CHAPTER 28:

DIRECT‒CURRENT CIRCUITS

Quick Introduction
In this chapter, we analyze simple electric circuits
that contain batteries, resistors, and capacitors in
various combinations. Some circuits contain
resistors that can be combined using simple rules.
The analysis of more complicated circuits is
simplified using Kirchhoff’s rules, which follow
from the laws of conservation of energy and
conservation of electric charge for isolated
systems.
Most of the circuits analyzed are assumed to be
in steady state, which means that currents in the
circuit are constant in magnitude and direction.
A current that is constant in direction is called
a direct current (DC).
We will study alternating current (AC),
in which the current changes direction periodically,
in Chapter 33.
Finally, we discuss electrical circuits in the home.

Electromotive Force

In Chapter 27, we discussed a circuit in which a

battery produces a current.
We will generally use a battery as a source of
energy for circuits in our discussion.
Because the potential difference at the battery
terminals is constant in a particular circuit, the
current in the circuit is constant in magnitude
and direction and is called direct current.
A battery is called either a source of electromotive
force or, more commonly, a source of emf.
(The phrase electromotive force is an unfortunate
historical term, describing not a force, but rather a
potential difference in volts.)
The emf 𝛆 of a battery is the maximum possible
voltage the battery can provide between its terminals.
You can think of a source of emf as a “charge pump.”
When an electric potential difference exists between
two points, the source moves charges “uphill” from
the lower potential to the higher. We shall generally
assume the connecting wires in a circuit have no
resistance. The positive terminal of a battery is at a
higher potential than the negative terminal.

Because a real battery is made of matter, there is

resistance to the flow of charge within the battery.
This resistance is called internal resistance 𝐫.
For an idealized battery with zero internal resistance,
the potential difference across the battery
(called its terminal voltage) equals its emf.
For a real battery, however, the terminal voltage
is not equal to the emf for a battery in a circuit
in which there is a current.
To understand why, consider the circuit diagram
in figure (a) shown below.
We model the battery as shown in the diagram;
it is represented by the dashed rectangle containing
an ideal, resistance-free emf 𝛆 in series with an
internal resistance 𝐫.
A resistor of resistance 𝐑 is connected across the
terminals of the battery.
Now imagine moving through the battery from
point a to d and measuring the electric potential at
various locations.
Passing from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal, the potential increases by an amount 𝛆.
As we move through the resistance 𝐫, however,
the potential decreases by an amount 𝐈𝐫, where 𝐈
is the current in the circuit.
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the battery
∆𝐕 = 𝐕𝐝 − 𝐕𝐚 is:
∆𝐕 = 𝛆 − 𝐈𝐫

From this expression, notice that 𝜀 is equivalent to

the open-circuit voltage, that is, the terminal voltage
when the current is zero.
The emf is the voltage labelled on a battery; for example,
the emf of a D cell is 𝟏. 𝟓𝐕. The actual potential
difference between a battery’s terminals depends on
the current in the battery as described by equation:
∆𝐕 = 𝛆 − 𝐈𝐫.

Figure (b) is a graphical representation of the changes

in electric potential as the circuit is traversed in the
clockwise direction.
Figure (a) shows that the terminal voltage ∆𝐕 must
equal the potential difference across the external
resistance 𝐑, often called the load resistance.
The load resistor might be a simple resistive circuit
element as in the figure (a), or it could be the resistance
of some electrical device (such as a toaster, electric
heater, or lightbulb) connected to the battery
(or, in the case of household devices, to the wall outlet).
The resistor represents a load on the battery because
the battery must supply energy to operate the device
containing the resistance.

The potential difference across the load resistance is:

∆𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑.
Combining this expression with equation ∆𝐕 = 𝛆 − 𝐈𝐫,
we see that:
𝛆 = 𝐈𝐑 + 𝐈𝐫
Solving for current gives:
𝛆
𝐈=
𝐑+𝐫

Equation above shows that the current in this simple

circuit depends on both the load resistance 𝐑 external
to the battery and the internal resistance 𝐫.

If 𝐑 is much greater than 𝐫, as it is in many real-world

circuits, we can neglect 𝐫.
Multiplying equation 𝛆 = 𝐈𝐑 + 𝐈𝐫 by the current 𝐈 in
the circuit gives:
𝐈𝛆 = 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑 + 𝐈 𝟐 𝐫
This equation indicates that the total power output 𝐈𝛆
associated with the emf of the battery is delivered to
the external load resistance in the amount 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑 and to
the internal resistance in the amount 𝐈 𝟐 𝐫.
Terminal Voltage of a Battery
A battery has an emf of 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝐕 and an internal
resistance of 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟎𝛀.
Its terminals are connected to a load resistance of 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝛀.
(A)
Find the Current in the circuit and the
Terminal Voltage of the battery.

Solution:
𝛆
Use equation 𝐈 = 𝐑+𝐫 to find the current in the circuit.
𝛆 𝟏𝟐.𝟎
𝐈 = 𝐑+𝐫 = 𝟑.𝟎𝟎+𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐈 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝐀
Use equation ∆𝐕 = 𝛆 − 𝐈𝐫 to find the terminal voltage:

𝚫𝐕 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 − (𝟑. 𝟗𝟑)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟎)

∆𝐕 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝐕

(B)
Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor,
the power delivered to the internal resistance of
the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.

Solution:
Use equation 𝐏 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 to find the power delivered
to the load resistor.
𝐏𝐑 = (𝟑. 𝟗𝟑)𝟐 ∙ 𝟑
𝐏𝐑 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑𝐖

Find the power delivered to the internal resistance.

𝐏𝐫 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐫 = (𝟑. 𝟗𝟑)𝟐 ∙ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐏𝐫 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝐖

The power delivered by the battery is found by

adding these quantities calculated above.
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐏𝐑 + 𝐏𝐫 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟐
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝐖
Resistors in Series and Parallel

Two or more resistors are said to be combined

in series if they are connected in a circuit as
shown below.

Formulas for voltages, currents and resistances

for a series combination of resistors are as follows:
∆𝐕 = ∆𝐕𝟏 + ∆𝐕𝟐 + ⋯ + ∆𝐕𝐧
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝐈 𝐧
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐑 𝐧

Note:
If the filament of one lightbulb in the figure above
were to fail, the circuit would no longer be complete
(resulting in an open-circuit condition) and the
second lightbulb would also go out.
This fact is a general feature of a series circuit:
if one device in the series creates an open circuit,
all devices are inoperative.
QQ1
With the switch in the circuit of the figure
(a) closed, there is no current in 𝐑 𝟐 because
the current has an alternate zero‒resistance path
through the switch.
There is current in 𝐑 𝟏 , and this current is measured
with the ammeter (a device for measuring current)
at the bottom of the circuit.
If the switch is opened as in the figure (b),
there is current in 𝐑 𝟐 .
What happens to the reading on the ammeter
when the switch is opened?
(a) The reading goes up.
(b) The reading goes down.
(c) The reading does not change.
Two or more resistors are said to be combined
in parallel if they are connected in a circuit as
shown below.

Formulas for voltages, currents, and resistances

for a parallel combination of resistors are as follows:

∆𝐕 = ∆𝐕𝟏 = ∆𝐕𝟐 = ⋯ = ∆𝐕𝐧

𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝐧
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 +𝐑 +⋯+𝐑
𝐑𝐞𝐪 𝟏 𝟐 𝐧

This expression shows that the inverse of the

equivalent resistance of two or more resistors
in a parallel combination is equal to the sum
of the inverses of the individual resistances.
Furthermore, the equivalent resistance is always
less than the smallest resistance in the group.

