The Media: Agenda-Setting Role of the Media.

Cyberbullying. Hate Speech

Advances in communication and internet connection around the globe have had
major impacts on how we talk to each other, on how we learn and behave and even
on what contributions we make. In this lesson we will learn about cyberbullying and
hate speech, how both phenomena happen and what consequences they have. Also,
we will analyze agenda-setting role of media and its influence on what we consider
relevant.

The Agenda-setting Theory

Referencis
Lesson 1 of 2

The Agenda-setting Theory

Whenever something huge happens, the world’s media organizations take

notice. Regarding the agenda-setting theory in mass communication, the
Alvernia University explained:

Whether it is [our president] making an announcement or a

severe storm battering a region, when it is a story that impacts
people’s lives, the news media is on alert to cover it, providing
viewers with the facts and information [about the subject].

But sometimes it may seem, with so much media focus (…) on a

single event, that the mass media is missing or even ignoring
other important stories. This is the crux of the agenda-setting
theory.

This theory refers to how the media’s news coverage

determines which issues become the focus of public attention.
First introduced in 1972 by college professors, Maxwell
McCombs and Donald Shaw, they found in surveying North
Carolina voters during the 1968 U.S. presidential election that
what people thought were the most important issues were what
the mass media reported as the most critical.

Thus, agenda-setting theory was born, built on the notion that

the mass media sets the agenda for what people should care
about.

The agenda-setting theory rests on two basic assumptions.

The first is that the media filters and shapes what we see rather
than just reflecting stories to the audience. An example of this is
seeing a sensational or scandalous story at the top of a
broadcast as opposed to a story that happened more recently or
one that affects more people, such as an approaching storm or
legislative tax reform.

The second assumption is that the more attention the media

gives to an issue, the more likely the public will consider that
issue to be important. Another way to look at it: Mass media
organizations aren’t telling us what to think or how we should
feel about a story or issue, but are giving us certain stories or
issues that people should think more about.
There is psychological and scientific merit to the agenda-setting
theory. The more a story is publicized in the mass media, the
more it becomes prominently stored in individuals’ memories
when they’re asked to recall it, even if it doesn’t specifically
affect them or register as a prominent issue in their minds.

Types of Agenda Setting

There are three types of agenda setting:

Public agenda setting: when the public determines the agenda

for which stories are considered important.

Media agenda setting: when the media determines the agenda

for which stories are considered important.

Policy agenda setting: when both the public and the media
agendas influence the decisions of public policy makers.

One of the issues with the agenda-setting theory is that it is

difficult to measure. Research on the theory has been largely
inconclusive in establishing a causal relationship between public
prominence and media coverage. And in 2018, with the
worldwide influence of the internet and social media, where
almost everyone can find news they’re looking for instead of
being constrained by just relying on one or two sources, it’s
harder to convince others that the mass media is setting the
agenda.
 In addition, the theory doesn’t work for people who have already
made up their minds. For example, someone might believe that
his or her elected official was the right choice for office, despite
numerous compelling reports to the contrary presented by the
mass media. (2018)

The_Agenda-Setting_Role_of_the_Mass_Media_in_the_S.pdf
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Published source: Maxwell Mccombs. (2011). The Agenda-Setting Role of the Mass Media in the Shaping of Public

Opinion. University of Texas at Austin. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237394610_The_Agenda-

Setting_Role_of_the_Mass_Media_in_the_Shaping_of_Public_Opinion

Video 1: Agenda Setting and Object Attributes

Agenda Setting and Object Attributes

VIDEO: Academic Educational Materials. (2016, October 21). Agenda Setting and Object Attributes [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bEg-6G2b_9o
Cyberbullying

UNICEF explained what cyberbullying is in the following way (n. d.):

Cyberbullying is bullying with the use of digital technologies. It

can take place on social media, messaging platforms, gaming
platforms and mobile phones. It is repeated behavior, aimed at
scaring, angering or shaming those who are targeted. (…)

Face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying can often happen

alongside each other. But cyberbullying leaves a digital footprint
– a record that can prove useful and provide evidence to help
stop the abuse.

The effects [of this phenomenon] can last a long time and affect
a person in many ways:

Mentally: feeling upset, embarrassed, stupid, even angry.

Emotionally: feeling ashamed or losing interest in the things

[one used to do]. Withdrawal from family and friends.
 Physically: tired (loss of sleep), or experiencing symptoms like
stomach aches and headaches, [anxiety, insomnia].

The feeling of being laughed at or harassed by others can

prevent people from speaking up or trying to deal with the
problem.

Cyberbullying can affect a person in many ways and in extreme cases it can
lead to suicide. But it is important to know that online harassment can be
overcome.

The forms in which cyberbullying is produced are:

Sending cruel e-mails or messages with the intention of threatening

and humiliating the target.

Sharing or posting embarrassing photos, videos or information of a

person in a profile, website, blog or chat site.

Pretending to be the victim on online platforms to say unpleasant

things about that person.

Getting compromising pictures or images of someone with the

intention of blackmailing them.
 Doing photomontages with pictures of the victim to spread them
through Internet or cellphones.

