absolute.

Figure 4.2.6 Max absolute

(ii) Max von mises - The lowest value observed for the maximum absolute
stress was 0 N/mm2, while the highest recorded value was 756.685 N/mm 2.
Figure 4.2.7 illustrates the maximum von Mises stress.

Figure 4.2.7 Max von mises stress

39
 (iii) Sx and Sy (local) – The lowest value of membrane stress in x-
direction was -10.02 N/mm2, while maximum was 9.289 N/mm2. Similarly,
the minimum value of membrane stress in y-direction was -1.921 N/mm 2,
while maximum was 0.571 N/mm2. Figure 4.2.8 illustrates Sx and Sy local
membrane stresses.

Figure 4.2.8 Sx and Sy(local)

C. ISLC 200

A fabricated hot rolled channel section model was tested under an ultimate load
of 10 KN applied at the free end of a cantilever setup. The failure mode
observed was determined to be lateral torsional buckling, resulting in a
maximum deformation of 244.216 mm. Figure 4.2.9 illustrates the deflection
within the section.

40
 Figure 4.2.9 Deflection in ISLC200

The plate stress contour patterns were observed and noted.

(i) Max Absolute – The minimum of max absolute was 0 N/mm2 and
maximum was 704.186 N/ mm2. Figure 4.2.10 Shows max absolute.

Figure 4.2.10 Max absolute

(ii) Max von mises - The lowest value observed for the maximum absolute
stress was 0 N/mm2, while the highest recorded value was 756.685 N/mm 2.
Figure 4.2.11 illustrates the maximum von Mises stress.

Figure 4.2.11 Max von mises stress

41
(iii) Sx and Sy (local) – The lowest value of membrane stress in x-
direction was -10.02 N/mm2, while maximum was 9.829 N/mm2. Similarly,
the minimum value of membrane stress in y-direction was -1.371 N/mm 2,
while maximum was 0.571 N/mm2. Figure 4.2.12 illustrates Sx and Sy local
membrane stresses.

Figure 4.2.12 Sx and Sy(local)

All control specimens failed due to lateral torsional buckling (LTB). Lateral
torsional buckling is a phenomenon that arises when an external load
induces both lateral displacement and twisting in a structural element. This
type of failure typically manifests in scenarios where a steel section is
applied by load, resulting in differential behavior of its flanges—one
experiencing compression while the other undergoes tension. An in-depth
examination of lateral torsional buckling will be conducted in the
subsequent discussion.

1. Deformation mechanism:

a) Lateral torsional buckling refers to the deformation of a beam

42
 due to applied loads away from its longitudinal axis.

b) The deformation can occur as translational and rotational

movement of the section, resulting in lateral and vertical
displacements with rotation of the member.

These types of movements are identified as lateral torsional

buckling.

2. Causes and Restraints:

a) Lateral torsional buckling occurs when a beam lacks full

restraints in the lateral direction along the compression flange.

b) A beam is considered fully restrained laterally when the

connection between the beam and the floor can resist at least a
lateral force of 2.5% of the maximum force in the compression
flange.

c) If no restraints are provided, sections with higher section

modulus are needed to prevent buckling.

d) Properly provided restraints allow for reducing the beam size.

e) Failures occur when the compression flange is not adequately

restrained, leading to lateral movement of the section.

3. Internal Restraints:

a) To avoid lateral-torsional buckling, internal restraints are

essential.

b) Intermediate restraints are provided to reduce the unsupported

length in the lateral direction.

c) These restraints should be capable of resisting lateral forces

without deforming.

d) The axial capacity of intermediate restraints must be checked

according to guidelines in design codes.

4. Design Considerations:

a) When designing a beam section to satisfy bending requirements,

ensure the following:

43
 b) Bending capacity in the direction of bending (Mc) is greater
than the applied bending moment.

c) Lateral torsional buckling capacity is greater than the moment

generated due to buckling (Mx < Mb/mLT and Mx ≤ Mc).

In summary, lateral torsional buckling can be mitigated through proper

design, restraints, and consideration of section properties as per the type
of structure or intended use or purpose.