Household circuits are always wired such that

the appliances are connected in parallel.
Each device operates independently of the others
so that if one is switched off, the others remain on.
In addition, in this type of connection,
all the devices operate on the same voltage.
QQ 2
With the switch in the circuit of the figure
(a) open, there is no current in 𝐑 𝟐 .
There is current in 𝐑 𝟏 , however, and it is measured
with the ammeter at the right side of the circuit.
If the switch is closed as in the figure (b),
there is current in 𝐑 𝟐 .
What happens to the reading on the ammeter
when the switch is closed?
(a) The reading increases.
(b) The reading decreases.
(c) The reading does not change.

Solution:
Answer (a). Increases. Because the equivalent
electric resistance of circuit decreases due to
parallel combination of resistors 𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑 𝟐 .
Find the Equivalent Resistance

Four resistors are

connected as shown
in the figure.
(A)
Find the equivalent
resistance between
points a and c.

Solution:

Find the equivalent

resistance between
points a and b of the
𝟖. 𝟎 𝛀 and 𝟒. 𝟎 𝛀 resistors,
are in series
(left-hand red-brown circles):
𝐑 𝐞𝐪(𝟖+𝟒) = 𝐑 𝟖 + 𝐑 𝟒 = 𝟖. 𝟎 + 𝟒. 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝛀

Next, we find the equivalent resistance

between points b and c of the 𝟔. 𝟎 𝛀 and 𝟑. 𝟎 𝛀
resistors, which are in parallel
(right-hand red-brown circles)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + = + ⟹ 𝐑 𝐞𝐪(𝐨𝐟 𝟔 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟑) = 𝟐 𝛀
𝐑 𝐞𝐪(𝟔+𝟑) 𝐑𝟔 𝐑𝟑 𝟔 𝟑

The circuit of equivalent resistances now looks

like figure (b).
The 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝛀 and 𝟐. 𝟎 𝛀 resistors are in series
(green circles).

Finally, find the Equivalent Resistance from a to c:

𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝐞𝐪(𝟖+𝟒) + 𝐑 𝐞𝐪(𝟔+𝟑) = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏𝟒𝛀
(B)
What is the current in each resistor if a potential
difference of 𝟒𝟐 𝐕 is maintained between a and c?

Solution:

The currents in the 𝟖. 𝟎 𝛀 and 𝟒. 𝟎 𝛀 resistors are

the same because they are in series.
In addition, they carry the same current that would
exist in the 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎 𝛀 equivalent resistor subject to
the 𝟒𝟐 𝐕 potential difference.

𝚫𝐕
Use equation 𝐈 = 𝐑 and the result from part (A)
𝐞𝐪
to find the current in the 𝟖. 𝟎 𝛀 and 𝟒. 𝟎 𝛀 resistors:
𝚫𝑽 𝟒𝟐
𝑰= = = 𝟑𝑨
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟏𝟒

This is the electric current which flows through

resistors 𝟖 𝛀 and 𝟒 𝛀,
meanwhile, this current splits (divides) into two
branches, part of it 𝐈𝟔 flows through 𝟔 𝛀 resistor and
the remaining 𝐈𝟑 flows through 𝟑 𝛀 resistor.

Because the resistors 𝟔 𝛀 and 𝟑 𝛀 are connected

in parallel we have the potential differences between
these two resistors being equal.
𝜟𝑽𝟔 = 𝜟𝑽𝟑 ⟹ 𝑰𝟔 𝑹𝟔 = 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟑

On the other hand, the total current which flows

through resistors 𝟖 𝛀 and 𝟒 𝛀 is 𝐈 = 𝐈𝟔 + 𝐈𝟑
We conclude solving the system of equations:
𝐈𝟔 𝐑 𝟔 = 𝐈𝟑 𝐑 𝟑 (1) and
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟔 + 𝐈𝟑 (2)

𝟔𝐈𝟏 = 𝟑𝐈𝟐 and

𝟑 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 solving the system of equations (1)
and (2) gives:
𝐈𝟔 = 𝟏 𝐀 and
𝐈𝟑 = 𝟐 𝐀
Now we can calculate the potential difference
across each resistor.
𝚫𝐕𝟖 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟖 = 𝟑 ∙ 𝟖
𝚫𝐕𝟖 = 𝟐𝟒 𝐕

𝚫𝐕𝟒 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟒 = 𝟑 ∙ 𝟒
𝚫𝐕𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐 𝐕

𝚫𝐕𝟔 = 𝐈𝟔 𝐑 𝟔 = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟔
𝚫𝐕𝟔 = 𝟔𝐕

𝚫𝐕𝟑 = 𝐈𝟑 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑
𝚫𝐕𝟑 = 𝟔 𝐕

Let’s compare the potential difference across

points a and c and the potential differences
across each resistor and check whether
they are equal.

∆𝐕𝐚𝐜 = ∆𝐕𝟖 + ∆𝐕𝟒 + ∆𝐕𝟔 or

∆𝐕𝐚𝐜 = ∆𝐕𝟖 + ∆𝐕𝟒 + ∆𝐕𝟑 because ∆𝐕𝟔 = ∆𝐕𝟑
𝟒𝟐 𝐕 = 𝟐𝟒 𝐕 + 𝟏𝟐 𝐕 + 𝟔 𝐕
𝟒𝟐 𝐕 = 𝟒𝟐 𝐕
Three Resistors in Parallel

Three resistors are

connected in parallel
as shown in the
figure (a).
A potential difference
of 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 𝐕 is maintained
between points a and b.
(A)
Calculate the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.

Solution:
Because the three resistors are connected
in parallel, we can use the rule for resistors
in parallel.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Use equation = + + ,
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝟑 𝐑𝟔 𝐑𝟗
to evaluate the equivalent resistance.
Substitute the values given and have:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝟑.𝟎𝟎 𝟔.𝟎𝟎 𝟗.𝟎𝟎
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 𝛀
(B)
Find the current in each resistor.
The potential difference across each resistor
is 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 𝐕.
𝚫𝐕 = 𝚫𝐕𝟑 = 𝚫𝐕𝟔 = 𝚫𝐕𝟗 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 𝐕

Apply the relationship 𝚫𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑 to find the current

through each resistor.
𝚫𝐕 𝟏𝟖.𝟎
𝐈𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝟑.𝟎𝟎
𝟑
𝐈𝟑 = 𝟔 𝐀
𝚫𝐕 𝟏𝟖.𝟎
𝐈𝟔 = 𝐑 𝟔 = 𝟔.𝟎𝟎
𝟔
𝐈𝟔 = 𝟑 𝐀
𝚫𝐕𝟗 𝟏𝟖.𝟎
𝐈𝟗 = = 𝟗.𝟎𝟎
𝐑𝟗
𝐈𝟔 = 𝟐 𝐀

(C)
Calculate the power delivered to each resistor and
the total power delivered to the combination of resistors.
Apply the relationship 𝐏 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 to each resistor using
the currents calculated in part (B):
𝐏𝟑 = 𝐈𝟑𝟐 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝟔𝟐 ∙ 𝟑
𝐏𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐖

𝐏𝟔 = 𝐈𝟔𝟐 𝐑 𝟔 = 𝟑𝟐 ∙ 𝟔
𝐏𝟔 = 𝟓𝟒 𝐖

𝐏𝟗 = 𝐈𝟗𝟐 𝐑 𝟗 = 𝟐𝟐 ∙ 𝟗
𝐏𝟗 = 𝟑𝟔 𝐖

These results show that the smallest resistor receives

the most power.
Summing the three quantities gives a total power
of 𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝐖. We could
have calculated this final result from part (A)
by considering the equivalent resistance as follows:
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝐖
Kirchhoff’s Rules
As we saw in the preceding section, combinations
of resistors can be simplified and analyzed using
the expression ∆𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑 and the rules for series and
parallel combinations of resistors. Very often,
however, it is not possible to reduce a circuit to a
single loop using these rules.
The procedure for analyzing more complex circuits
is made possible by using the following two principles,
called Kirchhoff’s rules.

