TOEFL iBT ® Practice Test 3

ARCHITECTURE
Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space
for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and
aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects
our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major
ways.
Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and
color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of ele-
ments. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It
is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer
inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich
space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who
pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural
team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients
and architects.
In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its pur-
pose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical
laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materi-
als have changed dramatically. The world’s architectural structures have also been devised
in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of
how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the
forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination
of these in different parts of the structure.
Every development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes.
Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architectural struc-
tures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materi-
als that were available, such as wood, stone, or brick. Today technology has progressed to
the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure
desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few
generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and
with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight
between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago.
Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to
elements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the
interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment
includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early archi-
tecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skel-
eton and skin were often one.
Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty,
permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and
piling stone upon stone. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins
of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The door-
ways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that
support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limi-
tations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That inven-
tion was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The

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arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains,
but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground
structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone.
As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It
works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne
by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important struc-
tural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries.

Directions: Now answer the questions.

P Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space
A
R for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and
A
G aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects
R
A our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major
P
H ways.
1
1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about architecture are true
EXCEPT:
A Architecture is a visual art.
B Architecture reflects the cultural values of its creators.
C Architecture has both artistic and scientific dimensions.
D Architecture has an indirect effect on life.

Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and
P color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of ele-
A
R
ments. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life.
A It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also
G
R offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter,
A
P enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The
H
client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the
2 architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to
both clients and architects.

2. The word “ enhance ” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A protect
B improve
C organize
D match

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TOEFL iBT ® Practice Test 3

In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose,
P
A architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws,
R have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have
A
G changed dramatically. The world’s architectural structures have also been devised in rela-
R
A tion to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how
P
H they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the
3
forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination
of these in different parts of the structure.

3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the high-
lighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important
ways or leave out essential information.
A Unchanging physical laws have limited the size and strength of buildings that can
be made with materials discovered long ago.
B Building materials have changed in order to increase architectural size and
strength, but physical laws of structure have not changed.
C When people first started to build, the structural methods used to provide
strength and size were inadequate because they were not based on physical laws.
D Unlike building materials, the methods of support used in architecture have not
changed over time because they are based on physical laws.

Every development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes.
Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architectural
P
A structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the
R
A
materials that were available, such as wood, stone, or brick. Today technology has pro-
G gressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type
R
A of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within
P
H the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease
4
and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the
difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one
hundred years ago.

4. The word “ integral ” is closest in meaning to

A essential
B variable
C practical
D independent

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5. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about materials used in the
construction of buildings?
A Because new building materials are hard to find, construction techniques have
changed very little from past generations.
B The availability of suitable building materials no longer limits the types of
structures that may be built.
C The primary building materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick.
D Architects in earlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large
spaces.

6. In paragraph 4, what does the author imply about modern buildings?

A They occupy much less space than buildings constructed one hundred years ago.
B They are not very different from the buildings of a few generations ago.
C They weigh less in relation to their size than buildings constructed one hundred
years ago.
D They take a long time to build as a result of their complex construction methods.

Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty,
permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cut-
ting and piling stone upon stone. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen
in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains
of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces
P thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be
A made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural
R
A forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of
G
R separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediter-
A
P ranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed
H
and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the
6 semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the
arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert
the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on
either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs
that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries.

7. Why does the author include a description of how the “ doorways and windows” of
Machu Picchu were constructed?
A To indicate that the combined skeletons and skins of the stone buildings of
Machu Picchu were similar to igloos and adobe structures
B To indicate the different kinds of stones that had to be cut to build Machu Picchu
C To provide an illustration of the kind of construction that was required before
arches were invented
D To explain how ancient builders reduced the amount of time necessary to con-
struct buildings from stone

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TOEFL iBT ® Practice Test 3

8. According to paragraph 6, which of the following statements is true of the arch?

A The Romans were the first people to use the stone arch.
B The invention of the arch allowed new architectural forms to be developed.
C The arch worked by distributing the structural load of a building toward the
center of the arch.
D The Romans followed earlier practices in their use of arches.

Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built
now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago.
P
A 4 (A) Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components compara-
R ble to elements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclos-
A 5
G ing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. (B)
R A
A N The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. (C)
P D
H Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such
S 6 equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. (D)
Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its
beauty, permanence, and availability.

9. Directions: Look at the part of the passage that is displayed above. The letters (A), (B),
(C), and (D) indicate where the following sentence could be added.
However, some modern architectural designs, such as those using folded plates
of concrete or air-inflated structures, are again unifying skeleton and skin.
Where would the sentence best fit?
A Choice A
B Choice B
C Choice C
D Choice D

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 Reading

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express
the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the
summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are
minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Architecture uses forms and space to express cultural values.

Answer Choices

A Architects seek to create buildings that are both visually appealing and well suited for
human use.
B Both clients and architects are responsible for the mediocre designs of some modern
buildings.
C Over the course of the history of building, innovations in materials and methods of
construction have given architects ever greater freedom to express themselves.
D Modern buildings tend to lack the beauty of ancient stone buildings such as those of
Machu Picchu.
E Throughout history buildings have been constructed like human bodies, needing distinct
“organ” systems in order to function.
F The discovery and use of the arch typifies the way in which architecture advances by
developing more efficient types of structures.

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TOEFL iBT ® Practice Test 3

THE LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ECOSYSTEMS

Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on
the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes
that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a suc-
cession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succes-
sion is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to
change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of
species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time
greater than about 500 years.
An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s
time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from
one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than
the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They
believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this
idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more
complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists con-
cluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To
take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one
year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast,
a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable dam-
age from weather or pests.
The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that
ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of
change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by
definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed
with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such
as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would
be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return
to the climax state.
Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated
with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in
mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for
example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor
are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models
of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just
the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple
system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a
child’s tricycle.)
Ecologists are especially interested in knowing what factors contribute to the resil-
ience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely
damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explo-
sion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in compari-
son to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community
are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

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 Reading

Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities
comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment; an environment
that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that
is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an
adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approxi-
mately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

Directions: Now answer the questions.

Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on
P
A the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes
R
A
that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a suc-
G cession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succes-
R
A sion is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to
P
H change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of
1
species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time
greater than about 500 years.

1. The word “ particular ” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A natural
B final
C specific
D complex

P An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s
A
R time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from
A
G one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than
R
A the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
P
H
2
2. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be
learned by studying a pond?
A Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.
B The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.
C Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.
D A change in the numbers of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s
properties.

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TOEFL iBT ® Practice Test 3

The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecol-
P
A ogists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of
R
A
change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by
G definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed
R
A with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such
P
H as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would
4
be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return
to the climax state.

3. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?

A The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.
B Ecologists often confuse the word “stability” with the word “resilience.”
C The exact meaning of the word “stability” is debated by ecologists.
D There are many different answers to ecological questions.

4. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?

A They are more resilient than pioneer communities.
B They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.
C They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.
D They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.

Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with
P maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-
A successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for
R
A example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor
G
R are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models
A
P of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just
H
the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple
5 system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a
child’s tricycle.)

5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?
A They become less stable as they mature.
B They support many species when they reach climax.
C They are found in temperate zones.
D They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.

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6. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “A fifteen-speed
racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle”?
A To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an
everyday example
B To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied
to help understand stability in other situations
C To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases
with diversity
D To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems

P Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities
A
R comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment; an environment
A
G that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that
R is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an
A
P adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approxi-
H
mately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
7

7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the high-
lighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important
ways or leave out essential information.
A Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity
rather than patchiness.
B Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species
diversity.
C Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not
support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.
D A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support
a wide variety of organisms.

8. The word “ adjacent ” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A foreign
B stable
C fluid
D neighboring

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TOEFL iBT ® Practice Test 3

A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down.
P
A (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.)
R
A
(A) Ecologists are especially interested in knowing what factors contribute to the resil-
G ience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely
R
A damaged or destroyed by human activities. (B) The destruction caused by the volcanic
P
H explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in
S
comparison to the destruction caused by humans. (C) We need to know what aspects of a
5 community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its
6 recovery. (D)
A Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities
N
D comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment; an environment
7
that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that
is uniform.

9. Directions: Look at the part of the passage that is displayed above. The letters (A), (B),
(C), and (D) indicate where the following sentence could be added.
In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe
than by natural events and processes.
Where would the sentence best fit?
A Choice A
B Choice B
C Choice C
D Choice D

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10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express
the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the
summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are
minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change
over time.

Answer Choices

A The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can
be seen in one human generation.
B Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.
C A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
D Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the
most stable ecosystems.
E The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.
F The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by
humans.

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