4.3 Results of retrofitted section

Retrofitted specimens are samples of hot rolled steel that have been retrofitted by the
addition of a 2mm thick cold formed steel plate, resulting in the creation of a closed
rectangular composite section. The integration of the plate with the channel section is
assumed to be achieved through optimal bonding.

Considering the retrofitting of a steel channel with cold-formed plate, various factors must
be taken into account. Let us examine some potential options:
1. Increased Strength and Stiffness:
a) By adding a cold-formed plate to an existing steel channel, you can enhance its
strength and stiffness. The additional material increases the overall capacity of the
channel.
b) The retrofitted channel can better resist axial loads, bending moments, and shear
forces.
2. Improved Buckling Resistance:
a) Cold-formed plates can provide additional flange width, which improves the
buckling resistance of the channel.
b) The increased flange width helps prevent local buckling and allows the channel to
carry higher loads.
3. Reduced Deflection:
a) The added plate increases the moment of inertia of the channel, reducing its
deflection under load.
b) This is especially beneficial for applications where deflection control is critical.
4. Interaction with Existing Connections:
a) Consider how the retrofit affects existing connections (e.g., bolted connections,

44
 welds).
b) Ensure that the new plate integrates seamlessly with the existing channel and
connections.
5. Design Considerations:
a) Follow design codes and standards for cold-formed steel structures (e.g., AISI
S100-16).
b) Check for compatibility between the existing channel and the retrofitted plate in
terms of material properties and section dimensions.
The specific outcome depends on the details of the retrofit, including plate dimensions,
connection methods, and load conditions.

A. Retrofitted ISJC 200

A fabricated hot rolled channel section model was retrofitted with cold formed
steel plate and tested under an ultimate load of 10 KN applied at the free end of
a cantilever setup. Any failure mode was not observed and maximum
deformation of 11.227 mm Figure 4.3.1 Illustrates the deflection within the
section.

Figure 4.3.1 Deflection in ISJC200

The plate stress contour patterns were observed and noted.

(i) Max Absolute – The minimum of max absolute was 0 N/mm2 and
maximum was 228.19 N/ mm2. Figure 4.3.2 Shows max absolute.

45
 Figure 4.3.2 Max absolute

(ii) Max von mises - The lowest value observed for the maximum absolute
stress was 0 N/mm2, while the highest recorded value was 207.102 N/mm 2.
Figure 4.3.3 illustrates the maximum von Mis stress. Figure 4.3.3 illustrates
the maximum von Mises stress.

Check 1.

Von mises stress < Yield strength of material (Fy) / Factor of safety (FOS)

Von mises stress < 250 N/mm2 / 1.15 = 217 N/mm2

This importance of this check:

• The von Mises stress is a good predictor of failure,
particularly for ductile materials like steel and aluminum.

• Von Mises stress provides a measure of the combined magnitude of

all stress components (tensile, compression, and shear) at any point.

• Engineers use this information to create structures that are strong

and durable enough to meet their needs.

• It ensures that the materials used are up to the task.

46
 Check 2.

Factor of safety (FOS) = Yield strength of material (Fy) / Von mis stress

Factor of safety (FOS) = 250 N/mm2 / 207.102 N/mm2 = 1.20

Factor of safety (FOS) > 1 for design to be acceptable.

Figure 4.3.3 Max von mis stress

(iii) Sx and Sy (local) – The lowest value of membrane stress in x-
direction was -225.109 N/mm2, while maximum was 225.832 N/mm 2.
Similarly, the minimum value of membrane stress in y-direction was -1.749
N/mm2, while maximum was 1.754 N/mm2. Figure 4.3.4 illustrates Sx and
Sy local membrane stresses.

Figure 4.3.4 Sx and Sy(local)

47
B. Retrofitted ISMC 200

A fabricated hot rolled channel section model was retrofitted with cold formed
steel plate and tested under an ultimate load of 10 KN applied at the free end of
a cantilever setup. Any failure mode was not observed and maximum
deformation of 11.348 mm Figure 4.3.5 Illustrates the deflection within the
section.

Figure 4.3.5 Deflection in ISMC200

The plate stress contour patterns were observed and noted.