1. Junction rule.
At any junction, the sum of the currents must
equal zero.
∑𝐣𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐈 = 𝟎

Kirchhoff’s first rule is a statement of conservation

of electric charge.
All charges that enter a given point in a circuit must
leave that point because charge cannot build up or
disappear at a point. Currents directed into the
junction are entered into the sum in the junction
rule as +𝐈, whereas currents directed out of a
junction are entered as −𝐈.
Applying this rule to the junction in the figure (a) shown.

𝐈𝟏 − 𝐈𝟐 − 𝐈𝟑 = 𝟎
2. Loop rule.
The sum of the potential differences across all
elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.
∑𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩 ∆𝐕 = 𝟎

Kirchhoff’s second rule follows from the law of

conservation of energy for an isolated system.
Let’s imagine moving a charge around a closed
loop of a circuit.

When the charge returns to the starting point,

the charge–circuit system must have the same total
energy as it had before the charge was moved.

The sum of the increases in energy as the charge

passes through some circuit elements must equal
the sum of the decreases in energy as it passes
through other elements. The potential energy of
the system decreases whenever the charge moves
through a potential drop – 𝐈𝐑 across a resistor or
whenever it moves in the reverse direction through
a source of emf.

The potential energy increases whenever the charge

passes through a battery from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal.
Rules for determining the signs of the potential
differences across a resistor and a battery.
(The battery is assumed to have no internal resistance.)

Charges move from the high-potential end

of a resistor toward the low potential end,
so, if a resistor is traversed in the direction
of the current, the potential difference
∆𝐕 across the resistor is −𝐈𝐑 [Figure (a)].

If a resistor is traversed in the direction

opposite the current, the potential difference
∆𝐕 across the resistor is +𝐈𝐑 [Figure (b)].
If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal
resistance) is traversed in the direction of the emf
(from negative to positive), the potential
difference ∆𝐕 = +𝛆 [Figure (c)].

If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal

resistance) is traversed in the direction opposite
the emf (from positive to negative),
the potential difference ∆𝐕 = −𝛆 [Figure (d)]
A Single‒Loop Circuit

A single‒loop circuit
contains two resistors
and two batteries as
shown in the figure.
(Neglect the internal
resistances of the
batteries.)
Find the Current in
the circuit.

Solution:

Figure shows the polarities of the batteries and

a guess at the direction of the current.
The 𝟏𝟐𝐕 battery is the stronger of the two, so
the current should be counterclockwise.
Therefore, we expect our guess for the direction of
the current to be wrong, but we will continue and
see how this incorrect guess is represented by our
final answer.
We do not need Kirchhoff’s rules to analyze
this simple circuit, but let’s use them anyway simply
to see how they are applied.
There are no junctions in this single-loop circuit;
therefore, the current is the same in all elements.

Let us assume the current is clockwise as shown in

the figure. Traversing the circuit in the clockwise
direction, starting at a, we see that 𝐚 → 𝐛 represents
a potential difference of +𝛆𝟏 , 𝐛 → 𝐜 represents a
potential difference of −𝐈𝐑 𝟏 , 𝐜 → 𝐝 represents a
potential difference of −𝛆𝟐 , and 𝐝 → 𝐚 represents a
potential difference of −𝐈𝐑 𝟐 .
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the single loop in
the circuit:

∑ ∆𝐕 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝛆𝟏 − 𝐈𝐑 𝟏 − 𝛆𝟐 − 𝐈𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎

Substitute values given and solving for current 𝐈

gives:
𝛆𝟏 − 𝛆𝟐 𝟔. 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐
𝐈= =
𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 𝟖. 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎
𝐈 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝐀

The negative sign for I indicates that the direction

of the current is opposite the assumed direction.
The emfs in the numerator subtract because the
batteries in the figure have opposite polarities.
The resistances in the denominator add because
the two resistors are in series.

What if the polarity of the 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝐕 battery were

reversed?
How would that affect the circuit?

Answer:
Although we could repeat the Kirchhoff’s rules
calculation, let us instead examine equation for
current 𝐈 and modify it accordingly.
Because the polarities of the two batteries are now
in the same direction, the signs of 𝛆𝟏 and 𝛆𝟐 are the
same and equation for current 𝐈 becomes:
𝛆𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐 𝟔. 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐
𝐈= =
𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 𝟖. 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎
𝐈 = +𝟏. 𝟎𝐀
A Multiloop Circuit
Find the currents
𝐈𝟏 , 𝐈𝟐 , and 𝐈𝟑 in
the circuit shown
in the figure.

Solution:
We cannot simplify
the circuit by the
rules associated
with combining
resistances in series
and in parallel.
Therefore, this problem
is one in which we must
use Kirchhoff’s rules.
How many loops can one identify
in the circuit diagram shown?

We arbitrarily choose the directions

of the currents as labelled in the figure.
Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junction c.
𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 − 𝐈𝟑 = 𝟎 (1)
We now have one equation with three unknowns:
𝐈𝟏 , 𝐈𝟐 , and 𝐈𝟑 .
There are three loops in the circuit:
abcda, befcb, and aefda.
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to loops 𝐚𝐛𝐜𝐝𝐚
and 𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐜𝐛.
We do not need to apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule
to loop 𝐚𝐞𝐟𝐝𝐚.

Loop 𝐚𝐛𝐜𝐝𝐚:
𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 − (𝟔. 𝟎) ∙ 𝐈𝟏 − (𝟐. 𝟎) ∙ 𝐈𝟑 = 𝟎 (2) and

Loop 𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐜𝐛:
−(𝟒. 𝟎)𝐈𝟐 − 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎 + (𝟔. 𝟎)𝐈𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 = 𝟎 or
−𝟐𝟒. 𝟎 + (𝟔. 𝟎)𝐈𝟏 − (𝟒. 𝟎)𝐈𝟐 = 𝟎 (3)

Solving the system of equations (1), (2) and

(3) gives:
𝐈𝟏 = +𝟐. 𝟎𝐀,
𝐈𝟐 = −𝟑. 𝟎𝐀 and
𝐈𝟑 = −𝟏. 𝟎𝐀

Because our values for 𝐈𝟐 , and 𝐈𝟑 are negative,

the directions of these currents are opposite
those indicated in the figure.
The numerical values for the currents are correct.
Despite the incorrect direction, we must continue
to use these negative values in subsequent
calculations because our equations were
established with our original choice of direction.
RC Circuits

So far, we have analyzed direct-current

circuits in which the current is constant.
In DC circuits containing capacitors, the
current is always in the same direction but
may vary in magnitude at different times.
A circuit containing a series combination
of a resistor and a capacitor
is called an 𝐑𝐂 circuit.

