Stability

• The stability of a system is, generally, defined as its ability to restore

its normal (i.e. stable) operation after being subjected to a
disturbance.
• In power systems, as discussed before, all generators must be
synchronised to the system frequency.
• So, instability of a power system is loss of synchronism.

IEEE definition:
Power system stability is the ability of an electric system to regain a
state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical
disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the
entire system remains intact.
Stability

There are two types of stability studies:

• Steady state, which is the study of slow and small disturbances
• E.G. gradual load/power change
• We can use linearized model of the system
• Transient, which is the study of large and sudden disturbances
• E.G:
• faults,
• outage of a line,
• sudden application or removal of load
• We have to use the non linear model of the system
Stability
• It was explained that Pmax is generated
when δ=90°.
• If the rotor angle becomes more than 90
(in order to generate more power), less
power is generated and the machine become unstable and loses
synchronism (the generator “pole slips”).
• This is because, mechanical power increases while electrical power
reduces, hence speed keeps increasing i.e. “run away” situation.
• δ=90° called the steady state stability limit as it is possible for the
rotor to oscillate beyond 90° a number of times. If these oscillations
diminish, the generator is stable.
Stability
3 parameters that can be affected by a disturbance (instability of one
may lead to another):
• Rotor angle δ
• When a fault occurs very close to a generator terminal,
• Vt=0 → electrical output power become zero.
• the mechanical input cannot change immediately.
• So the rotor accelerates and
• δ increases.
• If the fault is not cleared quickly, synchronism may be lost and
the machine becomes unstable.
Stability

• Frequency
• If the load is larger than the generation,
• the power mismatch will be compensated by the kinetic energy
stored in the rotor inertia,
• hence its speed will drop.
• This will cause reduction of frequency.
• This reduction will continue until the system becomes unstable
(or the power imbalance is solved).
Stability

• Voltage
As power transmitted by a line increases, for a given PF, the receiving end
VR reduces. Beyond a certain value of P, VR greatly reduces. This is called
voltage collapse.
It gets worse for induction machines as below a certain voltage, Q consumed
by the machine increases which cause more voltage drops until dQ/dV→∞.
Stability of Rotor angle
During a disturbance, the rotor speed either accelerates or decelerates.
The acceleration or deceleration causes a change in the power angle δ.
In all stability studies, the objective is to determine whether or not the
rotor returns to constant speed operation.
The following assumptions are made:
• System is 3-phase balanced
• The disturbance is a 3-phase balanced one
• Deviation of system frequency is small (due to large inertia)
• Generated voltage is considered unaffected by machine speed
variations
• The DC offset current and harmonics are neglected
Dynamics of a synchronous machine

The kinetic energy of a rotor in a synchronous machine (rotating at

synchronous speed) in megajoules:

W=0.5Jωsm2×10-6 MJ (1)

J=rotor (moment of) inertia (kg-m2)

ωsm=mech. synchronous speed (mechanical rad/s)

We know that ωsm=(2/p)ωse (2)

where ωse=2πf (electrical rad/s), f=system frequency in Hz

p=number of poles
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
W=0.5Jωsm2×10-6 MJ (1)
ωsm=(2/p)ωse (2)

Substitution of (2) in (1):   2 2 

W = 0.5 J    se  10 −6  se
  p 
 
= 0.5M se
2
2
Where M = J    se  10 −6
 p

M is called Angular Momentum

(MJ-s/electrical radians)
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
We define Inertia Constant H as the kinetic energy stored in the

machine at synchronous speed divided by rating of the machine S :

H=inertia constant (MJ/MVA or MW-s/MVA or s)

S=machine (3-phase) rating (MVA)

Kinetic energy in MJ at synchronous speed,W

H=
Machin rating in MVA, S

SH=W=0.5Mωse 2 SH SH
M= = MJ - s/electric al radians
 se f
SH
= MJ - s/electric al degrees
180 f
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
H 2
To calculate M in pu, M (pu) = s /electrical radian
f
we divide it by rating S: H
= s 2 /electrical degree
180 f
now we will calculate the equation for dynamics of the rotor , Swing
equation :
At synchronous speed we have (neglecting losses):
𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 𝑑𝜔𝑟 𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚
𝜔𝑟 = න 𝑑𝑡 → 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐽 =𝐽 (3)
𝐽 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Where θm= mechanical angle (mechanical radians)

Tm=mechanical torque (Nm)
Te=electromagnetic torque (Nm)
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
d 2 m
Tm − Te = J 2
(3)
• If Tm=Te speed is constant. dt

• Tm-Te is the accelerating torque.