Posting personal information of the victim to encourage others to

join the bullying.

Video 2: Cyber Bullying

Cyber Bullying (UNICEF)

VIDEO: UNICEF. (2012, May 30). Cyber Bullying (UNICEF) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=asTti6y39xI

Hate speech

Nockleby (2000) defines hate speech as “any communication that

disparages a person or a group on the basis of some characteristic such as
race, color, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, religion, or other
characteristic”

According to this topic the European Commission against Racism and

Intolerance (ECRI) explains:

Hate speech covers many forms of expressions which spread,

incite, promote or justify hatred, violence and discrimination
against a person or group of persons for a variety of reasons. It
poses grave dangers for the cohesion of a democratic society,
the protection of human rights and the rule of law. If left
unaddressed, it can lead to acts of violence and conflict on a
wider scale. In this sense hate speech is an extreme form of
intolerance which contributes to hate crime. (n. d.)

In the article “What is Hate Speech?” by KAICIID Dialogue Centre it is

explained:

For acts of incitement to result in violence, the following

elements need to be present: a context conducive to violence,
an influential speaker, a speech act that is widely disseminated,
a receptive audience and a target (typically marginalized
groups).

An act constitutes incitement to violence when there is intent on

the part of the speaker to advocate or cause violence. There
also needs to be a likelihood that the act may result in violence.
Therefore, while all incitement to discrimination, hostility or
violence is hate speech, not all hate speech constitutes
incitement.

What about freedom of expression? Freedom of expression is

protected under international law, with clear rights outlined in
Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR).

However, the international community has also agreed to certain

limitations – such as on speech which advocates “national,
racial or religious hatred” and “constitutes incitement to
discrimination, hostility or violence.” Therefore, it is extremely
important for governments to establish sound legal frameworks
on hate speech which hold perpetrators accountable, uphold
human dignity, protect marginalized groups, while still balancing
the right to freedom of expression.
While government authorities have the primary responsibility to
prevent incitement and protect their people from atrocity crimes,
it is up to everyone to stop hate speech and the violence it
enables and encourages. There are many ways to counter and
prevent hate speech. These include:

Raising awareness through community-held trainings or

educating friends and family on the dangers of discrimination
and intolerance

Reporting social media posts which spread rumors or

misinformation

Boosting positive messages of peace and tolerance on social

media and online platforms

Supporting individuals or groups who are targeted by hate

speech and encouraging policymakers to take action against
discriminatory language or policies

Hosting workshops on conflict sensitive journalism in order to

help journalists develop the ethical capacities to identify sources
of conflict, and to report news fairly and accurately

Forming early warning and early response committees at the

national and local levels to monitor hate speech and other forms
of incitement to violence. (2019, October 21).

Detecting Hate Speech on the World Wide Web.pdf

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Source: Warner, W., & Hirschberg, J. (2012). Detecting Hate Speech on the World Wide Web. In Proceedings of the

2012 Workshop on Language in Social Media (LSM 2012) (pp. 19–23). https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W12-

2103.pdf

Video 3: Hate Speech Online

Teen Voices: Hate Speech Online

Source: Common Sense Education. (2019, September 16). Teen Voices: Hate Speech Online [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vUdWpwLv10

C O NT I NU A R
Lesson 2 of 2

Referencis

Academic Educational Materials. (2016, October 21). Agenda Setting and

Object Attributes [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bEg-
6G2b_9o

Alvernia University. (2018, February 19). The Agenda-Setting Theory in Mass

Communication. https://online.alvernia.edu/articles/agenda-setting-theory/

Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI). (n. d.). Hate speech and
violence. Council of Europe Portal. https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-
commission-against-racism-and-intolerance/hate-speech-and-violence

Common Sense Education. (2019, September 16). Teen Voices: Hate Speech
Online [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vUdWpwLv10

KAICIID Dialogue Centre. (2019, October 21). What is Hate Speech? KAICIID.
https://www.kaiciid.org/news-events/news/what-hate-speech

Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & Agatston, P. W. (2012). Cyberbullying: Bullying

in the Digital Age. Wiley-Blackwell.
Maxwell Mccombs. (2011). The Agenda-Setting Role of the Mass Media in the
Shaping of Public Opinion. University of Texas at Austin.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237394610_The_Agenda-
Setting_Role_of_the_Mass_Media_in_the_Shaping_of_Public_Opinion

McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass

Media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176–187.
https://doi.org/10.1086/267990

Nockelby, J. T. (2000). Hate Speech. MacMillan.

UNICEF. (n. d.). Cyberbullying: What is it and how to stop it. UNICEF for Every
Child. https://www.unicef.org/end-violence/how-to-stop-cyberbullying

UNICEF. (2012, May 30). Cyber Bullying (UNICEF) [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=asTti6y39xI

Warner, W., & Hirschberg, J. (2012). Detecting Hate Speech on the World
Wide Web. In Proceedings of the 2012 Workshop on Language in Social Media
(LSM 2012) (pp. 19–23). https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W12-2103.pdf

C O NT I NU A R