Charging a Capacitor

Figures show a simple

series 𝐑𝐂 circuit.
Let’s assume the
capacitor in this circuit
is initially uncharged.
There is no current
while the switch is
open as shown in
the figure (a).
If the switch is placed
to position a at 𝐭 = 𝟎
as in the figure (b),
however, charge
begins to flow, setting
up a current in the circuit,
and the capacitor begins
to charge. Notice that
during charging, charges
do not jump across the
capacitor plates because the gap
between the plates represents
an open circuit.
Instead, charge is transferred between each
plate and its connecting wires due to the
electric field established in the wires by the
battery until the capacitor is fully charged.
As the plates are being charged, the potential
difference across the capacitor increases.

The value of the maximum charge on the plates

depends on the voltage of the battery. Once the
maximum charge is reached, the current in the
circuit is zero because the potential difference
across the capacitor matches that supplied by
the battery.

To analyze this circuit quantitatively, let us apply

Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit after the switch
is thrown to position a.

Traversing the loop in figure (b) clockwise gives:

𝐪
𝛆 − − 𝐢𝐑 = 𝟎
𝐂
𝐪
where is the potential difference across the
𝐂
capacitor and 𝐢𝐑 is the potential difference across
the resistor. We have used the sign conventions
discussed earlier for the signs on 𝛆 and 𝐢𝐑.

The capacitor is traversed in the direction from

the positive plate to the negative plate, which
represents a decrease in potential. Therefore,
we use a negative sign for this potential difference
in equation above. Note that lowercase 𝐪 and
𝐢 are instantaneous values that depend on time
(as opposed to steady-state values) as the capacitor
is being charged.
We can use equation above to find the initial
current 𝐈𝐢 in the circuit and the maximum
charge 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 on the capacitor. At the instant the
switch is placed to position a (𝐭 = 𝟎), the charge
on the capacitor is zero.

Equation above shows that the initial current 𝐈𝐢

in the circuit is a maximum and is given by:
𝛆
𝐈𝐢 = (current at 𝐭 = 𝟎)
𝐑

At this time, the potential difference from the

battery terminals appears entirely across the resistor.
Later, when the capacitor is charged to its
maximum value 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 , charges cease to flow,
the current in the circuit is zero, and the potential
difference from the battery terminals appears
entirely across the capacitor.
𝐪
Substituting 𝐢 = 𝟎 into equation 𝛆 − − 𝐢𝐑 = 𝟎
𝐂
gives the maximum charge on the capacitor:
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐂𝛆 (maximum charge).

To determine analytical expressions for the time

dependence of the charge and current, we must
𝐪
solve equation 𝛆 − − 𝐢𝐑 = 𝟎, a single equation
𝐂
containing two variables 𝐪 and 𝐢.

The current in all parts of the series circuit must be

the same. Therefore, the current in the resistance 𝐑
must be the same as the current between each
capacitor plate and the wire connected to it.
This current is equal to the time rate of change
of the charge on the capacitor plates.
𝐝𝐪
Therefore, we substitute 𝐢 = into equation above
𝐝𝐭
and rearrange the equation:
𝐝𝐪 𝛆 𝐪
= −
𝐝𝐭 𝐑 𝐑𝐂

To find an expression for 𝐪, we solve this separable

differential equation as follows:
First combine the terms on the right-hand side:
𝐝𝐪 𝐂𝛆 𝐪 𝐪 − 𝐂𝛆
= − =−
𝐝𝐭 𝐑𝐂 𝐑𝐂 𝐑𝐂

Multiply this equation by 𝑑𝑡 and divide by 𝐪 − 𝐂𝛆

𝐝𝐪 𝐝𝐭 𝐪−𝐂𝛆 𝐝𝐭
∙ =− ∙
𝐝𝐭 𝐪−𝐂𝛆 𝐑𝐂 𝐪−𝐂𝛆
𝐝𝐪 𝐝𝐭
=−
𝐪−𝐂𝛆 𝐑𝐂
Integrate this expression, using 𝐪 = 𝟎 at 𝐭 = 𝟎

𝐪 𝐝𝐪 𝐭 𝐝𝐭
∫𝟎 = − ∫𝟎 −
𝐪−𝐂𝛆 𝐑𝐂

𝐪 − 𝐂𝛆 𝐭
𝐥𝐧 ( )=−
−𝐂𝛆 𝐑𝐂
From the definition of the natural logarithm,
we can write this expression as:
𝐭 𝐭
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐂𝛆 (𝟏 − 𝐞−𝐑𝐂 ) = 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝟏 − 𝐞−𝐑𝐂 )

This expression shows charge as a function

of time for a capacitor being charged,
where 𝐞 is the base of the natural logarithm.
We can find an expression for the charging current
by differentiating equation above with respect to time.
𝐝𝐪
Using 𝐢 = we find that:
𝐝𝐭
𝐭
𝛆 −
𝐢(𝐭) = 𝐞 𝐑𝐂
𝐑

Plots of capacitor charge and circuit current versus

time are shown in the figure below.

Notice that the charge is zero at 𝐭 = 𝟎 and approaches

the maximum value 𝐂𝛆 as 𝐭 → ∞.
𝛆
The current has its maximum value 𝐈𝐢 = at 𝐭 = 𝟎 and
𝐑
decays exponentially to zero as 𝐭 → ∞.

The quantity 𝐑𝐂, which appears in the exponents

of equations above, is called the time constant 𝛕
of the circuit:

𝛕 = 𝐑𝐂
The time constant 𝛕 represents the time interval
𝟏
during which the current decreases to of its initial
𝐞
value; that is, after a time interval 𝛕, the current
decreases to 𝐢 = 𝐞−𝟏 𝐈𝐢 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟖𝐈𝐢 .
After a time interval 𝟐𝛕, the current decreases
to 𝐢 = 𝐞−𝟐 𝐈𝐢 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝐈𝐢 , and so forth.

Likewise, in a time interval 𝛕, the charge increases

from zero to 𝐂𝛆[𝟏 − 𝐞−𝟏 ] = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐𝐂𝛆.
Prove that has units of time using dimensional analysis.
𝚫𝐕 𝐐 𝐐
[𝛕] = [𝐑𝐂] = [( ) ( )] = [ 𝐐 ] = [𝚫𝐭]
𝐈 𝚫𝐭
𝚫𝐭
𝐭
Because 𝛕 = 𝐑𝐂 has units of time, the combination
𝐑𝐂
is dimensionless, as it must be to be an exponent of 𝐞
in equations above.

The energy supplied by the battery during the time

interval required to fully charge the capacitor is:
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝛆 = 𝐂𝛆𝟐 .

After the capacitor is fully charged, the energy stored

in the capacitor is:
𝟏 𝟏
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝛆 = 𝐂𝛆𝟐 ,
𝟐 𝟐
which is only half the energy output of the battery.
Half of the energy supplied by the battery appears
as internal energy in the resistor.
Discharging a Capacitor

Imagine that the capacitor in the figure is completely

charged.
𝐐
An initial potential difference 𝐢 exists across the
𝐂
capacitor, and there is zero potential difference across
the resistor because 𝐢 = 𝟎.

If the switch is now placed to position 𝐛 at 𝐭 = 𝟎 as

shown in the figure below the capacitor begins to
discharge through the resistor.
At some time 𝐭 during the discharge, the current in
the circuit is 𝐢 and the charge on the capacitor is 𝐪.
The circuit in the figure below is the same as the circuit
in the figure above except for the absence of the battery.