• Now lets multiply both sides of (3) by ωsm and write it in MW:
d 2 m −6

Pm − Pe =  sm J 2
 10 
dt  2
2  2 -6 d 2
e
 sm =  se  → Pm − Pe = J   se  10 2
p   p  dt
2 
m = e 
p 
d 2 e
Pm − Pe = M 2
(4)
dt
θe=angle (electrical radians)
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
 =  e − set
We need to measure the angular position of the
d d e
rotor in respect to a synchronous rotating frame: = − se
dt dt

Substitution of (5) into (4) d 2 d 2 e

= (5)
2 2
dt dt
gives the swing equation:
δ is the rotor angular
d 2
Pm − Pe = M displacement from
2
dt
synchronously rotating
H
Using: M (pu) = reference frame and is
f
2 called
H d 
Pm (pu ) − Pe ( pu ) = (δ is in radians)
f dt 2 torque/power/load/rotor
angle.
Dynamics of a synchronous machine-(FYI only)
• This equation is based on the machine rating Smach .
• However, in a multi-machines system we usually have one common
system base Ssys.
• So we need to convert the equation to the new system base:

S mach H mach d 2 S mach

= ( Pm − mach − Pe − mach )
S sys f dt 2 S sys
OR
H sys d 2
= Pm − sys − Pe − sys
f dt 2

where The most common case for

S mach stability study is one machine
H sys = H mach
S sys
connected to infinite bus.
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
•So far we did not consider the effect of the damper bars.
•It was explained that whenever there is a relative motion between stator and
rotor fields (i.e. ωr≠ωsm), there will be a voltage developed on the damper
bars.
• Since the bars are short circuited, a current will flow through the bards.
• The interaction between the current and the field will generate a torque
which is opposing the relative motion (Lenz’s law).
• So the damper torque is proportional to the relative motion.
•Relative motion is called slip speed (in mech. rad/s =ωrm-ωsm or in
elec.rad/s= ωre-ωse).
d e d ( + set ) d
re − se = − se = − se =
dt dt dt
Dynamics of a synchronous machine d
re − se =
Damper tor que : Td = k (re −  se ) dt
d d
Damper Power : Pd = reTd = k (re −  se )re = k ( se + )
dt dt
2
d  d 
Pd = k se + k 
dt  dt 
2
 d 
Since  cannot change very quickly,   0
 dt 
d d
Pd  k se =D
dt dt
D is damping factor/ coefficient

Considering the damping factor in swing equation (in pu):

H d 2 d Note that the damping power due to friction is

Pm − Pe = +D
f dt 2 dt
small and is normally accounted for in Pm.
Example
Consider a 50Hz, 20 pole, generator rated at 500MVA, 20kV with inertia
constant of 2MJ/MVA (a) determine electrical and mechanical synchronous
speed, (b) write swing equation for the generator (c) The generator is initially
working at Pm=Pe=1pu with δ0=10° when a 3-phase short circuit occurs at its
terminals. Determine its power angle 3 cycles after the fault. Assume Pm
remains constant.

 se = 2 (50) = 314.16 elec radians/s

(a)
2
 sm =  se = 31.42 mech radians/s
p = 20

(b) H d 2 2 d 2
Pm (pu ) − Pe (pu ) = =
f dt 2  50 dt 2

(c) δ(0+) =10°=0.174 radians

Example
Exactly after fault: Pm(0+)=1pu and Pe(0+)=0pu
d +
Due to inertia, exactly after fault: (0 ) = 0
dt
Swing equation just after fault:
2 d 2 Integration gives:
= 1- 0
 50 dt 2