(i) Max Absolute – The minimum of max absolute was 0 N/mm2 and
maximum was 209.839 N/ mm2. Figure 4.3.6 Shows max absolute.

Figure 4.3.6 Max absolute

(ii) Max von mises - The lowest value observed for the maximum absolute
stress was 0 N/mm2, while the highest recorded value was 208.757 N/mm 2.

48
 Figure 4.3.7 illustrates the maximum von Mises stress.

Check 1.

Von mises stress < Yield strength of material (Fy) / Factor of safety (FOS)

Von mises stress < 250 N/mm2 / 1.15 = 217 N/mm2.

This importance of this check:

• The von Mises stress is a good predictor of failure,
particularly for ductile materials like steel and aluminum.

• Von Mises stress provides a measure of the combined magnitude of

all stress components (tensile, compression, and shear) at any point.

• Engineers use this information to create structures that are strong

and durable enough to meet their needs.

• It ensures that the materials used are up to the task.

Check 2.

Factor of safety (FOS) = Yield strength of material (Fy) / Von mis stress

Factor of safety (FOS) = 250 N/mm2 / 208.757 N/mm2 = 1.19

Factor of safety (FOS) > 1 for design to be acceptable.

Figure 4.3.7 Max von mises stress

(iii) Sx and Sy (local) – The lowest value of membrane stress in x-
direction was -207.049 N/mm2, while maximum was 207.708 N/mm 2.
Similarly, the minimum value of membrane stress in y-direction was -1.847
N/mm2, while maximum was 1.853 N/mm2. Figure 4.3.8 illustrates Sx and

49
 Sy local membrane stresses.

Figure 4.3.8 Sx and Sy(local)

C. Retrofitted ISLC 200

A fabricated hot rolled channel section model was retrofitted with cold formed
steel plate and tested under an ultimate load of 10 KN applied at the free end of
a cantilever setup. Any failure mode was not observed and maximum
deformation of 11.348 mm Figure 4.3.9 Illustrates the deflection within the
section.

Figure 4.3.9 Deflection in ISLC200

50
The plate stress contour patterns were observed and noted.

(j) Max Absolute – The minimum of max absolute was 0 N/mm2 and
maximum was 209.839 N/ mm2. Figure 4.3.10 Shows max absolute.

Figure 4.3.10 Max absolute

(ii) Max von mis - The lowest value observed for the maximum absolute stress
was 0 N/mm2, while the highest recorded value was 208.757 N/mm 2. Figure
4.3.11 illustrates the maximum von Mis stress.

Check 1.

Von mises stress < Yield strength of material (Fy) / Factor of safety (FOS)

Von mises stress < 250 N/mm2 / 1.15 = 217 N/mm2.

This importance of this check:

• The von Mises stress is a good predictor of failure,
particularly for ductile materials like steel and aluminum.

• Von Mises stress provides a measure of the combined magnitude of

all stress components (tensile, compression, and shear) at any point.

• Engineers use this information to create structures that are strong

and durable enough to meet their needs.

• It ensures that the materials used are up to the task.

51
 Check 2.

Factor of safety (FOS) = Yield strength of material (F y) / Von mises

stress

Factor of safety (FOS) = 250 N/mm2 / 208.757 N/mm2 = 1.19

Factor of safety (FOS) > 1 for design to be acceptable.

Figure 4.3.11 Max von mises stress

(iv) Sx and Sy (local) – The lowest value of membrane stress in x-direction was
-207.049 N/mm2, while maximum was 207.708 N/mm2. Similarly, the
minimum value of membrane stress in y-direction was -1.847 N/mm 2,
while maximum was 1.853 N/mm2. Figure 4.3.12 illustrates Sx and Sy local
membrane stresses.

52
 Figure 4.3.12 Sx and Sy(local)

All retrofitted specimens surpassed the failure mode patterns and gave better

results.

4.4 Discussions and Comparisons

4.4.1 Comparison of control and retrofitted sections

The control specimens all exhibited failure as a result of lateral torsional buckling,
whereas the retrofitted sections demonstrated minimal to no occurrence of lateral
torsional buckling and displayed superior performance across various criteria. Among the
three sections evaluated, ISMC200 consistently outperformed the others in all aspects and
proved to be the most cost-effective option.

The table presented below illustrates a comparison between the control specimen and the
retrofitted specimen, including a percentage reduction factor. This information will aid in
the assessment of the sections for enhanced performance.

The control specimen of all three sections failed due to lateral torsional buckling (LTB)
but the retrofitted specimen gave better performance in deflection and stress.

A. ISJC200
Comparison between controlled and retrofitted section of ISJC200 is shown in
table no 4.4.1
Table 4.4.1 Comparison of control and retrofitted ISJC200

53
 The percentage reduction of deflection in ISJC200 section is 95.66%. The max
absolute stress was reduced by 66.10% whereas max von mises was reduced by
69.01%.

B. ISMC200
Comparison between controlled and retrofitted section of ISMC200 is shown in
table no 4.4.2
Table 4.4.2 Comparison of control and retrofitted ISMC200

The percentage reduction of deflection in ISMC200 section is 95.87%. The max

absolute stress was reduced by 70.20% whereas max von mises was reduced by
72.41%.

C. ISLC200
Comparison between controlled and retrofitted section of ISMC200 is shown in

54
 table no 4.4.3
Table 4.4.3 Comparison of control and retrofitted ISLC200

The percentage reduction of deflection in ISMC200 section is 95.35%. The max

absolute stress was reduced by 70.20% whereas max von mises was reduced by
72.41%.

Deflection is reduced by a higher percentage it means that the amount of deflection

(displacement) decreases significantly compared to the original state.

The percentage reduction in deflection can be calculated as:

Percentage Reduction=[d(initial)−d(final)] /d(initial) ×100%

Table 4.4.4 Comparison of deflection of sections

Deflection (mm) % Reduction

Section
Control Specimen Retrofitted Specimen

ISJC200 259.112 11.227 95.66 %

ISMC200 268.638 11.348 95.87 %

ISLC200 244.216 11.348 95.35 %

The percentage reduction in deflection calculated was nearly 95%. This reduction has
been achieved through design improvements and material changes.

55
 4.4.2 Load vs deflection curve

A graph illustrating the relationship between load and deflection is constructed to

analyze the characteristics of structural components. The x-axis represents
applied loads of 2KN, 4KN, 6KN, 8KN, and 10KN, while the y-axis denotes
deflection in millimeters.

1) ISJC200

Table 4.4.5 Comparison of deflection of ISJC200

Deflection (mm) (ISJC200)

Load (KN)
Controlled Section Retrofitted Section
2 51.822 2.245
4 103.645 4.491
6 155.467 6.736
8 207.289 8.981
10 259.112 11.227
Load vs deflection graph of ISJC200 is shown in fig no 4.4.1

56
 Figure 4.4.4 ISJC200 Load vs deflection

The relationship between load and deflection is linear, meaning that the deflection increases
in a constant and predictable manner as the load increases. The section which have unique
force-deflection graphs based on their properties-whether they are brittle, ductile or elastic.
This means that our section is safe.

2) ISMC200

Table 4.4.6 Comparison of deflection of ISMC200

Deflection (mm) (ISMC 200)

Load (KN)
Controlled Section Retrofitted Section
2 53.728 2.269
4 107.455 4.539
6 161.184 6.808
8 214.914 9.077
10 268.638 11.348
Load vs deflection graph of ISMC200 is shown in fig no 4.4.2

57
 Figure 4.4.5 ISMC200 Load vs deflection

The relationship between load and deflection is linear, meaning that the deflection increases
in a constant and predictable manner as the load increases. The section which have unique
force-deflection graphs based on their properties-whether they are brittle, ductile or elastic.
This means that our section is safe.

3) ISLC200

Table 4.4.7 Comparison of deflection of ISLC200

Deflection (mm) (ISLC 200)

Load (KN)
Controlled Section Retrofitted Section

2 48.843 2.27
4 97.686 4.539
6 146.53 6.81
8 195.373 9.08
10 244.216 11.348
Load vs deflection graph of ISLC200 is shown in fig no 4.4.3

Figure 4.4.7 ISLC200 Load vs deflection

Key uses of load vs deflection curve include:

1. Material Characterization: Load deflection curves are used to characterize the

58
 mechanical properties of materials such as stiffness, strength, and ductility. By analyzing
the shape of the curve, engineers can determine the material's behavior under different
loading conditions.
2. Quality Control: Load deflection curves are used to check the quality of materials and
components. Deviations from expected curves can signify defects or inconsistencies in
the material or manufacturing process.
3. Design Optimization: Engineers use load deflection curves to optimize the design of
structures and components.
4. Failure Analysis: Crucial factor in load deflection curves and generally used to
understand behavior of structures and materials. This information help engineers to
improve designs to prevent failures in the future.
5. Performance Evaluation: Load deflection curves are used to evaluate the performance
of structures and components under various loading conditions. By analyzing the change
in curve with respect to loadings, engineers can assess the structural integrity and
durability of a material.
6. Predictive Modeling: Load deflection curves are used to develop predictive models for
material behavior under different loading scenarios. These models can help engineers
simulate and predict the performance of structures before they are built.
7. Research and Development: Load deflection curves are important tools for researchers
developing new materials or testing innovative structural designs. They provide vital data
for understanding the behavior of materials and structures under load.

Validation:

As we know that load vs deflection curve is used in failure analysis so it us very

important in finding failure of models. Trying various combinations of load for
retrofitted specimen was done as we know that all three control specimens failed in
lateral torsional buckling. In this study we have considered a tolerance limit of 40mm
and the load at which the section gives the value greater than tolerance limit is taken as
failed. The table that details the load and deflection of sections at which each section
failed is shown below in table no 4.4.7
Table 4.4.8 Failure analysis

59
 Deflection (mm) Load (KN)
Section
Control Specimen Retrofitted Specimen

Retrofitted 259.112 40.416 36

ISJC200

Retrofitted 268.638 40.617 40

ISMC200

Retrofitted 244.216 40.853 36.8

ISLC200

The failure analysis was carried on the retrofitted channel sections for different
loadings. And comparing the results of our study to Selvaraj et al, 2015 we got
conclusion that their model failed at an ultimate load of 26.9KN. While our sections
sustained till an ultimate load of 40KN for ISMC 200 section. Hence ISMC 200 is
concluded as better section than ISLC200 and ISJC 200.

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 CHAPTER 5
Conclusions

5.1 General

Total 6 specimens were analyzed using STAAD.PRO V8i SS6 to figure out the
deformation of the control section and retrofitted section. The results indicate that the
retrofitted section increased the strength of the channel section. This retrofitting technique
can be easily used at site while structure is in service. The cold form steel can be easily
transported to any site because of its light weight. The retrofitting technique decreases the
lateral torsional buckling to a great extent because of the CFS plate. A new approach is
presented in this study i.e., adding of cold formed steel plates. The retrofitted section
using cold formed steel plate showed significant results as compared to control
specimens. Lateral torsional buckling of the section is minimized to a great point using
cold formed steel plates.

5.2 Conclusions

Based on the analysis conclusions are as shown below:

a) The retrofitted sections decreased the deflection to a great extent. This is

achieved due to proper bonding between HRS-CFS plates.

61
 b) For more strength, the thickness of the CFS plate should be sufficient so
the load carrying capacity will increase.

c) Adding cold formed steel plates is possible for any channel section.

d) Cold formed steel plate was only added on edges of hot rolled steel
section and more strength was achieved. It can also be done in the center
of the section.

e) As per result ISMC sections gave better performance than ISJC and ISLC
considering the parameters of deflection and stress.

5.3 Future scope

The approach done in this study fulfilled the objectives. This method of retrofitting is
economical as compared to conventional methods. After the analysis of all sections and
checking behavior of specimens this method can be used in practice by experimental
investigation for selected parameters.

a) Further testing of sections by varying load, type of support, thickness of CFS

plate.

b) Physical testing on UTM can be done to verify the testing.

c) For future work, finite element analysis can be carried out by varying parameters,
such as slenderness, depth of HRS sections, thickness of CFS channels, and
interconnecting weld spacing.

d) Instead of utilizing cold-formed steel plates, it is possible to partially encase cold-

formed steel channel sections.

62
 CHAPTER 6
References

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