Therefore, we eliminate the emf 𝛆 from equation:

𝐪
𝛆 − − 𝐢𝐑 = 𝟎 to obtain the appropriate loop equation
𝐂
for the circuit in the figure.
 𝐪
− − 𝐢𝐑 = 𝟎
𝐂
𝐝𝐪
When we substitute 𝐢 = into this expression,
𝐝𝐭
it becomes:

𝐪 𝐝𝐪
− − 𝐑 = 𝟎 or
𝐂 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐪 𝐝𝐭
=−
𝐪 𝐑𝐂

Integrating this expression using 𝐪 = 𝐐𝐢 at 𝐭 = 𝟎

gives:

𝐪 𝐝𝐪 𝐭 𝐝𝐭
∫𝐐 = ∫𝟎 −
𝐢 𝐪 𝐑𝐂
𝐪 𝐭
𝐥𝐧 ( ) = −
𝐐 𝐢𝐑𝐂
𝐭
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐐𝐢 𝐞− 𝐑𝐂

This expression is charge as a function of time for

a discharging capacitor.
Differentiating the above equation with respect to
time gives the instantaneous current as a function
of time.
𝐐𝐢 − 𝐭
𝐢(𝐭) = − 𝐞 𝐑𝐂
𝐑𝐂
𝐐
where 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐢 is the initial current.
𝐑𝐂
The negative sign indicates that as the capacitor
discharges, the current direction is opposite its
direction when the capacitor was being charged.
Both the charge on the capacitor and the current
decay exponentially at a rate determined by
the time constant
𝛕 = 𝐑𝐂.
Charging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit

An uncharged capacitor and

a resistor are connected in
series to a battery as shown
in the figure, where
𝛆 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝐕, 𝐂 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝛍𝐅,
and 𝐑 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝛀.
The switch is placed to
position a. Find:
(a) the time constant of the circuit,
(b) the maximum charge on the capacitor,
(c) the maximum current in the circuit and
(d) the charge and current as functions of time.

Solution:
We evaluate our results using equations derived
in this section, so, we categorize this example as
a substitution problem.
(a)
Estimate the time constant 𝛕 of the circuit as follows:
𝛕 = 𝐑𝐂 = (𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 )(𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )
𝛕 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝐬

(b)
Evaluate the maximum charge 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 on the capacitor
using formula:
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐂𝛆 = (𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟏𝟐. 𝟎)
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐂

(c)
Calculate the maximum current 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 in the circuit
using equation:
𝛆 𝟏𝟐.𝟎
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐈𝐢 = 𝐑 = 𝟖.𝟎𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐀 and finally
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐀

(d)
Write the expressions of charge and current as
functions of time 𝐪(𝐭) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐢(𝐭).
𝐭
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝐞− 𝟒.𝟎𝟎 ) 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐬 and
𝐭
𝐢(𝐭) = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝐞− 𝟒.𝟎𝟎 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬
Discharging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit

Consider a capacitor
of capacitance 𝐂
that is being discharged
through a resistor of
resistance 𝐑 as shown
in the figure.

Solution:

We can categorize this

example as one involving
a discharging capacitor
and so, we can solve it
using the appropriate
equations.
𝐐
Substitute 𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐢 into
𝟒
equation:
𝐭
−
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐐𝐢 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 and have:
𝐭
𝟏 −
=𝐞 𝐑𝐂
𝟒
Take the logarithm of both sides of the equation
and solve for 𝐭:
𝐭
𝟏
ln = 𝐥𝐧𝐞− 𝐑𝐂
𝟒
𝐭
−𝐥𝐧𝟒 = −
𝐑𝐂
𝐭 = 𝐑𝐂𝐥𝐧𝟒 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗𝐑𝐂
𝐭 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗𝛕
(B)
The energy stored in the capacitor decreases with
time as the capacitor discharges.
After how many time constants is this stored
energy one-fourth its initial value?

Use equations for electric potential energy stored in

the capacitor at any time t as follows:

𝐪𝟐 𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐭
Use equations 𝐔 = 𝟐𝐂 (1) and 𝐔(𝐭) = 𝟐𝐂𝐢 𝐞− 𝐑𝐂 (2)
𝟏 𝐐𝟐
Substitute 𝐔(𝐭) = 𝟒 (𝟐𝐂𝐢 ) into equation (2) and get

𝟏 𝐐𝟐𝐢 𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐭
( ) = 𝟐𝐂𝐢 𝐞−𝐑𝐂
𝟒 𝟐𝐂
𝟏 𝟐𝐭
= 𝐞− 𝐑𝐂
𝟒
𝟐𝐭
−𝐥𝐧𝟒 = −
𝐑𝐂
𝟏
𝐭 = 𝟐 𝐑𝐂𝐥𝐧𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝐑𝐂
𝐭 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝛕
Notice that because the energy depends on the square
of the charge, the energy in the capacitor drops more
rapidly than the charge on the capacitor.
What if you want to describe the circuit in terms of
the time interval required for the charge to fall to
one‒half its original value rather than by the
time constant 𝛕?
That would give a parameter for the circuit called
its half‒life 𝐭 𝟏 .
𝟐
How is the half‒life related to the time constant?

Solution:
𝐐
In one half-life, the charge falls from 𝐐𝐢 to 𝟐𝐢
𝐭
Therefore, from the equation 𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐐𝐢 𝐞− 𝐑𝐂 we have:
𝐭𝟏 𝐭𝟏
𝐐𝐢 − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝟐
= 𝐐𝐢 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 which leads to 𝟐 = 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 .
𝟐

Finally,
𝐭 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝛕
𝟐
1/855 OQ
Is a circuit breaker wired
(a) in series with the device it is protecting,
(b) in parallel, or
(c) neither in series or in parallel, or
(d) is it impossible to tell?

Solution:
Answer: (a). In series with the device it is protecting.
When the breaker trips to off, current does not go
through the device.

3/856 OQ
The terminals of a battery are connected across
two resistors in series.
The resistances of the resistors are not the same.
Which of the following statements are correct?
Choose all that are correct.
(a) The resistor with the smaller resistance carries
more current than the other resistor.
(b) The resistor with the larger resistance carries
less current than the other resistor.
(c) The current in each resistor is the same.
(d) The potential difference across each resistor
is the same.
(e) The potential difference is greatest across the
resistor closest to the positive terminal.

Solution:
Answer (c). The current in each resistor is the same.
As for choice (e) we cannot say that potential difference
is greatest across the resistor closest to the positive
terminal unless further information is provided.
4/856 OQ
When operating on a 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐕 circuit, an electric heater
receives 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐖 of power, a toaster receives
𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐖, and an electric oven receives 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐖.
If all three appliances are connected in parallel
on a 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐕 circuit and turned on, what is the
Total Current drawn from an external source?
(a) 𝟐𝟒. 𝟎 𝐀
(b) 𝟑𝟐. 𝟎 𝐀
(c) 𝟒𝟎. 𝟎 𝐀
(d) 𝟒𝟖. 𝟎 𝐀
(e) none of those answers

Solution:
A circuit diagram for the three
circuit elements may be shown
as follows, where 𝐑 𝐡 is the
resistance of the heater,
𝐑 𝐭 is the resistance of
the toaster and 𝐑 𝟎 is
the resistance of the oven.
These circuit elements have
to be connected in parallel
combination.
Remember household wiring.
First calculate the electric
current through each element.
So, the current through heater
is:
𝐏𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝐈𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = =
∆𝐕 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝐈𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝐀
We do the same for toaster and oven:
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 = =
∆𝐕 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝐀
𝐏𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐧 = =
∆𝐕 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝐈𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐧 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝐀
The total current through circuit breaker will be:
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐈𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 + 𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 + 𝐈𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐧 =
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 + 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟑
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝟑𝟐 𝐀
1/857 CQ
Suppose a parachutist lands on a high-voltage wire
and grabs the wire as she prepares to be rescued.
(a) Will she be electrocuted?
(b) If the wire then breaks, should she continue to hold
onto the wire as she falls to the ground? Explain.