2  d d +  2 d
 − ( 0 )  = t → =t Integration gives:
 50  dt dt   50 dt

2
 50
( )
 (t ) −  (0 + ) = 0.5t 2 →  (t ) =
50 2
4
t +  (0 + ) =
50 2
4
t + 0.174

3 cycles is 3×(1/50)=0.06 s
50
 (0.06) = (0.06) 2 + 0.174 = 0.315 radians
4
= 18.1 degrees
Dynamics of a synchronous machine
• Now let’s consider when one machine is connected to infinite bus.
• We know that in this scenario any change in the machine will not
affect the infinite bus.
•Normally in stability analysis we use transient reactance Xs’ of the
machine:
In round rotor machines:

Xe is the external reactance due to the transformer and/or transmission

line.
Xt is the transfer/transmission reactance and is Xt=Xs’ +Xe
Dynamics of a synchronous machine

| Vt || E '|
Pe = sin  = Pmax sin 
Xt
So Swing equation is: H d 2 d
+D = Pm − Pmax sin 
f dt 2 dt

This is a nonlinear (due to sin), second order equation.

The method to solve it depends on the disturbance:
Steady state stability for rotor angle

• In steady state stability study, we consider only small disturbances.

• Therefore we can use small signal model of the equation

• i.e. we linearize the equation around the initial operating point δ0

d 2 d
M +D = Pm − Pmax sin 
2 dt
dt
H
M ( pu ) =
f

let’s linearize the equation for δ=δ0+Δδ,

d 2 ( 0 +  ) d ( 0 +  )
M +D = Pm − Pmax sin( 0 +  )
dt 2 dt
Steady state stability for rotor angle
d 2 ( 0 +  ) d ( 0 +  )
M +D = Pm − Pmax sin( 0 +  )
dt 2 dt

sin( 0 +  ) = sin  0 cos  + cos 0 sin 

Since small disturbance : sin    and cos   1

 d 2 0 d 2  
M 2 +  + D d 0 + d  = Pm − Pmax (sin  0 +  cos 0 ) (1)
 dt dt 2   dt dt 
 

Swing equation is valid at δ0:

d 2 0 d 0
M +D = Pm − Pmax sin  0 (2)
2 dt
dt
Substituting (2) into (1):
d 2 d
M +D = − Pmax  cos  0 (3)
2 dt
dt
Steady state stability for rotor angle
Pmaxcosδ0 is basically the slop (derivative) of electrical power at δ0
which is called synchronizing coefficient (or
stiffness coefficient) ψ:
dPe ( 0 )
Pmax cos  0 = =
d
d 2  d
Equation (3) is re-written as: M +D +  = 0
2 dt
dt

This is a linear second order equation which describes the dynamics of

a single machine connected to infinite bus for small disturbances
around an initial operating point.

2 D 
Applying Laplace Transform:  ( s + s+ )=0
M M
Steady state stability for rotor angle
2 D 
s + s+ =0
M M
From control theory we know that if: s 2 + 2n s + n 2 = 0

System is stable if: s1,2 = −n  jn 1 −  2

• Both s1 and s2 are negative (i.e. on left side of S-plane),

• which means both ζ (damping ratio) and ωn must be positive.
In our system: D 
= and n =
2 M M
• M is always positive,
• D very rarely becomes negative when the system controller have
very large gains (by mistake)
• So it is only ψ that can be positive or negative.
Steady state stability for rotor angle
•ψ (which is the slope of electrical power)
should be positive for a stable operation .
•This happens when δ<90.
•At δ=90° the system is at steady state stability
limit.

The damped frequency of oscillations is:

d = n 1 −  2
Example
A 50Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant of 5MJ/MVA and
transient reactance of 0.2 pu is connected to infinite bus (V∞=1∟0°) through a
purely reactive network as shown below. The generator is delivering a real
power of 0.6pu at PF=0.8 lagging. Investigate the steady state stability.