Solution:
(a)
No. The resistance of a small length of wire is small,
so, the potential difference along that length is small.
(b)
No! When she touches the ground, she (her body) will
act as a connection to the ground (she will behave as
an earthing conductor), resulting in a high (maybe fatal)
potential difference across her.

1/857 P
A battery has an emf of 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎 𝐕. The terminal voltage
of the battery is 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔 𝐕 when it is delivering 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎 𝐖
of power to an external load resistor 𝐑.
(a) What is the value of 𝐑?
(b) What is the internal resistance of the battery?

Solution:
(a)
Use the power 𝐏 delivered to the load (resistor 𝐑).
𝟐
∆𝐕𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥
𝐏= and find the value of 𝐑.
𝐑
𝟐
∆𝐕𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟐
𝐑= =
𝐏 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎
𝐑 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟑 𝛀
(b)
The current 𝐈 through the entire circuit is found
as follows:

𝚫𝐕𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐏 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎
𝐈= = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 𝐀
𝐑 𝚫𝐕𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔
Finally, we compute the internal resistance:
𝛆 − ∆𝐕𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 = 𝐈𝐫 hence
𝛆−∆𝐕𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝟏𝟓.𝟎−𝟏𝟏.𝟔
𝐫= = 𝟏.𝟕𝟐
𝐈
𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝛀
7/858 P
What is the equivalent resistance of the combination
of identical resistors between points a and b shown
in the figure?

Solution:
𝐑
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 + 𝟑 + 𝐑 or
𝟕𝐑
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟑

10/858 P
(a)
You need a 𝟒𝟓 𝛀 resistor,
but the stockroom has
only 𝟐𝟎 𝛀 and 𝟓𝟎 𝛀 resistors.
How can the desired
resistance be achieved
under these circumstances?
(b)
What can you do if you
need a 𝟑𝟓 𝛀 resistor?

Solution:
(a)
One solution is
combining two 𝟐𝟎 𝛀
resistors in series with
each other with ten 𝟓𝟎 𝛀
resistors in parallel
with each other.
Because in case of combining
identical resistors in parallel,
the equivalent resistance
of the combination can be found simply
𝐑
using formula 𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥 = 𝐧
𝟓𝟎
In our example 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓 𝛀
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓 = 𝟒𝟓 𝛀
(b)
One solution is
combining two 𝟐𝟎 𝛀
resistors in parallel
with each other,
producing an
equivalent resistance
of 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 resistance
and this combination
in series with the parallel
combination of two 𝟓𝟎 𝛀
resistors which produces
an equivalent resistance
of 𝟐𝟓 𝛀.
Finally, when combined the two combinations
give a final equivalent resistance of 𝟑𝟓 𝛀.
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟓 𝛀

Note:
In either example (a) and (b) there are more ways
of combinations to achieve the desired 𝟒𝟓 𝛀 and 𝟑𝟓 𝛀
equivalent resistance.

11/858 P
A battery with 𝛆 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝐕
and no internal resistance
supplies current to the
circuit as shown in the figure.
When the double-throw
switch 𝐒 is open as shown in
the figure, the current in the
battery is 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐀.
When the switch is closed in
position a, the current in the
battery is 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐀.
When the switch is closed in position 𝐛,
the current in the battery is 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐀.
Find the resistances 𝐑 𝟏 , 𝐑 𝟐 , and 𝐑 𝟑 .
Solution:
Consider step by step actions taken. When the switch is open,
neither position 𝐚 nor position 𝐛, the resistor 𝐑 𝟐 (in the middle)
is out of the circuit, meanwhile the resistors 𝐑 𝟏 , the other 𝐑 𝟐 and
𝐑 𝟑 are still the part of the remaining closed circuit. So, Ohm’s Law
for switch 𝐒 in neutral position can be written as follows:

𝛆
𝐈𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐥 = = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑
So, (𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 )𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟔 (1)
With the switch in neutral position
the original circuit diagram is
equivalent circuit diagram (a).

When the switch is in the position 𝐚

we have the circuit diagram (b).
𝛆
𝐈𝐚 = = 𝟏. 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑
𝐑
So, (𝐑 𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 ) 𝟏. 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟔
or
(𝟐𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 )𝟏. 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐 (2)

Finally, with the switch 𝐒 in

position 𝐛 the original circuit
diagram looks as shown in
the circuit diagram (c).
𝛆
𝐈𝐛 = = 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐
So, (𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 )𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟔 (3)

Get equations (1), (2) and (3) into

a system and solve it for 𝐑 𝟏 , 𝐑 𝟐 , and 𝐑 𝟑
(𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 )𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟔 (1)
(𝟐𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 )𝟏. 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐 (2)
(𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 )𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟔 (3)
(𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 )𝟏 = 𝟔
(𝟐𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 )𝟏. 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐
(𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 )𝟐 = 𝟔
𝟔
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 = 𝟐 = 𝟑
In equation (1) replace 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟑 and find 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝛀
Combining equations (1) and (2) again we find 𝐑 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝛀
and 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝛀.
16/859 P
Four resistors are
connected to a battery
as shown in the figure.
(a)
Determine the potential
difference across each
resistor in terms of 𝛆.
(b)
Determine the current in
each resistor in terms of 𝐈.
(c)
What If? If 𝐑 𝟑 is increased, explain what
happens to the current in each of the resistors.
(d)
In the limit that 𝐑 𝟑 → ∞, what are the new values
of the current in each resistor in terms of 𝑰,
the original current in the battery?

Solution:
Note that resistors
𝐑 𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐑 𝟑 are in
series with each-other
so, the equivalent
resistance of this
combination is:
𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝟐𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 =
= 𝟐𝐑 + 𝟒𝐑 = 𝟔𝐑
(See figure on the right).
Meanwhile the resistors 𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝟐𝟑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐑 𝟒 are combined
in parallel so, the equivalent resistance of this
combination is:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + or
𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝐑 𝟐𝟑 𝐑𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟔𝐑 𝟑𝐑
finally, we get 𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝟐𝟑𝟒 = 𝟐𝐑
(See figure on the right).

The equivalent resistance

of the entire circuit is:
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝐞𝐪𝟐𝟑𝟒 = 𝐑 + 𝟐𝐑
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟑𝐑
(See figure on the right).

Next, we calculate the current that flows in the battery

and through resistor 𝐑 𝟏 :
𝛆
𝐈=
𝐑 𝐞𝐪
𝛆
𝐈=
𝟑𝐑
So, the potential difference across resistor 𝐑 𝟏 will be:
𝛆
∆𝐕𝟏 = 𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 = ∙𝐑
𝟑𝐑
𝛆
∆𝐕𝟏 =
𝟑

Meanwhile the current is split in two branches

as it enters point 𝐚 shown in the figure.
The remaining potential difference is:
𝟐𝛆
∆𝐕𝟒 =
𝟑
and this potential difference is equal to the sum
of potential differences across resistors 𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑 𝟑 .
So,
𝛆
∆𝐕𝟐 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟐𝐑
𝟗𝐑
𝟐
∆𝐕𝟐 = 𝛆 and finally,
𝟗
𝛆
∆𝐕𝟑 = 𝐈𝟑 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝟒𝐑
𝟗𝐑
𝟒
∆𝐕𝟑 = 𝛆
𝟗

(b)
Determine the current in each resistor in terms of 𝐈.

Solution:

Because we know the potential differences across

each resistor, we can simply use Ohm’s Law and
find the current flowing through each resistor
using equation:
∆𝐕
𝐈=
𝐑
So,
𝛆
∆𝐕𝟏 𝟑 𝛆
𝐈𝟏 = = or 𝐈𝟏 =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑 𝟑𝐑
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈
𝟐𝛆
∆𝐕𝟐 𝟗 𝛆 𝛆
𝐈𝟐 = = or 𝐈𝟐 = or 𝐈𝟐 =
𝐑𝟐 𝟐𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟗
𝐈
𝐈𝟐 =
𝟑
𝟒𝛆
∆𝐕𝟑 𝟗 𝛆
𝐈𝟑 = = or 𝐈𝟑 =
𝐑𝟑 𝟒𝐑 𝟗𝐑
𝐈
𝐈𝟑 =
𝟑
(c)
What If? If 𝐑 𝟑 is
increased, explain
what happens to
the current in each
of the resistors.

Solution:

If the resistance of the

resistor 𝐑 𝟑 increases,
the equivalent resistance of entire circuit increases.
The current through resistor 𝐑 𝟏 will decrease,
the current through resistors 𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑 𝟑 will decrease
and the current through will 𝐑 𝟒 will increase.

(d)
In the limit that 𝐑 𝟑 → ∞, what are the new values
of the current in each resistor in terms of 𝑰,
the original current in the battery?

Solution:
The equivalent resistance of the circuit with be:
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟒 = 𝐑 + 𝟑𝐑
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟒𝐑
So, the current 𝐈 through resistor 𝐑 𝟏 with be:
𝛆
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 =
𝟒𝐑
This is the amount of current passing through
the resistor 𝐑 𝟒 as well.
No current flows through resistors 𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑 𝟑 .
24/860 P
For the circuit
shown in the
figure,
calculate:
(a) the current
in the 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀
resistor and
(b) the potential
difference
between points
a and b.

Solution:

For the original circuit

shown in the figure
we can apply
Kirchhoff’s first
rule for the junction
point c.
We may guess the
currents as shown
in the figure above.
Using Kirchhoff’s
first rule we get
sum of current/s 𝐈𝟏
entering a junction
equals the sum of
current/s 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑 leaving
the junction.
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑 (Junction c equation)
We can identify
three different
loops.
Loop 1 (or top loop)
has following circuit
elements:
𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝐕 battery,
𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 resistor and
𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 resistor.

Going counterclockwise
around loop 1 we can
apply Kirchhoff’s
second rule as follows:

𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 − 𝐈𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎) − 𝐈𝟏 (𝟒. 𝟎𝟎) = 𝟎 (EQ.1)

Loop 2 (or bottom loop)

has following circuit
elements:
𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 𝐕 battery,
𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 resistor
and 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 resistor.
Going counterclockwise
around the loop 2 we
can apply Kirchhoff’s
second rule as follows:

𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 − 𝐈𝟑 (𝟔. 𝟎𝟎) + 𝐈𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎) = 𝟎 (EQ.2)

Loop 3 has following
circuit elements:
𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝐕 battery,
𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 𝐕 battery,
𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 resistor
and 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 resistor.
Going counterclockwise
around the loop 3 we
can apply Kirchhoff’s
second rule
as follows:

𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 + 𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 − 𝐈𝟑 (𝟔. 𝟎𝟎) − 𝐈𝟏 (𝟒. 𝟎𝟎) = 𝟎 (EQ.3)

Solving the system of equations (1), (2) and (3) we

find the value for current flowing through
resistor 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀.
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟗 𝐀

Note:
Sometimes we do NOT need all equations.
Like it is the case now where we did not use EQ.4.
(b)
Find the potential difference between points 𝐚 and 𝐛.

To find the potential difference between

points a and b we refer to figure above and
so, we can use the equation:

∆𝐕 = 𝐕𝐛 − 𝐕𝐚 = 𝐈𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟗(𝟐. 𝟎𝟎)

𝐕𝐛 − 𝐕𝐚 = −𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟖𝐕

To determine the
potential difference
between points 𝐚 and 𝐛
we can use two more
ways by going along
different paths joining
points 𝐚 and 𝐛.
So, another way is using
following formula:

𝐕𝐛 − 𝐕𝐚 = −𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 + (𝟒. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟏

And there is a third

way of evaluating the
potential difference
between points a and b.
In this case the following
formula can be used:

𝐕𝐛 − 𝐕𝐚 = −𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 + (𝟔. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟑

26/860 P
The following equations describe an
electric circuit:
−𝐈𝟏 (𝟐𝟐𝟎𝛀) + 𝟓. 𝟖𝟎𝐕 − 𝐈𝟐 (𝟑𝟕𝟎𝛀) = 𝟎
+𝐈𝟐 (𝟑𝟕𝟎𝛀) + 𝐈𝟑 (𝟏𝟓𝟎𝛀) − 𝟑. 𝟏𝟎𝐕 = 𝟎
+𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟑 − 𝐈𝟐 = 𝟎
a)
Draw a diagram of the circuit.

Solution:
(a)
The first equation
represents
Kirchhoff’s second
rule equation.
We choose to
think of it as
describing
a clockwise trip around the left‒hand
loop in a circuit.
−𝐈𝟏 (𝟐𝟐𝟎𝛀) + 𝟓. 𝟖𝟎𝐕 − 𝐈𝟐 (𝟑𝟕𝟎𝛀) = 𝟎

For the right-hand

loop we may
construct the
following figure.
The junctions must
be between the
𝟓. 𝟖𝟎 𝐕 emf and the 𝟑𝟕𝟎 𝛀 resistor and between
the 𝟑𝟕𝟎 𝛀 resistor and the 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝛀 resistor.
+𝐈𝟐 (𝟑𝟕𝟎) + 𝐈𝟑 (𝟏𝟓𝟎) − 𝟑. 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
Next, we unite left loop and right one making
sure the junction satisfies the following equation:
+𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟑 − 𝐈𝟐 = 𝟎

(b)
Calculate the unknowns and identify
the physical meaning of each unknown.

Solution:
Solving the system of following equations
−𝐈𝟏 (𝟐𝟐𝟎) + 𝟓. 𝟖𝟎 − 𝐈𝟐 (𝟑𝟕𝟎) = 𝟎
+𝐈𝟐 (𝟑𝟕𝟎) + 𝐈𝟑 (𝟏𝟓𝟎) − 𝟑. 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
+𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟑 − 𝐈𝟐 = 𝟎
gives:
𝐈𝟏 = +𝟏. 𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐀
This current flows in the direction as assumed (shown).

𝐈𝟐 = +𝟗. 𝟏𝟑 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐀
This current flows in the direction as assumed (shown).

𝐈𝟑 = −𝟏. 𝟖𝟕 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐀
This current flows in the opposite direction assumed (shown).
35/861 P
Find the potential difference across each
resistor in the figure shown.

Solution:

Applying Kirchhoff’s first rule at junction 𝐚

gives:
𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐

Using Kirchhoff’s loop (second) rule on

the left loop gives:

−𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 − (𝟒. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟑 − (𝟓. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 = 𝟎 (EQ.1)

derive:
𝐈𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝐈𝟑
Using Kirchhoff’s loop (second) rule on
the right loop gives:

−𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 − (𝟒. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟑 − (𝟑. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟐 − (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎)𝐈𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 = 𝟎 (EQ.2)

derive:
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝐈𝟑 [EQ.3]

Substituting [EQ.2] and [EQ.3] into equation [EQ.1]:

𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 and simplifying gives:
𝐈𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟑𝐀 and
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟑𝐀

Finally, the potential differences across

the resistors are:
∆𝐕𝟐.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝐈𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎) = (𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟑)(𝟐. 𝟎𝟎)
∆𝐕𝟐.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝐕

∆𝐕𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝐈𝟐 (𝟑. 𝟎𝟎) = (𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟑)(𝟑. 𝟎𝟎)

∆𝐕𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟕 𝐕

∆𝐕𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝐈𝟑 (𝟒. 𝟎𝟎) = (𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝟔)(𝟒. 𝟎𝟎)

∆𝐕𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟖 𝐕

∆𝐕𝟓.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝐈𝟏 (𝟓. 𝟎𝟎) = (𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟑)(𝟓. 𝟎𝟎)

∆𝐕𝟓.𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝐕
37/861 P
An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected
in series to a source of emf. If 𝛆 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟎 𝐕, 𝐂 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎 𝛍𝐅,
and 𝐑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝛀, find:
(a) the time constant of the circuit,
(b) the maximum charge on the capacitor, and
(c) the charge on the capacitor at a time equal to
one time constant after the battery is connected.