Assuming that the damping coefficient 0.15pu,

calculate the damped frequency. X’=0.2 pu X=0.4 pu V∞

~ ~
X=0.1 pu X=0.4 pu

Since it is purely reactive, active power generated and transferred is the

same.
φ=arccos(PF)=arccos(0.8)=36.87 degrees
Example

φ=arccos(PF)=arccos(0.8)=36.87
degrees

0.6
P = V  I  PF → I = = 0.75 − 36.87 pu
1 0.8

The transfer reactance is: Xt=0.2+0.1+(0.4/2)=0.5pu

E’=V∞+jIXt=1+j0.5(0.75∟-36.87)
The synchronising coefficient
=1.225+j0.3=1.261∟13.76° (pu)
is positive, so the system is
| E ' || V | 1.261 steady state stable.
= cos  = cos13.76 = 2.449
Xt 0.5
Example

The damped frequency is calculated as:

H 5
M= = = 0.032 pu
f  50
 2.449
n = = = 8.77 radian/s
M 0.032
D 0.15
= = = 0.27
2 M 2 0.032  2.449

d = n 1 −  2 = 8.44 radian/s
Transient stability for rotor angle
• System is subject to a large disturbances, such as: Faults, outage of lines.
• Cannot use small signal (i.e. linearized model) of the system because the
changes in the rotor angle is relatively large.
The swing equation in pu is: d 2 d
M +D = Pm − Pe
2 dt
dt
• Most of the time we neglect the damping coefficient.
• This is actually a pessimistic assumption as D helps the oscillations to
die out.
•Two scenarios can happen:
•one case is a sustain oscillation (due to lack of D),
•In an actual system with D, the system will be stable.
•The second is a “runaway situation” i.e. the oscillations keep
increasing.
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion
Let’s see how the dynamics
process takes place for a stable
system:

•Initially Pm0=Pe0 , δ=δ0

and ω=ωs,
•Sudden increase in Pm from
Pm0 to Pm1 at t=0s

•δ, hence Pe , cannot change immediately due to inertia: Pe(0+)=Pe0 .

•(a to b) Pe<Pm1 there is accelerating power of Pm1-Pe, and rotor accelerates
(ω>ωs).
•δ, hence Pe , increase until Pe=Pm1 at δ=δ1 (point b) ,
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion
•(b to c) Since system has
gained some speed, i.e.
ω>ωs , δ will keep on
increasing
•Pe>Pm1 i.e. there is a
decelerating power of Pe-Pm1
and rotor decelerates
(ω→ωs). until at point c δ=δ2
where ω=ωs

•(c to b) At c, ω=ωs , however, Pe>Pm1 , hence, rotor keeps

decelerating (ω<ωs).
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion

•δ, hence Pe , reduce until

Pe=Pm1 at δ=δ1 (point b).

•Since ω<ωs ,δ (hence

Pe) keeps on reducing
toward point a (due to D
and losses it will never
reach point a in reality).

•So δ will oscillate between abc.

•In practical system due to damping D (and losses), the oscillations
will die out (if system is stable).
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion
• If Pm1 is very large,
there might be too
much acceleration
power.
• We know after b,
Pe>Pm1 and ω is
reducing

• If ω=ωs up to point d, system is stable.

• If δ crosses δmax and still ω>ωs , Pe<Pm1 , accelerating power
increases ω and δ even further. This will add up until system becomes
A2-max
unstable.
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion

• Obviously δmax= π-δ1

• Stability depends on both :
• initial point (hence the safety margin introduced in O.C.)
• and magnitude/size of disturbance.
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion
As it can be seen in stable
case, there are times at which:
d
=0
dt
We will get advantage of this

aspect of stable systems.

Let’s back to swing equation:

d 2 1 Pa
= (Pm − Pe ) =
dt 2 M M

Pa is called acceleration power.

Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion
d 2 Pa
=
dt 2 M
 d 
Multiply both side by 2 
 dt 
we will get:
d d 2 2 Pa d
2 =
dt dt 2 M dt
d  d   2 Pa d
2
  =
dt  dt   M dt
 
 d  2  2 P
d    = a d
 dt   M

Integrating both sides:

2 2
2
 d 
  =  Pa d
 dt  M
0
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion

2 2
2
 d 
  =  Pa d
 dt  M
0

For stable systems:

d
=0→
dt
2 2
 Pa d =  (Pm − Pe )d = A1 + A2 = 0
0 0

the area between Pa (in respect to variations of δ) must be zero

accelerating area A1=decelerating area A2
(note that A2 is negative)
Transient stability for rotor angle-equal area criterion

Maximum decelerating
area is up to δmax , since
after this system
accelerate again.

−1 Pm1 

at point b : Pm1 = Pe = Pmax sin 1 → 1 = sin  
 Pmax 
−1 Pm1 

 max =  − 1 =  − sin  
 Pmax 
Effect of clearing time on Stability

• If a 3-phase fault occurs on the bus (we normally study 3-phase

faults as they are the most severe), its voltage drops to zero.

• Therefore Pe from the machine becomes zero (assuming a purely

reactive circuit).
• When the protection system clears the fault by opening circuit
breaker 1 (this is done by relays), the bus voltage will be restored
and power will be transferred from the Generator to the infinite bus.
• Let’s analyse it with equal are criterion:
Assumptions:
• Damping and resistors of synchronous machine and lines are neglected
• pessimistic assumption, as they help to damp the oscillations.
• The parameters of the network (reactances) remain constant
• frequency is more or less the same as deviations of ω from ωs is small.

• The action of speed governor system is ignored (as it is slow)

• i.e. we assumed that input mechanical power is constant.
• The action of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is ignored
• E is assumed constant.
• It is a wrong assumption as AVRs are usually very fast. So practically,
after a fault, terminal voltage reduces and AVR tries to restore it by
increasing excitation voltage E. However, it is also a pessimistic
assumption, as increase in E will increase Pmax.
Effect of clearing time on Stability
(a) Initial condition (ω=ωs).
(a-b) After fault Pe=0.
(b-c) Pa=Pm -Pe>0, ω and δ
increase
(c) Fault is cleared, clearing
angle δc
δmax
(c-d) Pe jumps to point d (since
voltage is restored). Pa=Pm-Pe<0, i.e. deceleration. However since ω>ωs , δ
keeps increasing
(e) ω=ωs.
(e-a) Pa=Pm-Pe<0, deceleration. ω<ωs and δ reduces
(a) It will oscillate about a, until the oscillations die out due to damping D (if
system is stable).
Effect of clearing time on Stability
•The first cycle determines the
A1and A2.
•We know that if A1=A2, the system
is stable.

The question is how late we can

open the circuit breaker and
system is still stable. Or how large
δc can be?

We know that if δ2>δmax, there would be accelerating power available (while

ω>ωs) and system will become unstable.
So the condition to have a stable system is that: A1≤A2max.
Effect of clearing time on Stability

The limiting condition is

A1=A2max and the clearing angle
corresponding to this limiting
condition is called critical
clearing angle δcr:
If δc≤δcr , the system stays stable.

Knowing δcr is very important in order to design a proper protection system:

A1 = Pm ( cr −  0 )
 max
A 2 max =  (Pmax sin  − Pm )d = Pmax (cos  cr − cos  max ) − Pm ( max −  cr )
 cr
Effect of clearing time on Stability
For the system to be stable A1=A2max :
Pm 
cos  cr = ( max −  0 ) + cos  max

Pmax


 →  cr = cos ( − 2 0 )sin  0 − cos  0 
−1
 max =  −  0
Pm 
Pm = Pe0 = Pmax sin  0 → = sin  0 
Pmax 

To calculate the critical clearing time tcr, we write swing equation at after
fault i.e. Pe=0: H d 2 d 2 f
Pm − 0 = → = Pm
f dt 2
dt 2 H

Integrating this twice: f

 (t ) = Pm t 2 +  0 t  t cr
2H
f 2 2 H ( cr −  0 )
 (t cr ) =  cr = Pm t cr +  0 → t cr =
2H fPm
Example
For the system shown, both terminal voltage and infinite bus voltage are 1pu
and G is delivering 1pu power. X=0.1 pu X=0.5 pu
Vt
G inf V∞
For H=5MJ/MVA calculate the X=0.5 pu
X’=0.15 pu
critical clearing time for a 3-
phase fault shown in the figure.

The reactance between machine's terminals and the infinite bus is:
X=0.1j+(0.5j/2)=0.35j pu
The power transfer through a reactance is:
Vt V 1 1
P= sin  → 1 = sin  → sin  = 0.35 →  = 20.49
X 0.35
Vt = 120.49 = 0.94 + j 0.35 pu Note θ is the angle
V − V 0.94 + j 0.35 − 1 between Vt and V∞
I= t = = 1 + j 0.17 pu
X j 0.35
Example

The transient excitation voltage E’ is:

E ' = jIX ' + Vt = (1 + j 0.17)( j 0.15) + (0.94 + j 0.35) = 0.91 + j 0.5 = 1.03828.78

Transfer reactance between E’ and V∞ is:

Xt=0.1j+(0.5j/2)+j0.15=j0.5 pu
So, the transfer power is:
E ' V 1.038 1
Pe = sin  → Pe = sin  → Pe = 2.076 sin 
Xt 0.5

Note δ is the angle between E’ and V∞

 Example
One can write: Pe0=1=2.076sinδ0 → δ0=28.79°=0.502 rad

For the system to be stable

A1=A2max:
 cr = cos−1( − 2 0 )sin  0 − cos  0 
= cos −1( − 1.005)sin 28.79 − cos 28.79
= 1.418 electrical radian

Pm= Pe (0) =1 pu

2 H ( cr −  0 ) 2  5(1.418 − 0.502)
tcr = = = 0.24 sec
fPm   50 1

It means that the protection system must clear the fault before
0.24sec to have a stable system.
D-Y and Y-D transform:
Y-D transform: D-Y transform:
Z ab Z ca
Z Z + Zb Z c + Z c Z a Za =
Z ab = a b Z ab + Z bc + Z ca
Zc
Z ab Z bc
Z bc =
Z a Zb + Zb Z c + Z c Z a Zb =
Za Z ab + Z bc + Z ca
Z Z + Zb Z c + Z c Z a Z bc Z ca
Z ca = a b Zc =
Zb Z ab + Z bc + Z ca
Fault in the middle of one line of parallel lines
If fault occurs in the middle of line 2, during the fault we have:

Using D-Y
transform and then
simplifying:

Using Y-D transform: We do not need to know the

Xt2 is the transfer
values of the shunt reactances as
reactance during
they do not carry any real power.
fault
Fault in the middle of one line of parallel lines

In this case we will have 3

curves for Pe:

1-Pre-fault, transfer reactance is:

Xt1=X’+(X1||X2)+Xtr

E ' V
Pe1 = sin  = Pmax 1 sin 
X t1

2-During fault, transfer reactance

is Xt2
E ' V
Pe2 = sin  = Pmax 2 sin 
Xt2
Fault in the middle of one line of parallel lines

3-Post-fault, transfer
reactance, assuming that the
protection system removed
line 2, is:

Xt3=X’+X1+Xtr

E ' V
Pe3 = sin  = Pmax 3 sin 
X t3
Fault in the middle of one line of parallel lines

Similar to previous case,

to have a stable system:

A1≤A2max i.e. δ2≤δmax

i.e. δc≤δcr

Limiting situation for stability is:

A1=A2max i.e. δ2=δmax i.e. δc=δcr

−1  Pm 

Pm = Pmax 3 sin 1 → 1 = sin P
 max 3 
−1  Pm 

 max =  − 1 =  − sin P
 max 3 
Fault in the middle of one line of parallel lines
 cr
A1 =  (Pm − Pmax 2 sin  )d = Pm + Pmax 2 cos   cr

0
0
= Pm ( cr −  0 ) + Pmax 2 (cos  cr − cos  0 )

 max
A2 max =  (Pmax 3 sin  − Pm )d = −Pm + Pmax 3 cos   max

cr
 cr
= − Pm ( max −  cr ) − Pmax 3 (cos  max − cos  cr )

Limiting situation for stability is: A1=A2max

Pm ( cr −  0 ) + Pmax 2 (cos  cr − cos  0 ) = − Pm ( max −  cr ) − Pmax 3 (cos  max − cos  cr )

Pm ( max −  0 ) − Pmax 2 cos  0 + Pmax 3 cos  max

cos  cr =
Pmax 3 − Pmax 2
Example 1
For the system shown, both terminal voltage and infinite bus voltage are 1pu
and G is delivering 1pu power.
For H=5MJ/MVA calculate the
critical clearing angel for a 3-phase
fault to ground in the middle of line 2. Assume that the fault is cleared
by opening the two circuit breakers at two ends of the line.

Pre fault: the series reactance between Vt and V∞ is:

X=j0.1+(j0.5/2)=j0.35
Vt V 1 1
P= sin  → 1 = sin  → sin  = 0.35 →  = 20.49
X 0.35 Note θ is the angle
Vt = 120.49 = 0.94 + j 0.35 pu
between Vt and V∞
V − V 0.94 + j 0.35 − 1
I= t = = 1 + j 0.17 pu
X j 0.35
Example 1

The transient excitation voltage is:

E ' = jIX ' + Vt = (1 + j 0.17)( j 0.15) + (0.94 + j 0.35) = 0.91 + j 0.5 = 1.03828.78

Transfer reactance between E’ and V∞ is:

Xt1=0.1j+(0.5j/2)+j0.15=j0.5 pu

So the transfer power is: Note δ is the

E ' V angle between

1.038 1
Pe1 = sin  → Pe1 = sin  → Pe1 = 2.076 sin 
X t1 0.5 E’ and V∞
Example 1
One can write: Pe1=1=2.076sinδ0 → δ0=28.79°=0.5024 rad
During fault:

E ' V 1.038 1
Pe2 = sin  → Pe2 = sin  → Pe2 = 0.8306 sin 
Xt2 1.2496

After fault being cleared by opening the two circuit breakers:

Xt3=j0.15+j0.1+j0.5=j0.75

E ' V 1.038 1
Pe3 = sin  → Pe3 = sin  → Pe3 = 1.384 sin 
X t3 0.75
Example 1

−1  Pm 

 max =  − 1 =  − sin  
 Pmax 3 
 1 
=  − sin −1   = 2.334 rad
 1.384 

Pm ( max −  0 ) − Pmax 2 cos  0 + Pmax 3 cos  max

cos  cr =
Pmax 3 − Pmax 2
1(2.334 − 0.5024 ) − 0.8306 cos 0.5024 + 1.384 cos 2.334
= = 0.2656
1.384 − 0.8306
 cr = arccos(0.2656) = 1.302 rad = 74.6 deg
Example 2
Figure below shows a single-line diagram of a 3-phase, 60 Hz
synchronous generator, connected through a transformer and a parallel
transmission line to an infinite bus. All reactances are given in per-unit
(pu) on a common system base. If the infinite bus receives 1 pu active
power at 0.95 lagging power factor,
(a) Determine the equation of the electrical power delivered by the
generator as a function of its power angle

Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0

G inf
X’=0.3 X13=0.1 X23=0.2
Example 2 j0.2
j0.1 I
(a)
j0.3 j0.1 j0.2
P = VI (PF ) → 1 = 1I  0.95 → I = 1.053 pu V∞ =1∟0
~ E’=|E’|∟δ
PF=0.95 lagging
→ θ=-arcos(0.95)=-18.19°

So phasor of current is : I = 1.053 − 18.19 pu

The transfer reactance is: Xt=0.3+0.1+[0.2||(0.1+0.2)]=0.52 pu

E’=V∞+jIXt=1+j0.52×1.053∟-18.19=1+0.547∟71.81°
=1.17+j0.52=1.281∟23.95° pu

| E ' || V | 1.281 1
Pe = sin  = sin  = 2.463 sin  pu
| Xt | 0.52
Example 2
(b) Calculate the synchronising coefficient and comment on the
generator steady state stability.
| E ' || V | 1.281
= cos  = cos 23.95 = 2.25
| Xt | 0.52

The synchronising coefficient is positive (δ<90°), so the system is

steady state stable.
Example 2
(c) The synchronous generator is initially operating in the condition of
part (a) when a 3-phase fault to ground occurs as shown below. Three
cycles later the fault extinguishes by itself. Due to a relay problem, all
circuit breakers remain closed. Determine whether stability is or is not
maintained. The inertia constant of the generator is 3 pu. Assume that
the mechanical power remains constant.

Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0

G inf
X’=0.3 X13=0.1 X23=0.2
Example 2 Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0
Pm= Pe (0) =1 pu G inf
Pe (0+) =0 pu X’=0.3 X13=0.1 X23=0.2

System is stable if δc ≤ δcr

δ(0+) = δ0= 23.95° = 0.418 rad

 cr = cos −1 ( − 2 0 )sin  0 − cos  0 

= cos −1 ( − 0.836 )sin 0.418 − cos 0.418
= 1.549 electrical radian

Swing equation just after fault:

H d 2
= Pm − Pe (0 + )
f dt 2
3 d 2
= 1- 0
 60 dt 2
Example 2
3 d 2
= 1- 0 Integration gives:
 60 dt 2

3  d d +  3 d
 − ( 0 )  = t → =t
 60  dt dt   60 dt
d +
Angle cannot change quickly, (0 ) = 0
dt
Integration gives:
3
 60
( )
 (t ) −  (0 + ) = 0.5t 2 →  (t ) =
60 2
6
t +  (0 + ) →  (t ) = 31.416t 2 + 0.418

3 cycles is 3×(1/60)=0.05 s
 c =  (0.05) = 31.416(0.05) 2 + 0.418
= 0.496 radians
= 28.4 degrees

δc ≤ δcr→ system remains stable

Example 2
(d) How many cycles after the fault the protection system should
remove it to maintain the system stability?
Critical clearing time:
2 H ( cr −  0 ) 2  3(1.549 − 0.418) 60
t cr = = = 0.19 sec ⎯⎯⎯→11.4 cycles
fPm   60  1

(e) The synchronous generator is initially operating in the condition of

part (a) when a 3-phase fault to ground occurs as shown below. The
fault is cleared by opening the circuit breaker at the ends of the faulted
line. Calculate the critical clearing angle.
Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0
G inf
X’=0.3 X13=0.1 X23=0.2
Example 2 Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0
G inf
X’=0.3 X13=0.1 X23=0.2
E’=1.281∟23.95° pu

Pre-fault:

Xt1=X’+Xtr +[X12||(X23 +X13 )]

=0.4+[0.2||0.3]=0.52 pu

E ' V 1.281
Pe1 = sin  = sin  = 2.46 sin  = Pmax 1 sin 
X t1 0.52
Example 2 Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0

During fault,
G inf
X’=0.3 X13=0.1 X23=0.2

E ' V 1.281
Pe 2 = sin  = sin  = 0.915 sin  = Pmax 2 sin 
X t2 1.4

Xtr=0.1 X12=0.2 V∞ =1∟0

After fault, G inf
Xt3=0.3+0.1+0.2=0.6 pu X’=0.3

E ' V 1.281
Pe3 = sin  = sin  = 2.135 sin  = Pmax 3 sin 
X t3 0.6
Example 2
2.46 = Pmax 1

0.915 = Pmax 2

2.135 = Pmax 3

Pm = Pmax 3 sin 1
−1  Pm  −1  1 
→ 1 = sin   = sin   = 0.487 rad
 Pmax 3   2.135 
 max =  − 1 =  − 0.487 = 2.654 rad

Pm ( max −  0 ) − Pmax 2 cos  0 + Pmax 3 cos  max

cos  cr =
Pmax 3 − Pmax 2
1(2.654 − 0.418) − 0.915 cos 0.418 + 2.135 cos 2.654
= = −0.4
2.135 − 0.915
 cr = arccos(−0.4) = 1.98 rad = 113.58 deg