Solution:
(a)
The time constant of the circuit is found:
𝛕 = 𝐑𝐂 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎)(𝟐𝟎. 𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )
𝛕 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐬

(b)
The maximum charge on the capacitor is
found using following equation:
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐂𝛆 = (𝟐𝟎. 𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟗. 𝟎𝟎)
𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐂

(c)
We can use equation:
𝐭
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝟏 − 𝐞−𝐑𝐂 ), when 𝐭 = 𝐑𝐂. Then
𝐑𝐂
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝟏 − 𝐞−𝐑𝐂 ) = 𝐐𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝟏 − 𝐞−𝟏 ) =
= (𝟏. 𝟖𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 )(𝟏 − 𝐞−𝟏 )
𝐪(𝐭) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐂
41/862 P
In the circuit shown in the figure, the switch 𝐒
has been open for a long time.
It is then suddenly closed. Take 𝛆 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 𝐕,
𝐑 𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝐤𝛀, 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝛀, and
𝐂 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 𝛍𝐅. Determine the time constant
(a) before the switch is closed and
(b) after the switch is closed.
(c) Let the switch be closed at 𝐭 = 𝟎.
Determine the current in the switch
as a function of time.

Solution:
(a)
Before the switch is closed, the two resistors
are in series.
The time constant is:
𝛕𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 = (𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 )𝐂 = (𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟒 + 𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 )(𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 )
𝛕𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 𝐬

(b)
After the switch is closed, (as shown in the
figure below) the capacitor discharges through
resistor 𝐑 𝟐 .
The time constant for this circuit is:
𝛕𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝐑 𝟐 𝐂 = (𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 )(𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 )
𝛕𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝐬
(c)
Before the switch is closed, there is no current in
the circuit because the capacitor is fully charged,
and the voltage across the capacitor is 𝛆.
After the switch is closed, current flows clockwise
from the battery through resistor 𝐑 𝟏 and down through
the switch, and current from the capacitor flows
counterclockwise and down through the switch
through resistor 𝐑 𝟐 , the result is that the total
current through the switch is 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 .

Apply Kirchhoff’s Second Rule going clockwise

around the left loop:
𝛆
𝛆 − 𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 = 𝟎 hence 𝐈𝟏 =
𝐑𝟏
so, the battery carries current:
𝟏𝟎.𝟎
𝐈𝟏 = 𝟓.𝟎𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐈𝟏 = 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐀

Apply Kirchhoff’s Second Rule going

counterclockwise around the right loop,
𝐪 𝐪
− 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐑 𝐂
𝐂 𝟐
𝛆 − 𝐑𝐭 𝐂
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐞 𝟐
𝐑𝟐
so, the 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝛀 resistor carries a current of magnitude

𝛆 − 𝐭 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎+𝟏 − 𝐭
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 =( ) 𝐞 𝟏.𝟎𝟎
𝐑𝟐 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟓

and the switch carries downward current:

𝐭
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 = 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 + (𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 )𝐞− 𝟏.𝟎𝟎
46/862 P
An electric heater is rated at 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐖, a toaster
at 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝐖 and an electric grill at 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐖.
The three appliances are connected to a common
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐕 household circuit.
(a) How much current does each draw?
(b) If the circuit is protected with a 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎 𝐀 circuit breaker,
will the circuit breaker be tripped in this situation?
Explain your answer.

Solution:
(a)
Since these household appliances are connected
in parallel, the same potential difference is applied
across each of them. So, the currents
through each of them are:
𝐏𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟏.𝟓𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝐈𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = = 𝐈𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝐀
∆𝐕 𝟏.𝟐𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟐

𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟕.𝟓𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 = = 𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓𝐀
∆𝐕 𝟏.𝟐𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟐

𝐏𝐠𝐫𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝟏.𝟎𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝐈𝐠𝐫𝐢𝐥𝐥 = = 𝐈𝐠𝐫𝐢𝐥𝐥 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝐀
∆𝐕 𝟏.𝟐𝟎∙𝟏𝟎𝟐

So, the total current drawn (which flows) through

the circuit breaker is:
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐈𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 + 𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 + 𝐈𝐠𝐫𝐢𝐥𝐥 =
= 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟎𝟖𝐀
Because the total current drawn (which flows
through the circuit breaker) is greater than 𝟐𝟓 𝐀,
this current will TRIP the circuit breaker.

Note:
The Circuit Breaker and the Electric Meter are connected
in series with the household circuit elements.
55/863 P
For the circuit shown
in the figure, the ideal
voltmeter reads 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝐕
and the ideal ammeter
reads 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐀.
Find
(a) the value of 𝐑,
(b) the emf of the battery,
and
(c) the voltage across
the 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝛀 resistor.

Solution:
(a)
The resistance of resistor 𝐑 is found as follows:
∆𝐕 𝟔.𝟎𝟎
𝐑 = 𝐈 = 𝟑.𝟎𝟎∙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 because the voltmeter and
resistor 𝐑 are connected in parallel with each other.

Because the ammeter is ideal, its resistance is

ZERO and because the voltmeter is ideal its
resistance is INFINITY.

So, the current measured by ammeter flows

through battery, 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝛀 resistor, ammeter and
resistor 𝐑. NO current flows through voltmeter.
𝐑 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝛀

(b)
The resistance in the circuit consists of a series
combination with an equivalent resistance
of 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝛀.
The emf 𝜀 of the battery is then found as follows:
𝛆 = 𝐈𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈(𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 ) =
= (𝟑 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 + 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
𝛆 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎 𝐕

(c)
𝚫𝐕𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝐤𝛀 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝐤𝛀 = (𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
𝚫𝐕𝟑 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝐕
61/864 P
When two unknown
resistors are connected
in series with a battery,
the battery delivers
𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝐖 and carries a
total current of 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝐀.
For the same total current,
𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝐖 is delivered
when the resistors are
connected in parallel.
Determine the value
of each resistor.

Solution:

Let the two resistances be 𝐑 𝐱 and 𝐑 𝐲 .

Then equivalent resistance of their
series combination will be:
𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝐑 𝐞𝐪. 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 = 𝐑 𝐱 + 𝐑 𝐲 = 𝟐
=
𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝟐𝟐𝟓
= 𝟓.𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝛀

𝐑 𝐱𝐑 𝐲 𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥 𝟓𝟎
𝐑 𝐞𝐪. 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥 =𝐑 = 𝟐 = 𝟓.𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀
𝐱 +𝐑 𝐲 𝐈𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥

Problem has come down to the solution

of system of equations:
𝐑 𝐱 + 𝐑 𝐲 = 𝟗 and
𝐑 𝐱𝐑 𝐲
=𝟐
𝐑 𝐱 +𝐑 𝐲

Solution of the above system gives either

𝐑 𝐱 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 and 𝐑 𝐲 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀
or
𝐑 𝐱 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀 and 𝐑 𝐲 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝛀