LECTURE NOTES

ON

Electrical Measurement & Instrumentation

(Th. 3)
Name of the course: Diploma in Electrical Engineering.

(4th Semester)

Notes Prepared by: DEBASIS CHOUDHURY.

Designation : LECTURER IN ELECTRICAL.

College : UTKALMANI GOPABANDHU INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING, ROURKELA.
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CHAPTER 1
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
 Measurement is the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a given quantity
and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a unit. The result of the measurement is expressed
by a pointer deflection over a predefined scale or a number representing the ratio between
the unknown quantity and the standard.
 A standard is defined as the physical personification of the unit of measurement or its sub-
multiple or multiple values.
 The device or instrument used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or a standard quantity is called a measuring instrument.
 The value of the unknown quantity can be measured by direct or indirect methods.
 In direct measurement methods, the unknown quantity is measured directly instead of
comparing it with a standard. Examples of direct measurement are current by ammeter,
voltage by voltmeter, resistance by ohmmeter, power by wattmeter, etc.
 In indirect measurement methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by
measuring the functionally related quantity and calculating the desired quantity rather than
measuring it directly. Suppose the resistance as (R) of a conductor can be measured by
measuring the voltage drop across the conductor and dividing the voltage (V) by the current

(I) through the conductors, by Ohm’s law.

DEFINITIONS OF SOME STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Accuracy:
Accuracy is the closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the variable
under measurement. Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount by which the result differs
from the true value. It is almost impossible to determine experimentally the true value. The true value
is not indicated by any measurement system due to the loading effect, lags and mechanical problems
(e.g., wear, hysteresis, noise, etc.).
Accuracy of the measured signal depends upon the following factors:
 Intrinsic accuracy of the instrument itself;
 Accuracy of the observer;
 Variation of the signal to be measured; and
 Whether or not the quantity is being truly impressed upon the instrument.

Precision:
Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., precision is a measure of the
degree to which successive measurements differ from one another. Precision is indicated from the
number of significant figures in which it is expressed. Significant figures actually convey the
information regarding the magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity. More significant
figures imply greater precision of the measurement
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Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary value it will be noticed that the output does not
change at all until the increment exceeds a certain value called the resolution or discrimination of the
instrument. Thus, the resolution or discrimination of any instrument is the smallest change in the
input signal (quantity under measurement) which can be detected by the instrument. It may be
expressed as an accrual value or as a fraction or percentage of the full scale value. Resolution is
sometimes referred as sensitivity. The largest change of input quantity for which there is no output
of the instrument is called the dead zone of that instrument.
The sensitivity gives the relation between the input signal to an instrument or a part of the instrument
system and the output. Thus, the sensitivity is defined as the ratio of output signal or response of the
instrument to a change of input signal or the quantity under measurement.

Speed of Response
The quickness of an instrument to read the measurand variable is called the speed of response.
Alternately, speed of response is defined as the time elapsed between the start of the measurement
to the reading taken. This time depends upon the mechanical moving system, friction, etc.

MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS
In practice, it is impossible to measure the exact value of the measurand. There is always some
difference between the measured value and the absolute or true value of the unknown quantity
(measurand), which may be very small or may be large. The difference between the true or exact
value and the measured value of the unknown quantity is known as the absolute error of the
measurement.
If δA be the absolute error of the measurement, Am and A be the measured and absolute value of the
unknown quantity then δA may be expressed as

Sometimes, δA is denoted by ε0.

The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity to be
measured,

When the absolute error ε0 (=δA) is negligible, i.e., when the difference between the true value A and
the measured value Am of the unknown quantity is very small or negligible then the relative error may
be expressed as,

The relative error is generally expressed as a fraction, i.e., 5 parts in 1000 or in percentage value,
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CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

The measuring instruments may be classified as follows:

I. Absolute and Secondary Instruments

Absolute Instruments
The instruments of this type give the value of the measurand in terms of instrument constant and its
deflection. Such instruments do not require comparison with any other standard. The example of this
type of instrument is tangent galvanometer, which gives the value of the current to be measured in
terms of tangent of the angle of deflection produced, the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field, the radius and the number of turns of the wire used. Rayleigh current balance and
absolute electrometer are other examples of absolute instruments. Absolute instruments are mostly
used in standard laboratories and in similar institutions as standardizing.

Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the deflection of such instruments gives the magnitude of
the electrical quantity to be measured directly. These instruments are required to be calibrated by
comparison with either an absolute instrument or with another secondary instrument, which has
already been calibrated before the use. These instruments are generally used in practice.
Secondary instruments are further classified as
 Indicating instruments
 Integrating instruments
 Recording instruments
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(i) Indicating Instruments:

Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time
when it is being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a calibrated
(pregraduated) scale. Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, frequency meters, power factor
meters, etc., fall into this category.

(ii) Integrating Instruments:

Integrating instruments are those which measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity
(ampere-hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. The summation, given by such an
instrument, is the product of time and an electrical quantity under measurement. The ampere-hour
meters and energy meters fall in this class.

(iii) Recording Instruments:

Recording instruments are those which keep a continuous record of the variation of the magnitude
of an electrical quantity to be observed over a definite period of time. In such instruments, the moving
system carries an inked pen which touches lightly a sheet of paper wrapped over a drum moving with
uniform slow motion in a direction perpendicular to that of the direction of the pointer. Thus, a curve
is traced which shows the variations in the magnitude of the electrical quantity under observation
over a definite period of time. Such instruments are generally used in powerhouses where the
current, voltage, power, etc., are to be maintained within certain acceptable limit.

II. Analog and Digital Instruments

1. Analog Instruments
The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take on infinite number of values
in a given range. Fuel gauge, ammeter and voltmeters, wrist watch, speedometer fall in this category.

2. Digital Instruments
Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite number of different values in a given range are
digital signals and the corresponding instruments are of digital type. Digital instruments have some
advantages over analog meters, in that they have high accuracy and high speed of operation. It
eliminates the human operational errors. Digital instruments can store the result for future purposes.
A digital multimeter is the example of a digital instrument.

III. Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Instruments

1. Mechanical Instruments
Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. They are unable to respond
rapidly to the measurement of dynamic and transient conditions due to the fact that they have
moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass presents
inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are
involved in dynamic instruments. Also, most of the mechanical instruments cause noise pollution.
Advantages of Mechanical Instruments
 Relatively cheaper in cost
 More durable due to rugged construction
 Simple in design and easy to use
 No external power supply required for operation
 Reliable and accurate for measurement of stable and time invariant quantity
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Disadvantages of Mechanical Instruments

 Poor frequency response to transient and dynamic measurements
 Large force required to overcome mechanical friction
 Incompatible when remote indication and control needed
 Cause noise pollution

2. Electrical Instruments
When the instrument pointer deflection is caused by the action of some electrical methods then it is
called an electrical instrument. The time of operation of an electrical instrument is more rapid than
that of a mechanical instrument. Unfortunately, an electrical system normally depends upon a
mechanical measurement as an indicating device. This mechanical movement has some inertia due
to which the frequency response of these instruments is poor.

3. Electronic Instruments
Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices. Most of the scientific and industrial
instrumentations require very fast responses. Such requirements cannot be met with by mechanical
and electrical instruments. In electronic devices, since the only movement involved is that of
electrons, the response time is extremely small owing to very small inertia of the electrons. With the
use of electronic devices, a very weak signal can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.
Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments
 Non-contact measurements are possible
 These instruments consume less power
 Compact in size and more reliable in operation
 Greater flexibility
 Good frequency and transient response
 Remote indication and recording possible
 Amplification produced greater than that produced in mechanical instruments

IV. Manual and Automatic Instruments

In case of manual instruments, the service of an operator is required. For example, measurement of
temperature by a resistance thermometer incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in its circuit, an
operator is required to indicate the temperature being measured.
In an automatic type of instrument, no operator is required all the time. For example, measurement
of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer.
V. Self-operated and Power-operated InstrumentsSelf-operated instruments are those in which no
outside power is required for operation. The output energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by
the input measurand. Dial-indicating type instruments belong to this category.
The power-operated instruments are those in which some external power such as electricity,
compressed air, hydraulic supply is required for operation. In such cases, the input signal supplies
only an insignificant portion of the output power.
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VI. Deflection and Null Output Instruments

In a deflection-type instrument, the deflection of the instrument indicates the measurement of the
unknown quantity. The measurand quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or produces
a mechanical displacement in the moving system of the instrument. An opposite effect is built in the
instrument which opposes the deflection or the mechanical displacement of the moving system. The
balance is achieved when opposing effect equals the actuating cause producing the deflection or the
mechanical displacement. The deflection or the mechanical displacement at this point gives the value
of the unknown input quantity. These types of instruments are suited for measurement under
dynamic condition. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI), etc., type instruments
are examples of this category.
In null-type instruments, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the magnitude of the
measurand quantity. The null condition depends upon some other known conditions. These are more
accurate and highly sensitive as compared to deflection-type instruments. A dc potentiometer is a
null- type instrument.

OPERATING TORQUES
Three types of torques are needed for satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument. These are

1. Deflecting torque

2. Controlling torque

3. Damping torque

Deflecting Torque/Force
Any instrument’s deflection is found by the total effect of the deflecting torque/force, control torque/
force and damping torque/force. The deflecting torque’s value is dependent upon the electrical signal
to be measured; this torque/force helps in rotating the instrument movement from its zero position.
The system producing the deflecting torque is called the deflecting system.

Controlling Torque/Force
The act of this torque/force is opposite to the deflecting torque/force. When the deflecting and
controlling torques are equal in magnitude then the movement will be in definite position or in
equilibrium. Spiral springs or gravity is usually given to produce the controlling torque. The system
which produces the controlling torque is called the controlling system.
The functions of the controlling system are

1. To produce a torque equal and opposite to the deflecting torque at the final steady position
of the pointer in order to make the deflection of the pointer definite for a particular
magnitude of current

2. To bring the moving system back to its zero position when the force causing the
instrument moving system to deflect is removed

The controlling torque in indicating instruments is almost always obtained by a spring, much less
commonly, by gravity.
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Damping Torque/Force
A damping force generally works in an opposite direction to the movement of the moving system.
This opposite movement of the damping force, without any oscillation or very small oscillation brings
the moving system to rest at the final deflected position quickly. Air friction, fluid friction and eddy
currents provide the damping torque/force to act. It must also be noted that not all damping force
affects the steady-state deflection caused by a given deflecting force or torque. With the angular
velocity of the moving system, the intensity of the damping force rises; therefore, its effect is greatest
when it rotates rapidly and zero when the system rotation is zero. In the description of various types
of instruments, detailed mathematical expressions for the damping torques are taken into
consideration.
When the deflecting torque is much greater than the controlling torque, the system is called
underdamped. If the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, it is called critically damped.
When deflecting torque is much less than the controlling torque, the system is under overdamped
condition.

Controlling System

The controlling torque is provided by a spring or sometimes by gravity.

Spring Control
A hair-spring, usually of phosphor-bronze
attached to the moving system, is used in
indicating instruments for control purpose.
To give a controlling torque which is directly
proportional to the angle of deflection of the
moving system, the number of turns on the spring
should be fairly large, so that the deflection per
unit length is small. The stress in the spring must
be limited to such a value that there is no
permanent set.
Suppose that a spiral spring is made up of a total
length L m of strip whose cross-section is
rectangular, the radial thickness being t m and the
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depth b m. Let E be Young’s modulus (N/m2) for the material of the spring. Then, if θ radians be the
deflection of the moving system to which one end of the spring is being attached, the expression for
the controlling torque is

Thus, controlling torque ∞ θ ∞ instrument deflection.

Gravity Control

In a gravity-controlled instrument, a small weight is attached

to the moving system in such a way that it produces a
restoring or controlling torque when the system is deflected.
The controlling torque, when the deflection is θ, is ωl sin θ,
where W is the control weight and l its distance from the axis
of rotation of the moving system, and it is, therefore,
proportional only to the sine of the angle of deflection, instead
of, as with spring control, being directly proportional to the
angle of deflection. Gravity-controlled instruments must
obviously be used in a vertical position in order that the
control may operate.

Comparison of Spring and Gravity Control

Gravity control has the following advantages when compared with spring control:
 It is cheaper
 Independent of temperature
 Does not deteriorate with time

Consider an instrument in which the deflecting torque TD is directly proportional to the current (say)
to be measured.
Thus, if I is the current,

If the instrument is spring-controlled, the controlling torque being TC, when the deflection is θ,
TC = ksθ ( ks is spring constant)
Also, TC=TD
or ksθ = kI
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Thus, the deflection is proportional to the current throughout the scale.

Now if the same instrument is gravity controlled,
T = kg sin θ (k s a constant that depends upon the control weight
And TC = TD = kI

Thus, a gravity-controlled instrument would have a scale which is ‘cramped’ at its lower end instead
of being uniformly divided, though the deflecting torque is directly proportional to the quantity to be
measured.

Damping System
There are three systems of damping generally used. These are as follows:
 Air-friction damping
 Fluid-friction damping
 Eddy-current damping

Air-Friction Damping
In this method, a light aluminium piston is attached to the moving system and moves in an air chamber
closed at one end. The cross-section of this chamber may be either circular or rectangular. The
clearance between the piston and the sides of the chamber should be small and uniform. If the piston
is moving rapidly into the chamber, the air in the closed space is compressed and the pressure
opposes the motion of the piston (and, therefore, of the whole moving system). If the piston is moving
out of the chamber rapidly, the pressure in the closed space falls, and the pressure on the open side
of the piston is greater than that on the opposite side. Motion is thus again opposed. Sometimes
instead of a piston, a vane, mounted on the spindle of the moving system, moves in a closed-sector-
shaped box.

Fluid-Friction Damping
In this type of damping, a light vane, attached to the spindle of the moving system, dips into a pot of
damping oil and should be completely submerged by the oil. The frictional drag in the disc is always
in the direction opposing motion. There is no friction force when the disc is stationary. In the second
system, increased damping is obtained by the use of vanes.
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Eddy-Current Damping
When a sheet of conducting material moves in a magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force,
eddy currents are set up in it and a force exists between these currents and the magnetic field, which
is always in the direction opposing the motion. The force is magnitude of the current is proportional
to the velocity of movement of the conductor, and thus, if the magnetic field is constant, the damping
force is proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is zero when there is no movement of
the system.

Eddy-Current Damping Torque of Metal Former shows a metallic former moving in the field of a
permanent magnet.
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CHAPTER-2
ANALOG AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS
INTRODUCTION
An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function of time and bears a
constant relation to its input. Measuring instruments are classified according to both the quantity
measured by the instrument and the principle of operation. Three general principles of operation are
available: (i) electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects of electric currents; (ii) electrostatic,
which utilizes the forces between electrically charged conductors; (iii) electro-thermal, which utilizes
the heating effect.
Electric measuring instruments and meters are used to indicate directly the value of current, voltage,
power or energy. In this chapter, we will consider an electromechanical meter (input is as an electrical
signal which results in mechanical force or torque as an output) that can be connected with additional
suitable components in order to act as an ammeter and a voltmeter. The most common analog
instrument or meter is the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it is used for measuring a
dc current or voltage of an electric circuit. On the other hand, the indications of alternating current
ammeters and voltmeters must represent the rms values of the current, or voltage, respectively,
applied to the instrument.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

In a broad sense, analog instruments may be classified into two ways:

 Absolute instruments
 Secondary instruments

Absolute instruments give the value of the electrical quantity to be measured in terms of the
constants of the instruments and to its deflection, no comparison with another instrument being
required. For example, the tangent galvanometer gives the value of the current to be measured in
terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection produced by the current, the radius and the number
of turns of galvanometer coil, and the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. No
calibration of the instrument is thus necessary.
Secondary instruments are so constructed that the value of current, voltage or other quantity to be
measured can be determined from the deflection of the instruments, only if the latter has been
calibrated by comparison with either an absolute instrument or one which has already been
calibrated. The deflection obtained is meaningless until such a calibration has been made.
This class of instruments is in most general use, absolute instrument being seldom used except in
standard laboratories and similar institutions.

The secondary instruments may be classifies as

 Indicating instruments
 Recording instruments
 Integrating instruments
Indicating instruments are instruments which indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured.
They generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose.
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Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a specified
period. The variation of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen (attached to the moving
system of the instrument; the moving system is operated by the quantity being measured) on a sheet
of paper that moves perpendicular to the movement of the pen.
Integrating instruments record totalized events over a specified period of time. The summation,
which they give, is the product of time and an electrical quantity. Ampere hour and watt hour (energy)
meters are examples of this category.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Analog instruments may be classified according to the principle of operation they utilise. The effects
they utilise are

 Magnetic effect
 Heating effect
 Electrostatic effect
 Electromagnetic effect
 Hall effect

The majority of analog instruments including moving coil, moving iron and electrodynamic utilise the
magnetic effect. The effect of the heat produced by a current in a conductor is used in thermocouple
and hotwire instruments. Electrostatic effect is used in electrostatic voltmeters. The electromagnetic
induction effect is used in induction wattmeters and induction energy meters.

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL

Principle of Operation
The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque
is exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil C has a number
of turns of thin insulated wires wound on a rectangular aluminium former F. The frame is carried on
a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1, J2. A pointer PR is attached to the spindle so that it moves
over a calibrated scale. The whole of the moving system is made as light in weight as possible to keep
the friction at the bearing to a minimum.
The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed
between the shaped soft-iron pole piece (pp) of a
permanent magnet PM and a fixed soft-iron
cylindrical core IC. The core serves two purposes; (a)
it intensifies the magnetic field by reducing the
length of the air gap, and (b) it makes the field radial
and uniform in the air gap.
Thus, the coil always moves at right angles to the
magnetic field. Modern permanent magnets are
made of steel alloys which are difficult to machine.
Soft-iron pole pieces (pp) are attached to the
permanent magnet PM for easy machining in order
to adjust the length of the air gap.
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A soft-iron yoke (Y ) is used to complete the flux path and to provide shielding from stray external
fields.
Deflecting Torque Equation of PMMC Instrument
Let, B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)

i = current in the coil (A)

l = effective axial length of the coil (m)
b = breadth of the coil (m)
n = number of turns of the coil.
Force on one side of the coil is

Torque on each side of the coil,

Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,

For a permanent magnet, B is constant. Also, for a given coil l, b and n are constants and thus the
product (Blnb) is also a constant, say k1.

Control Torque The control on the movement of the pointer over the scale is provided by two spirally
wound, phosphor-bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the spindle S. Sometimes these springs
also conduct the current into and out of the coil.
The control torque of the springs is proportional to the angle θ turned through by the coil.

Where, TC is the control torque and ks is the spring constant.

At final steady state position, Control torque = Deflecting torque

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So, angular deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current. Thus the scale of the
instrument is linear or uniformly divided.

Damping Torque When the aluminium former (F) moves with the coil in the field of the permanent
magnet, a voltage is induced, causing eddy current to flow in it. These current exerts a force on the
former. By Lenz’s law, this force opposes the motion producing it. Thus, a damping torque is obtained.
Such a damping is called eddy-current damping.

Advantages of PMMC Instruments

 Sensitive to small current
 Very accurate and reliable
 Uniform scale up to 270° or more
 Very effective built in damping
 Low power consumption, varies from 25 µW to 200 µW
 Free from hysteresis and not effected by external fields because its permanent magnet shields
the coil from external magnetic fields
 Easily adopted as a multirange instrument

Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments

 This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In alternating current, the
instrument does not operate because in the positive half, the pointer experiences a force in
one direction and in the negative half the pointer experiences the force in the opposite
direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains it’s zero position.
 The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by rough handling.
 The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged overloading.
 It is costlier.
 The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and control spring) may introduce some
errors.

EXTENSION OF RANGE OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS

Ammeter Shunts
The moving-coil instrument has a coil wound with very fine wire. It can carry only few mA safely to
give full-scale deflection. For measuring higher current, a low resistance is connected in parallel to the
instrument to bypass the major part of the current. The low resistance connected in parallel with the
coil is called a shunt.
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The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.
Rsh = shunt resistance (Ω)
Rm = coil resistance (Ω)
Im = Ifs = full-scale deflection current (A)
Ish = shunt current (A)
I = current to be measured (A)
The voltage drop across the shunt and the meter must be same as they are connected in parallel.

The ratio of the total current to the current in the meter is called multiplying power of shunt.
Multiplying power,

Voltmeter Multipliers
For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is connected in series with the instrument to limit
the current in the coil to a safe value. This value of current should never exceed the current required
to produce the full scale deflection. The high resistance connected in series with the instrument is
called a multiplier.

The value of multiplier required to extend the voltage range, is calculated as under:
Rsc = multiplier resistance (Ω)
Rm = meter resistance (Ω)
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Im = Ifs = full scale deflection current (A)

v = voltage across the meter for producing current Im (A)
V = voltage to be measured (A)

V = ImRm
V = Im(Rm + Rsc)

Sensitivity The moving-coil instrument is a very sensitive instrument. It is, therefore, widely used for
measuring current and voltage. The coil of the instrument may require a small amount of current (in
the range of µA) for full-scale deflection. The sensitivity is sometimes expressed in ohm/volt. The
sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by

Where, Ifs is the full-scale deflecting current. Thus, the sensitivity depends upon on the current to
give full-scale deflection.

MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS
Moving-Iron or MI instruments can be classified as
 Attraction-type moving-iron instruments
 Repulsion-type moving-iron instruments

The current to be measured, in general, is passed through a coil of wire in the moving-iron
instruments. In case of voltage measurement, the current which is proportional to the voltage is
measured. The number of turns of the coil depends upon the current to be passed through it. For
operation of the instrument, a certain number of ampere turns is required. These ampere turns can
be produced by the product of few turns and large current or reverse.
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Attraction-type Moving-Iron Instruments

The attraction type of MI instrument depends on the attraction of an iron vane into a coil carrying
current to be measured. A soft iron vane IV is attached to the moving system. When the current to be
measured is passed through the coil C, a magnetic field is produced. This field attracts the eccentrically
mounted vane on the spindle towards it. The spindle is supported at the two ends on a pair of jewel
bearings. Thus, the pointer PR, which is attached to the spindle S of the moving system is deflected.
The pointer moves over a calibrated scale.

The control torque is provided by two hair springs S1 and S2 in the same way as for a PMMC
instrument; but in such instruments springs are not used to carry any current. Gravity control can also
be used for vertically mounted panel type MI meters. The damping torque is provided by the
movement of a thin vane V in a closed sector-shaped box B, or simply by a vane attached to the
moving system. Eddy current damping can not be used in MI instruments owing to the fact that any
permanent magnet that will be required to produce Eddy current damping can distort the otherwise
weak operating magnetic field produced by the coil.
If the current in the fixed coil is reversed, the field produced by it also reverses. So the polarity induced
on the vane reverses. Thus whatever be the direction of the current in the coil the vane is always be
magnetized in such a way that it is attracted into the coil. Hence such instrument can be used for both
direct current as well as alternating current.

Repulsion-type Moving-Iron Instruments

In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil. One is fixed and the other is movable. These
are similarly magnetised when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion
between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane.

Two different designs for moving iron instruments commonly used are as follows:
Radial Vane Type In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron. The fixed vane is attached to the coil
and the movable one to the spindle of the instrument. The instrument pointer is attached to the
moving vane spindle.
As current flows through the coil, the generated magnetic field induces identical polarities on both
the fixed and moving vane. Thus, even when the current through the coil is alternating (for AC
measurement), there is always a repulsion force acting between the like poles of fixed and moving
vane. Hence deflection of the pointer is always in the same direction irrespective of the polarity of
current in the coil. The amount of deflection depends on the repulsion force between the vanes which
 19|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

in turn depends on the amount of current passing through the coil. The scale can thus be calibrated
to read the current or voltage directly.

Co-axial Vane Type I In these type of instruments, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of coaxial
cylinders. Current in the coil magnetizes both the vanes with similar polarity. Thus the movable vane
rotates along the spindle axis due to this repulsive force. Coaxial vane type instruments are
moderately sensitive as compared to radial vane type instruments that are more sensitive.
Moving iron instruments have their deflection is proportional to the square of the current flowing
through the coil. These instruments are thus said to follow a square law response and have non-
uniform scale marking. Deflection being proportional to square of the current, whatever be the
polarity of current in the coil, deflection of a moving iron instrument is in the same direction. Hence,
moving iron instruments can be used for both DC and AC measurements.
Advantages of MI Instruments
 Robust construction and relatively cheap
 Suitable for measuring both dc and ac
 Can withstand overload momentarily

Disadvantages of MI Instruments
 As the deflection is proportional to I 2, hence the scale of the instrument is not uniform. It is
cramped in the lower end and expanded in the upper portion.
 It is affected by stray magnetic fields.
 There is hysteresis error in the instrument. The hysteresis error may be minimized by using
the vanes of nickel-iron alloy.
 When used for measuring ac the reading may be affected by variation of frequency due to the
change in reactance of the coil, which has some inductance. With the increase in frequency
iron loses and coil impedance increases.
 Since large amount of power is consumed to supply I2R loss in the coil and magnetic losses in
the vanes, it is not a very sensitive instrument.
 20|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE INSTRUMENTS
The electrodynamometer is a transfer-type instrument. A transfer-type instrument is one that may
be calibrated with a dc source and then used without modification to measure ac. This requires the
transfer type instruments to have same accuracy for both dc and ac.

The electrodynamic or dynamometer-type instrument is a moving-coil instrument but the magnetic

field, in which the coil moves, is provided by two fixed coils rather than by permanent magnets. It
consists of two fixed coils, which are symmetrically situated. It would have a torque in one direction
during one half of the cycle and an equal effect in opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.
If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux each time the current through the movable
coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be produced for both positive half and negative half of
the cycle. In electrodynamic instruments, the field can be made to reverse simultaneously with the
current in the movable coil if the fixed coil is connected in series with the movable coil.

Controlling Torque The controlling torque is provided by two control springs. These springs act as
leads to the moving coil.

Operation with ac Let, i1 and i2 be the instantaneous values of current carried by the coils. Therefore,
the instantaneous deflecting torque is:

If the two coils are connected in series for measurement of current, the two instantaneous currents
i1 and i2 are equal.
Say, ii = i 2 = i

Thus, instantaneous torque on the pointer is Ti = i2

Thus, for ac use, the instantaneous torque is proportional
to the square of the instantaneous current. As the
quantity i2 is always positive, the current varies and the
instantaneous torque also varies. But the moving system
due to its inertia cannot follow such rapid variations in
the instantaneous torque and responds only to the
average torque.
Electrodynamic Ammeter In an electrodynamic
ammeter, the fixed and moving coils are connected in
series. A shunt is connected across the moving coil for
limiting the current. The reactance–resistance ratio of
the shunt and the moving coil is kept nearly same for
independence of the meter reading with the supply
frequency. Since the coil currents are the same, the deflecting torque is proportional to the mean
square value of the current. Thus, the scale is calibrated to read the rms value.

Electrodynamic Voltmeter The electrodynamic instrument can be used as a voltmeter by connecting

a large noninductive resistance (R) of low temperature coefficient in series with the instrument coil.
 21|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electrodynamic Wattmeter The electrodynamic wattmeter consist of two fixed coils ‘a’ and ‘b’ placed
symmetrical to each other and producing a uniform magnetic field. They are connected in series with
the load and are called the Current Coils (CC). The two fixed coils can be connected in series or parallel
to give two different current ratings. The current coils carry the full-load current or a fraction of full
load current. Thus the current in the current coils is proportional to the load current. The moving coil
‘c’, in series with a high non inductive resistance Rv is connected across the supply. Thus the current
flowing in the moving coil is proportional to, and practically in phase with the supply voltage. The
moving coil is also called the voltage coil or Pressure Coil (PC). The voltage coil is carried on a pivoted
spindle which carries the pointer, the pointer moved over a calibrated scale.
Two hair springs are used for providing the controlling torque and for leading current into and out of
the moving coil. Damping is provided by air friction.

Torque Equation

Let, if = current in the fixed coil

im = current in the moving coil
i = load current
v = load voltage
Tin = instantaneous value of the deflecting
torque
p = instantaneous power=Tin x if im

Thus, the instantaneous value of the deflecting torque is proportional to the instantaneous power.
Owing to the inertia of the moving system, the pointer reads the average power. In dc circuits, the
power is given by the product of voltage and current, and hence the torque is directly proportional to
the power. Thus, the instrument indicates the power.
 22|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Advantages of Electrodynamometer-type Instruments

 They can be used on ac as well as dc measurements.
 These instruments are free from eddy current and hysteresis error.
 Electrodynamometer-type instruments are very useful for accurate measurement of rms values
of voltages irrespective of waveforms.
 Because of precision grade accuracy and same calibration for ac and dc measurements these
instruments are useful as transfer type and calibration instruments.

Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer-type Instruments

 As the instrument has square law response, the scale is non-uniform.
 These instruments have small torque/weight ratio, so the frictional error is considerable.
 More costly than PMMC and MI type of instruments.
 Adequate screening of the movements against stray magnetic fields is essential.
 Power consumption is comparably high because of their construction.

RECTIFIER-TYPE INSTRUMENTS
The basic arrangement of a rectifier type of instrument using a full-wave rectifier circuit. If this
instrument is used for measuring ac quantity then first the ac signal is converted to dc with the help
of the rectifier. Then this dc signal is measured by the PMMC meter. The multiplier resistance Rs, is
used to limit the value of the current in order that it does not exceed the current rating of the PMMC
meter.
These types of instruments are used for light current work where the voltage is low and resistances
high.

Sensitivity of Rectifier-Type Instrument The

dc sensitivity of a rectifier-type instrument is

where Ifs is the current required to produce

full-scale deflection.

Sensitivity of a Half-wave Rectifier Circuit

 23|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The average value of voltage/current for half-wave rectifier,

Hence, the sensitivity of a half-wave rectifier instrument with ac is 0.45 times its sensitivity with dc
and the deflection is 0.45 times that produces with dc of equal magnitude V.

Sensitivity of a Full-wave Rectifier Circuits

It shows a full-wave rectifier circuit along with the input and output waveform. Average value of
voltage/current for full-wave rectifier,

So the deflection is 0.9 times in a full-wave rectifier instrument with an ac than that produced with dc
of equal magnitude V.

Sensitivity of a full-wave rectifier instrument with an ac is 0.9 times its sensitivity with dc.

Extension of Range of Rectifier Instrument as Voltmeter

Suppose it is intended to extend the range of a rectifier instrument which uses a PMMC instrument
having a dc sensitivity of Sdc.
Let, v = voltage drop across the PMMC instrument
V = applied voltage
Therefore, for dc operation, the values of series resistance (multiplier) needed can be calculated as
V = RS . Ifs + Rd . Ifs + Rm . Ifs
 24|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Where, Rm = meter resistance

Rd = diode forward resistance
For ac voltmeter,

Limitations
 Rectifier instruments are only accurate on the waveforms on which they are calibrated. Since
calibration assumes pure sine waves, the presence of harmonics gives erroneous readings.
 The rectifier is temperature sensitive, and therefore, the instrument readings are affected by
large variations of temperature.
Applications
 The rectifier instrument is very suitable for measuring alternating voltages in the range of 50–
250 V.
 The rectifier instrument may be used as a micrometer or low milli-ammeter (up to 10–15 mA).
It is not suitable for measuring large currents because for larger currents the rectifier becomes
too bulky and providing shunts is impracticable due to rectifier characteristics.
Rectifier instruments find their principal application in measurement in high-impedance circuits at
low and audio frequencies. They are commonly used in communications circuits because of their high
sensitivity and low power consumption.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF 2INSTRUMENTS

 25|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

CHAPTER-3
WATTMETER AND MEASUREMENT OF POWER
POWER MEASUREMENT
In alternating current circuits, the instantaneous power varies continuously as the
voltage and current varies while going through a cycle. In such a case, the power at
any instant is given by

where, p(t), v(t), and i(t) are values of instantaneous power, voltage, and current
respectively.
Thus, if both voltage and current can be assumed to be sinusoidal, with the current
lagging the voltage by phase-angle φ, then

where, Vm and Im are peak values of voltage and current respectively, and w is the
angular frequency.
The instantaneous power pis therefore given by

Average value of power over a complete cycle in such a case will be

where, V and I are rms values of voltage and current respectively and cos j is power
factor of the load.
Involvement of the power-factor term cos j in the expression for power in ac circuit
indicates that ac power cannot be measured simply by connecting a pair of ammeter
and voltmeter. A wattmeter, with in-built facility for taking in to account the power
factor, can only be used for measurement of power in ac circuits.
 26|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE WATTMETER

Construction of Electrodynamometer-
type Wattmeter

1. Fixed Coil System

Such an instrument has two coils connected
in different ways to the same circuit of which
power is to be measured. The fixed coils or
the field coils are connected in series with
the load so as to carry the same current as
the load. The fixed coils are hence, termed as
the Current Coils (CC) of the wattmeter. The main magnetic field is produced by these
fixed coils. This coil is divided in two sections so as to provide more uniform magnetic
field near the centre and to allow placement of the instrument moving shaft.
Fixed coils are usually wound with thick wires for carrying the main load current
through them. Windings of the fixed coil is normally made of stranded conductors
running together but, insulated from each other. All the strands are brought out to
an external commutating terminator so that a number of current ranges of the
instrument may be obtained by grouping them all in series, all in parallel, or in a
series–parallel combination. Such stranding of the fixed coils also reduces Eddy-
current loss in the conductors. Still higher current or voltage ranges, however, can be
accommodated only through the use of instrument transformers.
Fixed coils are mounted rigidly with the coil supporting structures to prevent any
small movement whatsoever and resulting field distortions. Mounting supports are
made of ceramic, and not metal, so as not to disturb the magnetic field distribution.

2. Moving Coil System

The moving coil that is connected across the load carries a current proportional to
the voltage. Since the moving coil carries a current proportional to the voltage, it is
called the voltage coil or the pressure coil or simply PC of the wattmeter. The moving
coil is entirely embraced by the pair of fixed coils. A high value non-inductive
resistance is connected in series with the voltage coil to restrict the current through
it to a small value, and also to ensure that voltage coil current remains as far as
possible in phase with the load voltage.

The moving coil, made of fine wires, is wound either as a self-sustaining air-cored coil,
or else wound on a nonmetallic former. A metallic former, otherwise would induce
Eddy-currents in them under influence of the alternating field.
 27|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

2. Movement and Restoring System

The moving, or voltage coil along with the pointer is mounted on an aluminum
spindle in case jewel bearings are used to support the spindle. For higher
sensitivity requirements, the moving coil may be suspended from a torsion head
by a metallic suspension which serves as a lead to the coil. In other constructions,
the coil may be suspended by a silk fibre together with a spiral spring which gives
the required torsion. The phosphor-bronze springs are also used to lead current
into and out of the moving coil. In any case, the torsion head with suspension, or
the spring, also serves the purpose of providing the restoring torque to bring the
pointer back to its initial position once measurement is over.

The moving, or voltage coil current must be limited to much low values keeping
in mind the design requirements of the movement system. Current is lead to and
out of the moving coil through two spiral springs. Current value in the moving
coil is thus to be limited to values that can be safely carried by the springs without
appreciable heating being caused.

3. Damping System

Damping in such instruments may be provided by small aluminum vanes

attached at the bottom of the spindle. These vanes are made to move inside
enclosed air chambers, thereby creating the damping torque. In other cases, the
moving coil itself can be stitched on a thin sheet of mica, which acts as the
damping vane while movements. Eddy-current damping, however, cannot be
used with these instruments. This is due to the fact that any metallic element to
be used for Eddy-current damping will interfere and distort the otherwise weak
operating magnetic field. Moreover, introduction of any external permanent
magnet for the purpose of Eddy-current damping will severely hamper the
operating magnetic field.

4. Shielding System

The operating field produced by the fixed coils, is comparatively lower in

electrodynamometer-type instruments as compared to other type of instruments.
In some cases, even the earth’s magnetic field can pollute the measurement
readings. It is thus essential to shield the electrodynamometer-type instruments
from effects of external magnetic fields. Enclosures of such instruments are thus
made of alloys with high permeability to restrict penetration of external stray
magnetic fields into the instrument.
 28|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Operation of Electrodynamometer-type Wattmeter

The instantaneous torque of the electrodynamometer wattmeter is given by

Instantaneous value of voltage across the

pressure-coil circuit is

If the pressure coil resistance can be

assumed to be very high, the whole pressure
coil can be assumed to be behaving like a
resistance only.
The current iP in the pressure coil thus, can be assumed to in phase with the voltage
vP, and its instantaneous value is

Where, IP = V/RP is the rms value of current in pressure coil.

Assuming that the pressure-coil resistance is sufficiently high to prevent branching
out of any portion of the supply current towards the pressure coil, the current coil
current can be written as

Thus, instantaneous torque can be written as

Presence of the term containing 2w t, indicates the instantaneous torque varies at

twice the frequency of voltage and current.
Average deflecting torque over a complete cycle is
 29|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

With a spring constant K, the controlling torque provided by the spring for a final
steady-state deflection of θ is given by

TC=Kθ
Under steady-state condition, the average deflecting torque will be balanced by the
controlling torque provided by the spring. Thus, at balanced condition TC = Td

where, P is the power to be measured and K1 = 1/KRP is a constant.

Steady-state deflection θ is thus found to be an indication of the power P to be
measured.

INDUCTION-TYPE WATTMETER
Induction-type wattmeters, however, following the very basic principles of mutual
induction, can only be used for measurement of ac power, in contrast to
electrodynamometer type wattmeters that can be used for power measurements in
both ac and dc circuits. Induction type wattmeters, in contradiction to
electrodynamometer-type wattmeters, can be used only with circuits having relatively
steady values of frequency and voltage.

Construction of Induction-type Wattmeter

Induction-type wattmeters have two laminated iron-core electromagnets. One of the
electromagnets is excited by the load current, and the other by a current proportional
to the voltage of the circuit in which the power is to be measured. The upper magnet
in e which is connected across the voltage to be measured, is named as the shunt
magnet, whereas the other electromagnet connected in series with the load to carry
load current is called the series magnet. A thin aluminum disc, mounted in the space
between the two magnets is acted upon by a combined effect of fluxes coming out of
these two electromagnets. In ac circuits, interaction of these changing fluxes will
induce Eddy-current within the aluminum disc.
The two voltage coils, connected in series, are wound in such a way that both of them
send flux through the central limb. Copper shading bands fitted on the central limb
of the shunt magnet makes the flux coming out of the magnet lag behind the applied
voltage by 90°.
The series magnet houses two small current coils in series. These are wound in a way
that the fluxes they create within the core of the magnet are in the same direction.
 30|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Operation of Induction-type Wattmeter

V = voltage to be

measured I = current

to be measured

= phase-angle lag of current I with respect to

voltage V

φsh = flux of the shunt magnet

The shunt magnet flux φsh is made to lag

behind the applied voltage (V ) by 90°.
This is achieved by the use of copper
shading rings.
On the other hand, the series magnet flux
φse is in the same phase as the load current
(I ) through it.

The instantaneous torque acting on the aluminum disc is proportional to (φsh · ise -
φse · ish).
Let, instantaneous value the applied voltage is

v = Vm sin w t

Then, the instantaneous current is given by

i = Im sin (w t - j)

The shunt magnet flux generated is

where k¢ is a constant and the minus (-) sign indicating the fact the flux φsh lags
behind the voltage by 90°.
 31|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The series magnet flux generated is

where k is another constant.

The eddy emf induced in the disc due to the shunt magnet flux is

The resultant eddy-current fl owing in the disc is

where α is the phase-angle of the eddy path impedance (Z).

Similarly, the eddy emf induced in the disc due to the series magnet flux is

The resultant Eddy-current flowing in the disc is

The instantaneous deflecting torque (T) acting on the disc can now be calculated as

The average torque acting on the disc is thus

where, V and I are rms values of voltage and current. Average torque on the
instrument is thus found to be proportional to the power in the circuit.
 32|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

CHAPTER-4
ENERGYMETERS AND MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY
Energy is the total power consumed over a time interval, that is Energy = Power × Time. Generally, the
process of measurement of energy is same as that for measurement of power except for the fact that
the instrument used should not merely measure power or rate of consumption of energy, but must
also take into account the time interval during which the power is being supplied.
The unit of energy can be expressed in terms of Joule or Watt-second or Watt-hour as per convenience.
A larger unit that is most commonly used is kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is defined as the energy
consumed when power is delivered at an average rate of 1 kilowatt for one hour. In commercial
metering, this amount of 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) energy is specified as 1 unit of energy.
Energy meters used for measurement of energy have moving systems that revolve continuously, unlike
in indicating instruments where it deflects only through a fraction of a revolution. In energy meters,
the speed of revolution is proportional to the power consumed. Thus, total number of revolutions
made by the meter moving system over a given interval of time is proportional to the energy
consumed. In this context, a term called meter constant, defined as the number of revolutions made
per kWh, is used. Value of the meter constant is usually marked on the meter enclosure.

SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION-TYPE ENERGY METER

Induction-type instruments are most commonly used as energy meters for measurement of energy in
domestic and industrial ac circuits. Induction-type meters have lower friction and higher
torque/weight ratio; they are inexpensive, yet reasonably accurate and can retain their accuracy over
considerable range of loads and temperature.

Basic Theory of Induction-type Meters

In all induction-type instruments, two time-varying fluxes are created in the windings provided on the
static part of the instrument. These fluxes are made to
link with a metal disc or drum and produce emf therein.
These emfs in turn, circulate eddy current on the body of
the metal disc. Interaction of these fluxes and eddy
currents produce torques that make the disc or drum to
rotate.
A thin aluminum disc free to rotate about its central axis
is fitted with a spindle and placed below the two poles φ1
and φ2. Fluxes φ1 and φ2 coming out of the two
electromagnets φ1 and φ2 link with the aluminum disc
placed below. These fluxes are alternating in nature, and
hence they induce emfs in the aluminum disc. These
induced emfs will in turn produce eddy currents i1 and i2
on the disc. There are two sets of fluxes φ1 and φ2, and two sets of currents i1 and i2. Current i1 interacts
with flux φ2 to produce a force F1 and hence a torque Td1 on the disc. Similarly, current i2 interacts
 33|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

with flux φ1 to produce a force F2 and hence a torque Td2 on the disc. Total torque is resultant of the
torques Td1 and Td2.

Let φ1 and φ2 are the instantaneous values of two fluxes having a phase difference of α between them.
Therefore, we can write

where, φ1m and φ2m are peak values of fluxes φ1 and φ2 respectively.
The flux φ1 will produce an alternating emf is the disc, given by

Similarly, the alternating emf produced in the disc due to the flux φ2 is given by

If, is considered to the impedance of the aluminum disc with power factor β then eddy current
induced in the disc due to the emf e1 can be expressed as

Similarly, eddy current induced in the disc due to the emf e2 is given by

Instantaneous torque developed in proportional to the product of instantaneous current and

instantaneous flux are those that interact with each other to produce the torque in question.
instantaneous torque Td1 produced due to interaction of the current i1 and flux φ2 is given by

Similarly, instantaneous torque Td2 produced due to interaction of the current i2 and flux φ1 is given by

Total deflecting torque can thus be calculated as

 34|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The following two observations can be made:

 The torque is directly proportional to the power factor of the aluminum disc (cos β). Thus, to
increase the deflecting torque, the path of eddy current in the disc must be as resistive as
possible, so that value of cos β is as high as possible.
 The torque is directly proportional to sin α. Therefore, to have large deflecting torque, the angle
α between the two fluxes should preferably be as nearly as possible close to 90°.

Constructional Details of Induction-Type Energy Meter

Volatage coil–many turns of fine wire encased in plastic, connected in parallel with load.

Current coil–few turns of thick wire, connected in series with load

Stator–concentrates and confines magnetic field.

Aluminum rotor disc.

Rotor brake magnets

 35|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Spindle with worm gear.

Display dials

A single phase energy meter has four essential parts:

1. Operating system
2. Moving system
3. Braking system
4. Registering system

1. Operating System
The operating system consists of two electromagnets. The cores of these electromagnets are made of
silicon steel laminations. The coils of one of these electromagnets (series magnet) are connected in
series with the load, and is called the current coil. The other electromagnet (shunt magnet) is wound
with a coil that is connected across the supply, called the pressure coil. The pressure coil, thus, carries
a current that is proportional to supply voltage.
Shading bands made of copper are provided on the central limb of the shunt magnet. Shading bands,
as will be described later, are used to bring the flux i — Bearing produced by a shunt magnet exactly
in quadrature Pivot with the applied voltage.

2. Moving System
The moving system consists of a light aluminum disc mounted on a spindle. The disc is placed in the
space between the series and shunt magnets. The disc is so positioned that it intersects the flux
produced by both the magnets. The deflecting torque on the disc is produced by interaction between
these fluxes and the eddy current they induce in the disc. In energy meters, there is no control spring
as such, so that there is continuous rotation of the disc.

3. Braking System
The braking system consists of a braking device which is usually a permanent magnet positioned near
the edge of the aluminum disc.

The emf induced in the aluminum disc due to relative motion between the rotating disc and the fixed
permanent magnet (brake magnet) induces eddy current in the disc. This eddy current, while
interacting with the brake magnet flux, produces a retarding or braking torque. This braking torque is
proportional to speed of the rotating disc. When the braking torque becomes equal to the operating
torque, the disc rotates at a steady speed. The position of the permanent magnet with respect to the
rotating disc is adjustable. Therefore, braking torque can be adjusted by shifting the permanent
magnet to different radial positions with respect to the disc.

4. Registering System
 36|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The function of a registering or counting system is to

continuously record a numerical value that is proportional
to the number of revolutions made by the rotating system.
By suitable combination of a train of reduction gears,
rotation of the main aluminum disc can be transmitted to
different pointers to register meter readings on different
dials. Finally, the kWh reading can be obtained by
multiplying the number of revolutions as pointed out by the
dials with the meter constant.

Operation of Induction-Type Energy Meter

As per construction, the pressure coil winding is made highly inductive by providing a large number of
turns. The air gaps in a shunt magnet circuit are also made small to reduce the reluctance of shunt flux
paths. Thus, as supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil, the current IP through the pressure
coil is proportional to the supply voltage and lags behind it by an angle that is only a few degrees less
than 90°. Ideally, this angle of lag should have been 90° but for the small unavoidable resistance
present in the winding itself and the associated iron losses in the magnetic circuit.

Let, V = supply voltage

I = load current
θ = phase angle of load
β = phase angle of aluminum disc
= phase angle between shunt magnet and series magnet fluxes
δ = phase angle between supply voltage and pressure coil flux
 37|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The current IP produces a flux φpt that is in same phase as IP. This flux is made to divide itself in two
parts, φg and φp. The major portion of total pressure coil flux, i.e., φg passes through the side gaps, as
reluctance of these paths are low due very small air gaps. Remaining portion of the flux, i.e., φp passes
through the disc and is responsible for production of the driving torque. Due to larger reluctance of
the path, this flux φp is relatively weaker.
The flux φp is proportional to the current IP and is in the same phase. The flux φp is thus proportional
to the supply voltage V and lags it by an angle δ which is only a few degrees less than 90°. The flux φp
being alternating in nature, induces and eddy emf Eep in the disc, which in turn produces eddy current
I. Depending on the impedance angle β of the aluminum disc, eddy current I will lag behind the eddy
emf Eep by an angle β.
The load current I flows through the series magnet current coil and produces a flux φs. This flux is
proportional to the load current I and is in phase with it. This flux, in the same way, induces and eddy
emf Ees in the disc, which in turn produces eddy current Ies. The eddy current Ies lags behind the eddy
emf Ees by the same angle β.
Now, the eddy current Ies interacts with flux φp to produce a torque and the eddy current Iep interacts
with flux φs to produce another torque. These two torques are in opposite direction, and the resultant
torque is the difference of these two.
The resultant deflecting torque on the disc due to combined action of two fluxes φp and φs is given as
 38|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Where, Z is the impedance of the aluminum disc and ω is the angular frequency of supply voltage.

The driving torque can be re-written following the phasor diagram as

Since we have, jp V and φs I,

If N is the speed of rotation of the disc, then braking torque Tb = K4 N

At steady running condition of the disc, the driving torque must equal the braking torque,

If we can make δ = 90°

Thus, in order that the speed of rotation can be made to be proportionate to the power consumed,
the angle difference δ between the supply voltage V and the pressure coil flux φp must be made 90°.
Total number of revolutions within a time interval dt is

If, ε = 90°, total number of revolutions

Thus, total number of revolutions is proportional to the energy consumed.

ERRORS IN INDUCTION-TYPE ENERGY METERS AND THEIR COMPENSATION

Phase-angle Error
The meter will indicate true energy only if the phase angle between the pressure coil flux φp and the
supply voltage V is 90°. This requires that the pressure coil winding should be designed as highly
inductive and its resistance and iron losses should be made minimum. But, even then the phase angle
is not exactly 90°, rather a few degrees less than 90°. Suitable adjustments can be implemented such
 39|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

that the shunt magnet flux linking with the disc can be made to lag the supply voltage by an angle
exactly equal to 90°.

1. Shading Coil with Adjustable Resistance

This is the arrangement where an additional coil (shading coil) with adjustable resistance is placed on
the central limb of the shunt magnet close to the disc. Main flux created by the shunt magnet induces
an emf in this shading coil. This emf creates its own flux. These two fluxes result in a modified flux to
pass through the air gap to link the disc and thus produce the driving torque. With proper adjustment
of the shading coil resistance, the resultant flux can be made to lag the supply voltage exactly by an
angle of 90°.
The pressure coil, when excited from the supply voltage V, carries a current IP and produces an mmf
ATpt which in turn produces the total flux φpt. The flux φpt lags the supply voltage V by an angle φ which
is slightly less than 90°. The current IP produces a flux φpt that is in same phase as IP. The flux φpt gets
divided in two parts, φ and φp. The portion of flux φ passes through the side gaps, and remaining
portion of the flux, i.e., φp passes through the disc and also the shading coil. Due to linkage with the
time varying flux, an emf Esc is induced in the shading coil that lags behind its originating flux φp by 90°
(i.e. ESC is 180°) lagging behind the supply voltage V. This emf circulates and eddy current Isc through
the shading coil itself. Isc lags behind the emf Esc by an angle λ that depends on the impedance of the
shading coil. The shading coil current Isc produces an mmf ATsc which is in phase with Isc. The flux φp
passing through to the disc will thus be due to the resultant mmf ATp which is summation of the original
mmf ATpt and the mmf ATsc due to the shading coil. This flux φp will be in phase with the mmf ATp. The
flux φp can be made to lag the supply voltage V by exactly 90° if the mmf ATp or in other words, the
shading coil phase angle λ can be adjusted properly. The shading coil phase angle can easily be adjusted
by varying the external resistance connected to the shading coil.

2. Copper Shading Bands

A similar result of lag adjustment can be obtained by
the use of copper shading bands placed on the
central limb of the shunt magnet. Such an
arrangement is shown in Figure 8.10. Following
the same arguments, the resultant flux φp crossing
over to the disc can be made to lag the supply
voltage V by exactly 90° by proper adjustment of
the mmf produced by the copper shading bands.
Adjustments in this case can be done by moving
the shading bands along the axis of the limb. As
the bands are moved upwards along the limb,
they embrace more flux. This results in increased
values of induced emf, increased values of
induced eddy current and hence increased values
of the mmf produced by the bands. Similarly, as
the bands are moved downwards, mmf produced
 40|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

by the bands is reduced. This changes the phase angle difference between φp and φpt, as can be
observed. Thus, careful adjustments of the copper shading bands position can make the phase
difference between the supply voltage V and resultant shunt magnet flux φp to be exactly 90°.

Error due to Friction at Light Loads

Friction in bearings can pose serious errors in measurement of energy in the form of that it will impede
proper movement of the rotating disc. This problem is particularly objectionable at low loads, when
the driving torque itself is very low; therefore, unwanted friction torque can even stop the disc from
rotating. To avoid this, it is necessary to provide an additional torque that is essentially independent of
the load, to be applied in the direction of the driving torque, i.e., opposite to the frictional torque to
compensate for the frictional retarding torque. This is achieved by means of a small vane or shading
loop placed in the air gap between the central limb of the shunt magnet and the aluminum disc, and
slightly off-centre from the central limb. Interactions between fluxes which are linked and not linked
by the shading or compensating vane and the currents they induce in the disc result in a small driving
torque that can compensate for the frictional retarding torque. The value of this small additional torque
can be adjusted by lateral movement of the vane in and out of its position in the air gap.

Creeping Error
In some meters, a slow but continuous rotation of the disc can be observed even when there is no
current flowing through the current coil, and
only pressure coil is energised. This is called
creeping. The primary reason for creeping is
due to over-compensation for friction.
Though the main driving torque is absent at
no-load, the additional torque provided by the
friction compensating vane will make the disc
continue to rotate. Other causes of creeping
may be excessive voltage across the potential
coil resulting in production of excessive
torque by the friction compensating device, or
vibrations, and stray magnetic fields.
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Creeping can be avoided by drilling two holes on the aluminum disc placed on diametrically opposite
locations. Drilling such holes will distort the eddy current paths along the disc and the disc will tend to
stop with the holes coming underneath the
shunt magnet poles. The disc can thus creep
only till a maximum of half the rotation till
one of the holes comes below the shunt
magnet pole. This effect is however, too
insignificant to hamper disc movement
during normal running operations under
load.

Creeping can also be avoided by attaching a tiny piece of iron to the edge of the disc. The brake magnet
in such a case can lock the iron piece to itself and prevent creeping of the disc. Once again, this action
is too insignificant to hamper disc movement during normal running operations under load.

Error due to Change in Temperature

Errors introduced by variation of temperature in induction-type energy meters are usually small since
the various effects tend to neutralise each other. An increase in temperature increases the pressure
coil resistance, thereby reducing pressure coil current and reducing pressure coil flux. This will tend to
reduce the driving torque. But the flux of the brake magnet also reduces due to increase in
temperature, thereby reducing the braking torque. Again, an increase in temperature
increases the resistance to eddy current path in the disc, which reduces both driving torque and braking
torque. The various effects thus tend to neutralise each other.
The effects of increasing temperature, however, in general cause the meter to rotate faster and hence
record higher values. Temperature effects thus need to be compensated for by using temperature
shunts in the brake magnet.

Error due to Overload

At a constant voltage, the deflecting torque becomes simply proportional to the series magnet flux and
hence proportional to the load current. This is due to the fact that, at constant voltage as the shunt
magnet flux φp is constant, the driving torque Td φs I.

On the other hand, as the disc rotates continuously in the field of the series magnet, an emf is induced
dynamically in the disc due to its linkage with the series magnet flux φs. This emf induces eddy currents
in the disc that interact with the series magnet flux to create a retarding or braking torque that opposes
motion of the disc. This self braking torque is proportional to the square of the series magnet flux or is
proportional to the
square of the load current; i.e., T φ2 I2.
b s
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At higher loads, thus the braking torque overpowers the deflecting torque and the meter tends to
rotate at slower speed, and consequently reads lower than actual.

To avoid such errors, and to minimise the self-braking action, the full load speed of the disc is set at
lower values. The current coil flux φs is made smaller as compared to the pressure coil flux φp. Thus,
the dynamically induced emf that causes the braking torque is restricted as compared to the driving
torque. Magnetic shunts are also sometimes used with series magnets to compensate for overload
errors at high current values.

Error due to Voltage Variations

Voltage variations can cause errors in induction-type energy meters mainly due to two reasons:
At too high voltages, the relationship between the supply voltage V and the shunt magnet flux φp no
longer remain linear due to saturation of iron parts, and For sudden fluctuations in supply voltage,
the shunt magnet flux φp produces a dynamically induced emf in the disc which in turn results in a
self-braking torque and the disc rotation is hampered.
Compensation for voltage variation is provided by using a suitable magnetic shunt that diverts a major
portion of the flux through the disc when the
voltage rises, thereby increasing the driving
torque to overcome the self-braking torque.
Such compensation can be achieved by
increasing the reluctance of the side limbs of
the shunt magnet. This is done by providing
holes in the side limbs.

TESTING OF ENERGY METERS

Energy meters are tested at the following conditions:
 At 5% of rated current at unity power factor
 At 100% or 125% of rated current with unity power factor
 At one intermediate load with unity power factor
 At rated current and 0.5 lagging power factor

Creep test With pressure coil supplied with 110% of rated voltage and current coil open circuited, the
meter disc should not rotate by more than one revolution, i.e., it should not creep.
Starting test At 0.5% of rated current and full rated voltage, the meter disc should start rotating.

Phantom Loading
When the current rating of the meter under test is high, a test with actual loading arrangements would
involve considerable wastage of energy and also it is difficult to arrange for such large loads under
laboratory test conditions. In such cases, to avoid this, ‘phantom’ or ‘fictitious’ loading arrangements
are done for testing of energy meters.
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Phantom loading consists of supplying the shunt magnet pressure coil circuit from a rated voltage
source. The series magnet current coil is supplied from a separate low voltage supply source. It is
possible to circulate rated current through the current coil circuit with the low voltage source since
impedance of this circuit is very low. The energy indicated by the meter under phantom loading
condition is the same as the energy indication as would have been with a real load. With this
arrangement, the total energy consumed for the test is comparatively smaller. The total energy
required for the test is that due to the small pressure coil current at rated voltage and small current
coil voltage at rated current.

CHAPTER 5
MEASUREMENT OF SPEED, FREQUENCY AND
POWER FACTOR

Electrical Tachometer
Definition: The tachometer use for measuring the rotational speed or angular velocity of the machine
which is coupled to it. It works on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic field and
shaft of the coupled device. The relative motion induces the EMF in the coil which is placed between
the constant magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The developed EMF is directly proportional to
the speed of the shaft.
 44|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Mechanical and electrical are the two types of the tachometer. The mechanical tachometer measures
the speed of shaft regarding revolution per minutes.
The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity into an electrical voltage. The electrical
tachometer has more advantages over the mechanical tachometer. Thus it is mostly used for measuring
the rotational speed of the shaft.

Depends on the natures of the induced voltage the electrical tachometer is categorized into two types.
1. DC Tachometer Generator
2. AC Tachometer Generator

DC Tachometer Generator
Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable resistor, and the moving coil voltmeter
are the main parts of the DC tachometer generator. The machine whose speed is to be measured is
coupled with the shaft of the DC tachometer generator.

The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor moves in the magnetic
field, EMF induces in the conductor. The magnitude of the induces emf depends on the flux link with
the conductor and the speed of the shaft.

The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the permanent magnet. The
rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the shaft
speed.

The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct current with the help
of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The polarity of the induces
voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft. The resistance is connected in series with
the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the armature.
 45|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as

Where, E – generated voltage

Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes
Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.

Now,

Advantages:
The following are the advantages of the DC Tachometer.
 The polarity of the induced voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the shaft.
 The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induced voltage.

Disadvantages:
 The commutator and brushes require the periodic maintenance.
 The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the input resistance. If
the large current is induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of the permanent magnet
will be distorted.

AC Tachometer Generator
The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which have many disadvantages. The
AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems. The AC tachometer has stationary
 46|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

armature and rotating magnetic field. Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer
generator.

The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The amplitude and
frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or
frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.

The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering the amplitude of
the induced voltage. The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter for
smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.

Advantages:
 The drag cup Tachogenerator generates the ripple free output voltage.
 The cost of the generator is also very less.

Disadvantage:
 The nonlinear relationship obtains between the output voltage and input speed when the rotor
rotates at high speed.
 47|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electrical Resonance Type Frequency Meter

The electrical resonance type frequency meter is an indicating type instrument. As the name suggests
its action depends upon the electrical resonance.

Construction of Electrical Resonance Type Frequency Meter

It mainly consists of a fixed coil and a moving coil. There is a laminated iron core of varying cross-
section.

This varying laminated core holds the fixed coil at its one end. Then we connect this fixed coil across
the supply mains.

The electrical resonance type frequency meter measures the frequency of these supply mains. Now
there is a moving coil which is so pivoted at its top end that it can move along the extended core of the
fixed coil like a pendulum. The pointer of the instrument is so attached at the top end of the moving
coil that its tip moves along the semicircular dial. Now, we connect on a capacitor across the two leads
of the moving coil.
 48|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Working Principle of Electrical Resonance Type Frequency Meter

 Due to the current in the moving coil, the moving coil produces a flux in phase with the current.
 This flux flows along with the extended core of the fixed coil. Therefore the flux links the moving
coil. Hence, the flux induces an emf across the moving coil. Obviously, this induced emf lags
the flux by 90°.
 Since it is a coil; the moving coil will have some inductive reactance. Again, as it is connected
across a capacitor, it will have some capacitive reactance also.

Torque Equation
Let us consider I1 is the supply current of the fixed coil and I2 is the induced current of the moving
coil. Now, we have already mentioned that the phase angle between the supply current I1 (current in
the fixed coil) and the emf induced in the moving coil is 90°. Again there is a phase difference
between the induced emf and the induced current I2 (current in the moving coil).
Let us consider the angle of this phase difference is α. So, the actual phase difference between I1 and
I2 will be (90°-α). Therefore, we can write the expression of the torque (T) as

From the above expression of the torque, we can see that the torque will be zero when α is zero. That
means there must not be any phase difference between the induced current and the induced emf in the
moving coil.

Resonance: That can only be possible when inductive reactance of the moving coil becomes equal to
its capacitive reactance.

 Again the inductive reactance (2πfL) depends upon the angular position of the moving coil on
the extended core of the fixed coil.
 49|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

 So, when we just switch on the supply, the fixed coil starts attracting the moving coil towards it.
This attraction due to the torque acting on the moving system.
 Therefore, the moving coil starts rotating along with the pointer attached to it. As a result, the
inductive reactance of the moving coils changes. Then after certain angular rotation of the
moving coil the inductive reactance of this coil exactly becomes equal to the
capacitive reactance of the coil. At that point of time, there will be no torque acting on the
moving system of the electrical resonance type frequency meter. Therefore the pointer of the
instrument becomes stationary at that point.
 If somehow the supply frequency changes, the value of inductive reactance of the instrument
also changes. Therefore the resonance of the circuit gets disturbed. Therefore again the deflecting
torque appears on the moving system and tries to rotate it further. Hence, again the inductive
reactance of the moving coils changes. And after a certain rotation again resonance occurs. So,
here again, the torque becomes zero. Therefore the pointer rests on a new position.
 So, we have seen how the position of the pointer on the dial of electrical resonance type
frequency meter changes with changing the supply frequency.
 Calibration
 First, we supply an electrical signal of exactly 50Hz to the moving coil. Then we find the exact
position of the pointer tip on the dial and make it as 50Hz.
 Then we slowly increase the supply frequency step by step and see the position at each of the
steps. And we mark these positions of the pointer on the dial with the corresponding supply
frequencies.
 Then we reduce the supply frequency step by step and mark the corresponding positions of the
pointer on the dial with corresponding frequencies.

Measurement of Frequency
When we connect the leads of the fixed coil of an electrical resonance type frequency meter with
supply mains the position of the pointer on the dial indicates the actual frequency of the supply signal.

Mechanical Resonance Frequency Meter (Vibrating Reed)

Mechanical resonance type frequency meter is principally an electro-mechanical device. Also, we call
this instrument the vibrating reed type frequency meter.
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 Conceptually, the principal of this frequency meter is quite simple. The instrument consists of a
number of metal reeds with slightly different natural frequencies fitted side by side.
 Also, the instrument consists of an electromagnet placed nearer to these reeds.
 After that, we connect the electromagnet across the supply main. Consequently, there will be
an alternating current flowing through the coil of the electromagnet. Therefore, the electromagnet
produces an alternating magnetic flux with the same frequency of supply current.
 The natural frequency of any of the reeds matches to the double of the frequency of the alternating
flux. Therefore the resonance occurs at that particular reed. As a result, this particular reed will
vibrate with more amplitude than the others. We can see this vibration of that particular reed with
our naked eyes.
 Then we can asses that the frequency of the electrical signal coming from the supply main is the
same as the natural frequency that vibrating reed.

Construction of Mechanical Resonance Frequency Meter

Mechanical resonance frequency meter (vibrating reed type) consists of a number of reeds. These reeds
are of thin steel strips. The front portion of each reed bends with a 90° angle to make better visibility of
the mechanical vibration. We fit them in a row with screws at the back end.

 The dimension and weight of all the reeds are not the same. Instead, they differ slightly in each read
from others. This is because for differing the natural frequency of one reed from others.
 Practically this difference of natural frequency from one reed to its adjacent reed is either 1 or 0.5Hz.
 Suppose we have designed a mechanical resonance frequency meter to measuring a frequency from
48 Hz to 51 Hz. If the difference of natural frequency of any reed from its adjacent reed is 1Hz, then
there will be a total of 9 reeds in the instrument fitted in
a row side by side. This is because for the above-
mentioned frequency range there will be reeds of natural
frequencies from 96 Hz (48X2) to 102 Hz (51X2)

 The instrument also consists of a strong

electromagnet with laminated core placed very nearby to
the row of the reeds. The coil of the electromagnet has a
resistance in series to limit the current in the coil.
 51|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Working of Mechanical Resonance Frequency Meter

 When we connect the instrument with the supply main, the electromagnet sets up an alternating flux
surround it.
 Due to this alternating flux, the reeds experience an alternating force for every half cycle of the flux
wave. This is because when the flux will have a positive half cycle, the steel reeds will get attracted
because of the opposite magnetic polarity of the electromagnet induced on the reeds.
 Again during the negative half cycle of the flux wave, the magnetic polarity of the electromagnet is
reversed. Then also there will be opposite magnetic polarity induced in the reed in respect of that of
the electromagnet. Hence again the reds get attracted by the electromagnet.
 So, for both negative and positive half cycles, the electromagnet attracts the steel reeds.

But there will be a particular reed whose natural frequency is double of the supply frequency. Therefore
mechanical resonance occurs on that reed. Therefore the reed will vibrate most with the highest
amplitude. As a result, the vibration of this reed will be easily visible. Hence, the supply frequency will
be half of the natural frequency of that reed.

Although due to the alternating flux of the electromagnet all other reed will vibrate. But their vibration
is so slight it cannot be visible easily.

In some occasions there may be two adjacent reeds vibrate strongly with equal amplitude. In that case,
the supply frequency will be half of the average of the natural frequencies of these two adjacent reeds.

Advantages of Vibrating Reed Type Frequency Meter

 The indication of the frequency of an electrical signal does not depend on the pattern of the waveform
of the signal.
 The indication also does not depend on the magnitude of the signal waveform. Only it requires a
sufficiently large amplitude for visible reed vibration.

Disadvantage of Mechanical Resonance Frequency Meter

 The instrument cannot indicate properly a frequency which is in between 0.5 precision.

Power Factor Meters

The power factor of a circuit can be found out from the wattmeter reading and voltmeter and ammeter
readings suitably connected in the circuit.

Power factor = Wattmeter reading / (Voltmeter reading x ammeter reading).

Power factor = True Power / Apparent Power

This method involves mathematical calculations. Sometimes it is required to measure the power
factor of the circuit instantaneously when the power factor of the load is varying continuously.
 52|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

This purpose is served by connecting a dynamometer type power factor meter in the circuit. It
indicates the power factor of the circuit directly on the scale by the deflection of a pointer.

Now there are two types of power factor meters-

1. Electrodynamometer type
2. Moving iron type.

Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor Meter

In electrodynamometer type power factor meter there are further two types on the basis of supply
voltage
1. Single phase
2. Three phase.

Single Phase Power Factor Meter

The basic working principle of power factor meter is similar to that of dynamometer type
wattmeter i.e. when the field produced by moving system tries to come in line with the field produced
by the fixed coil, deflecting torque is exerted on the moving system which deflects the pointer attached
to it ( the moving system).

Construction of a Power Factor Meter

A dynamometer type power factor meter consists of two fixed coils FF connected in series carrying
the load current (or a definite fraction of it) forming the current circuit, and two identical moving
coils A and B fixed at the nearly right angle to each other pivoted on the same spindle forming the
pressure circuit as shown in the figure.

The current coils FF are wound with thick wire whereas pressure coils A and B are wound with fine
wire. The pressure coils fixed on the same spindle, to which a pointer is attached, constitutes the
moving system.

The pressure coil A is connected across the supply through a non-inductive resistant and pressure
coil B is connected across the supply through highly inductive choke coil of inductance L. The value of
 53|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

resistance R and inductance L are so chosen that for the main supply frequency, the current in the two
pressure coils A and B is the same.

Thus the fields produced by the two coils are of the same strength. The field produced by the
coil B lags behind the field produced by the coil A slightly less than 90° because of resistance of the
coil. Accordingly while fixing the coil B the plane of this coil is displaced from the plane of the coil A
by the electrical angle which is slightly less than 90°.

However while discussing the action (working) of the instrument it will be assumed that the phase
difference between the two currents flowing through the coils A and B is 90° and same is the angle
between the planes of the coils.

Though power factor meter is an indicating instrument but no controlling torque is provided in
this instrument. The currents are being led into the moving coils A and B by fine ligaments which
exert no control.

Power Factor Meter Working

Since no controlling torque is provided in this instrument, therefore, when it is not connected in the
circuit, the moving coils will remain in the position in which these are turned. This will only happen
when the moving system is perfectly balanced.

When the instrument is connected to the load circuit, current flows through the fixed coils FF and
Moving coils A and B, flux is set by the fixed coils and moving coils.

By the alignment of two fields, torque develops i.e. the resultant field produced by the moving coils
tries to come in line with the field produced by the fixed coils and torque develops till both of them
come in line with each other.

There are three extreme conditions in which this instrument is connected in the circuit.

1. When power factor of the circuit is unity: In this case, current is in phase with circuit voltage. The
current flowing through potential coil A is in phase with the voltage which is also in phase with the
current flowing through current coil FF.

At the same time, the current flowing through potential coil B lags behind voltage as well as the
current flowing through current coil FF by 90o. Thus pressure coil A will experience a turning moment
so its plane will come in position a parallel to the plane of the current coil FF. The torque acting on the
pressure coil B is zero. Thus, the pointer indicates unity power factor on the scale.

2. When power factor of the circuit is zero lagging: In this case, current lags behind the circuit voltage
by 90°. Therefore, the current flowing through pressure coil B will be in phase with the current in current
coils FF, both being lagging behind the circuit voltage by 90°.

The current flowing through pressure coil A will lead the current in current coil FF by 90°. Thus a
turning moment acts on the pressure coil B and brings its plane parallel to the plane of current
coil FF and pointer indicates zero power factor lagging.
 54|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

3. When power factor of the circuit is zero leading: In this case current leads the circuit voltage by 90o.
Therefore, the current flowing through pressure coil A lags the current in current coil FF by 90° and the
current flowing through pressure coil B lags the current in current coil FF by 180°.

Thus field produced by the moving system is just reversed to that in the case (2). Thus an opposite
turning moment acts on the pressure coil B and brings its plane parallel to the plane of current
coil FF and pointer indicates zero power factor leading.

For intermediate power factors the moving system of power factor meter takes up intermediate
positions and the pointer indicates the power factor accordingly.

3 Phase Power Factor Meter

A dynamometer type three-phase power factor meter gives correct readings only when the load
is balanced. The basic principle of this instrument is the same as that of the single-phase
dynamometer type power factor meter. The only difference is in its construction.

Construction of a 3 Phase Power Factor Meter

It consists of two fixed coils FF connected in series in one of the phases and carries the line current as
shown in the figure.
 55|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The two identical moving coils A and B are fixed with their planes 120° apart and are connected across
the two remaining phases respectively through high resistances as shown in the figure.

In this case, there is no necessity for phase splitting by artificial means, since the required phase
displacement between the currents in the moving coils can be obtained from the supply itself.

3 Phase Power Factor Meter Working Principle

When the three phase power factor meter is connected in the circuit, under balanced load conditions,
the angle through which the pointer is deflected from the unity power factor position is equal to the
phase angle of the circuit, because the two moving coils are fixed 120° apart.

The deflections in three phase power factor meter are independent of frequency and waveform
since the currents in the two moving coils are affected in the same way by any change of frequency.

Power Factor Meter Connection Diagram

Power factor meter connection is shown in Figure.

Advantages of Electrodynamic Type Power Factor Meters

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1. Losses are less because of minimum use of iron parts and also give less error over a small range
of frequency as compared to moving iron type instruments.
2. They high torque is to weight ratio.

Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Type Power Factor Meters

1. Working forces are small as compared to moving iron type instruments.

2. The scale is not extended over 360o.
3. Calibration of electrodynamometer type instruments are highly affected by the changing the
supply voltage frequency.
They are quite costly as compared to other instruments

CHAPTER 6
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE&
CAPACITANCE
CLASSIFIATION OF RESISTANCE
The classification of resistances, from the point of view of measurement is as follows:

(1)Low resistances: All resistances of the order of 1Ω hand under may be classified as low resistances.

(2)Medium resistances: All resistances from 1Ω to about 0.1 MΩ come under medium resistances.

(3)High resistances: All resistances of the order above 0.1 MΩ come under high resistances.

Methods for Measurement of low resistances:

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The methods for measurement of low resistances are:

(i) Ammeter-Voltmeter Method

(ii)Kelvin's double bridge method

(iii)Potentiometer method

Measurement of Resistance using Potentiometer

The DC potentiometer method of measurement of resistance is used for measuring the unknown
resistance of low value. This can be done by comparing the unknown resistance with the standard
resistance. The voltage drop across the known and unknown resistance is measured and by comparison
the value of known resistance is determined.

Let understand this with the help of the circuit diagram. The R is the unknown resistance whose value
is needed to be measured. The S is the standard resistance from which the value of unknown resistance
is compared. The rheostat is used for controlling the magnitude of current into the circuit.

The double pole double throw switch is used in the circuit. The switch, when moves to position 1,
1’ the unknown resistance connects to the circuit, and when it moves to position 2, 2’ the standard
resistance connects to the circuit.

Consider that when the switch is in position 1,1’ the voltage drop across the unknown resistance is Vr

and when it is in 2, 2’ the voltage drop across the resistance is Vs

On equating the equation (1) and (2), we get

 58|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

 The accuracy of unknown resistance depends on the value of standard resistance.

 The accuracy of the unknown resistance also depends on the magnitude of the current at the time of
the readings. If the magnitude of current remains same, the circuit gives the accurate result.
 The ammeter is used in the circuit for determining the magnitude of current passing through resistor
during the reading.

The magnitude of the current is adjusted in such a way that the voltage drop across the resistance is equal
to 1 volt.

MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCES

The different methods for measurement of medium range resistances are
(i) Ohmmeter method,

(ii)Voltmeter–ammeter method,

(iii)Substitution method,

(iv)Wheatstone- bridge method.

Wheatstone Bridge Method

The Wheatstone bridge is the most commonly used circuit for measurement of medium-range
resistances. The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistance arms, together with a battery (voltage
 59|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

source) and a galvanometer (null detector). The circuit is shown in Figure

In the bridge circuit, R3 and R4 are two fixed known resistances, R2 is a known variable resistance and
RX is the unknown resistance to be measured. Under operating conditions, current ID through the
galvanometer will depend on the difference in potential between nodes B and C. A bridge balance
condition is achieved by varying the resistance R2 and checking whether the galvanometer pointer is
resting at its zero position. At balance, no current flows through the galvanometer. This means that at
balance, potentials at nodes B and C are equal. In other words, at balance the following conditions are
satisfied:
The detector current is zero, i.e., 1D = 0 and thus It = I3 and I2 = I4
Potentials at node B and C are same, i.e., VB = VC, or in other words, voltage drop in the arm AB equals
the voltage drop across the arm AC, i.e., VAB = VAC and voltage drop in the arm BD equals the voltage
drop across the arm CD, i.e., VBD = VCD

From the relation VAB = VAC we have I1 × Rx = I2 × R2

At balanced ‘null’ position, since the galvanometer carries no current, it as if acts as if open circuited,
thus
 60|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Thus, measurement of the unknown resistance is made in terms of three known resistances. The arms
BD and CD containing the fixed resistances R3 and R4 are called the ratio arms. The arm AC containing
the known variable resistance R2 is called the standard arm. The range of the resistance value that can
be measured by the bridge can be increased simply by increasing the ratio R3/R4.

Measurement of High Resistance (>100kΩ)

Following are few methods used for measurement of high resistance values-

 Loss of Charge Method

 Megger
 Megohm bridge Method
 Direct Deflection Method

Loss of Charge Method

 61|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

In the loss of charge method unknown resistance is connected in parallel with the capacitor and
electrostatic voltmeter. The capacitor is initially charged to some suitable voltage by means of a battery
of voltage V and then allowed to discharge through the resistance. The terminal voltage is observed

during discharge and it is given by,

OR

Or insulation resistance is given by,

The variation of voltage v with time is shown in figure,

From above equation, it follows that if V, v, C, and t are known the value of R can be computed.

If the resistance R is very large the time for an appreciable fall in voltage is very large and thus this
process may become time-consuming. Also the voltage-time curve will thus be very flat and unless
great care is taken in measuring voltages at the beginning and at the end of time t, a serious error may
be made in the ratio V/v causing the considerable corresponding error in the measured value of R.
more accurate results may be obtained by change in the voltage V-v directly and calling this change as

e, the expression for R becomes:

This change in voltage may be measured by a galvanometer.

However, from the experimental point of view, it may be advisable to determine the time t from the
discharge curve of the capacitor by plotting the curve of log v against time t. this curve is linear as shown
in the second figure and thus the determination of time t from this curve for the voltage to fall from V to
v yields more accurate results.

Loss of charge method is applicable to some high resistances, but it requires a capacitor of very high
leakage resistance as high as resistance being measured. The method is very attractive if the resistance
 62|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

being measured is the leakage resistance of a capacitor as in this case auxiliary R and C units are not
required.

Actually, in this method, we do not measure the true value of resistance since we assume here that the
value of resistance of electrostatic voltmeter and the leakage resistance of the capacitor have infinite
value. But in practice corrections must be applied to take into consideration the above two resistances.
Let R1 be the leakage resistance of the capacitor. Also R’ be the equivalent resistance of the parallel
resistances R and R1.

Loss of charge method with leakage resistance of the capacitor

Then discharge equation of capacitor gives,

R’=0.4343 t / (C log V/v)

The test is then repeated with the unknown resistance R disconnected and the capacitor discharging
through R1. The value of R1 obtained from this second test and substituted into the expression,

R’=(R R1) / (R+R1)

In order to get the value of R. The leakage resistance of the voltmeter, unless very high should also be
taken into consideration.

MEGGER
 63|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

One of the most popular portable type insulation resistance measuring instruments is the mega-
ohmmeter or in short, meggar. The meggar is used very commonly for measurement of insulation
resistance of electrical machines, insulators, bushings, etc.
The traditional analog deflecting-type meggar is essentially a permanent magnet crossed-coil shunt
type ohmmeter.

The instrument has a small permanent magnet dc generator developing 500 V dc (some other
models also have 100 V, 250 V, 1000 or 2500 V generators). The generators is hand driven, through
gear arrangements, and through a centrifugally controlled clutch switch which slips at a predefined
speed so that a constant voltage can be developed. Some meggars also have rectified ac as power
supply.
The moving system in such instruments consists of two coils, the control coil CC and the deflecting
coil CD. Both the coils are mounted rigidly on a shaft that carries the pointer as well. The two coils
move in the air gap of a permanent magnet. The two coils are arranged with such numbers of turns,
radii of action, and connected across the generator with such polarities that, for external magnetic
fields of uniform intensity, the torque produced by the individual coils are in opposition thus giving
an astatic combination. The deflecting coil is connected in series with the unknown resistance RX
under measurement, a fixed resistor RD and then the generator. The current coil or the
compensating coil, along with the fixed resistance RC is connected directly across the generator. For
any value of the unknown, the coils and the pointer take up a final steady position such that the
torqueses of the two coils are equal and balanced against each other. For example, when the
 64|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

resistances RX under measurement is removed, i.e., the test terminals are open-circuited, no current
flows through the deflecting coil CD, but maximum current will flow through the control coil CC. The
control coil CC thus sets itself perpendicular to the magnetic axis with the pointer indicating ‘∞ Ω’
as marked in the scale. As the value of RX is brought down from open circuit condition, more and
more current flows through the deflecting coil CD, and the pointer moves away from the ‘∞ Ω’ mark
clockwise on the scale, and ultimately reaches the ‘0 Ω’ mark when the two test terminals are short
circuited.
The surface leakage problem is taken care of by the guard-wire arrangement. The guard ring and
the guard wire diverts the surface leakage current from reaching the main moving system and
interfering with its performance.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS FROM THE LECTURE :

i) What is Meggar?
ii) Explain the working principle of Meggar.
iii) Describe the construction of Meggar with proper diagram.
iv) Write applications of Meggar.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER
A digital multi-meter is an electronic instrument which can measure very precisely the dc and ac
voltage, current (dc and ac), and resistance. All quantities other than dc voltage is first converted
into an equivalent dc voltage by some device and then measured with the help of digital voltmeter.
The procedures of measurement of different quantities are described below:
For measurement of ac voltage, the input voltage, is fed through a calibrated, compensated
attenuator, to a precision full-wave rectifier circuit followed by a ripple reduction filter. The resulting
dc is fed to an Analog Digital Converter (ADC) and the subsequent display system. Many
manufacturers provide the same attenuator for both ac and dc measurements.
For current measurement, the drop across an internal calibrated shunt is measured directly by the
ADC in the ‘dc current mode’, and after ac to dc conversion in the ‘ac current mode’. This drop is
often in the range of 200 mV (corresponding to full scale).

Due to the lack of precision in the ac–dc conversions, the accuracy in the ac range is generally of the
order of 0.2 to 0.5%. In addition, the measurement range is often limited to about 50 Hz at the lower
 65|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

frequency end due to the ripple in the rectified signal becoming a non-negligible percentage of the
display and hence results in fluctuation of the displayed number. At the higher frequency end,
deterioration of the performance of the ADC converter limits the accuracy. In ac measurement the
reading is often average or rms values of the unknown current. Sometimes for measurement of
current, a current-to-voltage converter may also be used.

The current under measurement is applied to the summing junction at the input of the op-amp. The
current in the feedback resistor IR is equal to the input current IIN because of very high input
impedance of the op-amp. The current IR causes a voltage drop across one of the resistors, which is
proportional to the input current IIN. Different resistors are employed for different ranges.

For resistance measurement the digital multi-meter operates by measuring the voltage across the
externally connected resistance, resulting from a current forced through it from a calibrated internal
current source. The accuracy of the resistance measurement is of the order of 0.1 to 0.5% depending
on the accuracy and stability of the internal current sources. The accuracy may be proper in the
highest range which is often about 10 to 20 MΩ. In the lowest range, the full scale may be nearly
equal to>200 Ω with a resolution of about 0.01 Ω for a 4½ digit digital multi-meter. In this range of
resistance measurement, the effect of the load resistance will have to be carefully considered.

Analog Multimeter Digital Multimeter

No external power supply required. An external power supply is required.
Visual indication of change in reading is better Less observable.
observable.

Less effect of electronic noise. More affected by electronic noise.

Less isolation problems. More isolation problems.
It has less accuracy. Highly accurate instrument.

Interface of the output with external equipment Possible to connect an external instrument with
is not the output
possible. reading.
Simple in construction. Very complicated in construction.

Big in size. Small in size.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS FROM THE LECTURE :

1. Briefly describe the performance characteristics of digital measurement.

2. Write down the comparison between analog and digital multi-meters.
3. With the help of a functional block diagram, describe the principle of operation of a digital
multi-meter.
4. What are the applications of Digital Multi-meter.
 66|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

CHAPTER-7
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read
by an observer or by an instrument.
For example, a mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and
contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts
temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to
be calibrated against known standards.

In everyday life, sensors are used everywhere such as touch sensitive mobile phones, laptop’s touch
pad, touch controller light, etc. People use so many applications of sensors in their everyday lifestyle
that even they are not aware about it. Examples of such applications are in the field of medicine,
machines, cars, aerospace, robotics and manufacturing plants. The sensitivity of the sensors is the
change of sensor’s output when the measured quantity changes. For example, the output increases 1
volt when the temperature in the thermocouple junction increases 1°C. The sensitivity of the
thermocouple element is 1 volt/°C. To measure very small charges, the sensors should have very high
sensitivity.

A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic,

or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to another (generally electrical or
mechanical) for various measurement purposes including measurement or information transfer (for
example, pressure sensors).

The term transducer is commonly used in two senses; the sensor, used to detect a parameter in one
form and report it in another (usually an electrical or digital signal), and the audio loudspeaker, which
converts electrical voltage variations representing music or speech to mechanical cone vibration and
hence vibrates air molecules creating sound.

Basic Requirements of a Transducer

The main objective of a transducer is to react only for the measurement under specified limits for which
it is designed. It is, therefore, necessary to know the relationship between the input and output
quantities and it should be fixed. A transducer should have the following basic requirements:
 67|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

1. Linearity
Its input vs output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these characteristics in
balanced way.

2. Ruggedness
A transducer should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangements must be
provided with it for overload protection.

3. Repeatability
The device should reproduce the same output signal when the same input signal is applied again and
again under unchanged environmental conditions, e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.

4. High Reliability and Stability

The transducer should give minimum error in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and
other various changes in surroundings.

5. High Output Signal Quality

The quality of output signal should be good, i.e., the ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and
the amplitude of the output signal should be enough.

6. No Hysteresis
It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is varied from its low value to
high value and vice versa.

7. Residual Reformation

There should not be any deformation on removal of input signal after long period of use.

Selection of Transducer

Following are the factors which need to be considered while selecting a transducer:

 High input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid loading effect.

 Good resolution over is entire selected range.

 Highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.

 Preferably small in size.

 High degree of accuracy and repeatability.

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 Selected transducer must be free from errors

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Define Sensor and explain it with some examples.

2. What is Transducer? Explain briefly with some examples.
3. What are the basic requirements of transducer? Explain each term briefly.
4. What are the factors need to be considered to select a transducer?

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The classification of transducers may be explained as follows:

Based on the physical phenomenon:
1. Primary Transducer
2. Secondary Transducer

On the basis of application transducer may be classified as primary and secondary transducer.
When the input signal is directly sense by the transducer, the non-electrical energy is converted
into electrical energy directly then, this type of transducer is known as primary transducer. For
example thermistor, senses the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with
the change in temperature.

When the input signal is first sensed by some sensor or detector, then its output signal is feed
to the other instrument as an input. The output of this instrument is given as the input of
transducer for converting into electrical energy. This type of transducer is in secondary
transducer classification. For example in the case of pressure measurement, we use bourdon
tube to convert pressure into displacement, then the pressure is converter into output voltage
with the help of LVDT. Here the secondary transducer is LVDT. We will discuss the bourdon tube
and LVDT in this chapter.

Based on the power type

1. Active transducer
2. Passive transducer

Active transducer does not require any auxiliary power source to produce their output. It is also
called self generating type transducer.

Active and Passive Transducers

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Active transducer is also known as self generating type transducer. It develops their own
voltage or current from the physical phenomenon being measured. Active transducers generate
electric current or voltage directly in response to environmental stimulation. Examples of active
transducers are thermocouples and piezoelectric accelerometers. Thermocouples produce a
voltage related to a temperature of two metals and if the two junctions are at different
temperatures, electricity is generated.

Passive transducers are also known as externally powered transducers. It derives the power
required for energy conversion from an external power source. Passive transducers produce a
change in some passive electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as
result of stimulation. These usually require additional electrical energy for excitation. A simple
example of a passive transducer is a device containing a length of wire and a moving contact
touching the wire. The position of the contact determines the effective length of the wire,
varying the resistance of the length of wire. Other examples of passive transducers are strain
gauges, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.

Based on the type of output

1. Analog transducer
2. Digital transducer

Based on the electrical phenomenon

1. Resistive transducer
2. Capacitive transducer
3. Inductive transducer
4. Photoelectric transducer
5. Photovoltaic transducer

Based on the non-electrical phenomenon

1. Linear displacement
2. Rotary displacement

Based on the transduction phenomenon,

1. Transducer
2. Inverse transducer.
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Characteristics of Transducer
Known values of the measured (input) are applied to a sensor (measurement system) for the
purpose of observing the sensor (system) output. The main characteristics of transducer are
given below:

Sensitivity It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the incremental input.
While defining the sensitivity, we assume that the input-output characteristic of the instrument
is approximately linear in that range.

Range The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of applied parameter that
can be measured.

Precision The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. In

other words, if exactly the same value were measured a number of times, an ideal sensor would
output exactly the same value every time. But real sensors output a range of values distributed
in some manner relative to the actual correct value.

Resolution The smallest difference between measured values that can be discriminated. For
example, it corresponds to the last stable figure on a digital display. This specification is the
smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be detected in the output
signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the reading (or the full-scale
reading) or in absolute terms.

Accuracy The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will exist between the
actual value and the indicated value at the output of the sensor. Again, the accuracy can be
expressed either as a percentage of full scale or in absolute terms.

Linearity The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent to which the actual
measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve. Fig. 14.2 shows a somewhat
exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the actual measured
or calibration line. Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of non-linearity, which is
defined as,

Non-linearity (%) = Maximum input deviation × 100

Maximum full scale input
Hysteresis Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic circuits, but in instruments also. For example, the
deflection of a diaphragm type pressure gage may be different for the same pressure, but one for
increasing and other for decreasing, A transducer should be capable of following the changes of the
input parameter regardless of which direction the change is made, hysteresis is the measure of this
property.
EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
1. Classify the transducers on the basis of power type and explain them.
2. Classify the transducers on the basis of electrical phenomenon.
3. Explain Primary and secondary transducers with suitable examples.
4. Write down the characteristics of transducers and explain each term briefly.
5.
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RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of transducer
is known as the resistive transducer. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring
devices. The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature,
displacement, vibration etc.
The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the
physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The process of
variation in resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.
The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary
transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly
transforms it into an electrical signal.

Example – The circuit of the sliding resistive

transducer is shown in the figure below. The sliding
contacts are placed on the resistive element. The
slider moves horizontally. The movement of the
slider changes the value of the resistive element of
the transducer which is measured by the voltage
source E. The displacement of the slider is
converted into an electrical signal.

Working Principle of Resistive Transducer

The resistive transducer element works on the
principle that the resistance of the element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor

and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.

Where, R – resistance in ohms.

A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.

The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and resistivity of
the metal.

Applications of Resistive Transducer

The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.

1. Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive
transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used
for the measurement of displacement.
 72|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

2. Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs
on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement etc.
3. Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in
temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.
4. Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor
material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The
Negative temperature coefficient means the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.

Advantages of Resistive Transducer

The following are the advantages of the resistive transducer.

1. Both the AC and DC, current or voltage is appropriate for the measurement of variable resistance.
2. The resistive transducer gives the fast response.
3. It is available in various sizes and having a high range of resistance.

POTENTIOMETER
The potentiometers or the “pots”, as it is commonly known in the electric circles, is a three terminal
variable resistor. Out of its three terminals, two of them are fixed and one is a varying (linear / rotary)
terminal.

The value of the resistance can be changed from zero to a defined

upper limit, by just manually sliding the contact over a resistive
strip. As the resistance changes, the current through the circuit
changes and hence according to the ohms law, the voltage across
the resistive material also changes.a potentiometer has three
terminals. When connected to a circuit, the two fixed terminals are
connected to the ends of the resistive elements while the third
terminal is connected to the wiper.

In the circuit diagram shown below, the terminals of the potentiometer are marked 1, 2 and 3. The
voltage supply is connected across terminals 1 and 3, positive lead to terminal one while negative lead
to terminal three. The terminal 2
is connected to the wiper.

Lets name the two resistors,

R1 and R2 (Refer figure). The wiper
voltage is actually the voltage
across R2. The circuit now looks
like a voltage divider, where the
output voltage is given the
equation:
 73|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Vout = {R2/ (R1+R2)} x V; where V= supply voltage.

LINEAR POTENTIOMETER

A linear potentiometer transducer consists of a potentiometer, which is short circuited by a slider.

The other end of the slider is connected to a slider arm. The force summing device on the slider arm
causes linear displacement of the slider causing the short circuit of a certain portion of the resistance
in the potentiometer. Let the whole resistance positions on the potentiometer be ABC. Let the
resistance position caused by the slider movement be BC. As the movement of the slider moves
further to the right, the amount of resistance increases. This increase in resistance value can be
noted according to the corresponding change in the linear displacement of the slider. The change
in resistance can be calculated with the help of a Wheatstone bridge.

Another easy method than calculating the resistance with the help of a bridge connection is to
connect a constant current source in series with the potentiometer. Thus a voltage will be
developed. This voltage can be measured and hence the resistance, R = V/I.

ROTARY POTENTIOMETER
The rotary type potentiometers are used mainly for obtaining adjustable supply voltage to a part of
electronic circuits and electrical circuits. The volume controller of a radio transistor is a popular
example of a rotary potentiometer where the rotary knob of the potentiometer controls the supply
to the amplifier.

This type of potentiometer has two terminal contacts between which

a uniform resistance is placed in a semi-circular pattern. The device
also has a middle terminal which is connected to the resistance
through a sliding contact attached with a rotary knob. By rotating the
knob one can move the sliding contact on the semi-circular resistance.
The voltage is taken between a resistance end contact and the sliding
contact. The potentiometer is also named as the POT in short. POT is
also used in substation battery chargers to adjust the charging voltage of a battery. There are many
more uses of rotary type potentiometer where smooth voltage control is required.
 74|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Define Resistive transducer with some examples.
2. Explain the working principle of Resistive transducer briefly.
3. What are the various advantages of resistive transducer?
4. Write down few applications of resistive transducer.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of potentiometer and explain its working principle with its types.

THERMISTOR
The thermistor is a kind of resistor whose resistivity depends on surrounding temperature. It is
a temperature sensitive device. The word thermistor is derived from the word, thermally sensitive
resistor. The thermistor is made of the semiconductor material that means their resistance lies
between the conductor and the insulator. The variation in the thermistor resistance shows that
either conduction or power dissipation occurs in the thermistor. The circuit diagram of thermistor
uses the rectangular block which has a diagonal line on it.
Construction of Thermistor
The thermistor is made with the sintered mixture of metallic oxides like
manganese, cobalt, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, uranium, etc. It is available in the
form of the bead, rod and disc. The different types of the thermistor are shown

in the figure below.

The bead form of the thermistor is smallest in shape, and it is enclosed inside the solid glass rod to
form probes.

The disc shape is made by pressing material under high pressure with diameter range from 2.5 mm
to 25mm.
 75|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Resistance Temperature Characteristic of Thermistor

The relation between the absolute temperature and the resistance of the thermistor is
mathematically expressed by the equation shown below.

Where, RT1 – Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T1 in Kelvin.

RT2 – Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T 2 in Kelvin.
β – a temperature depending on the material of thermistor.

The resistance temperature coefficient of the thermistor is shown in the figure below. The graph
below shows that the thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, i.e., the temperature is
inversely proportional to the resistance. The resistance of the thermistor changes from 10 5 to 10-
2 at the temperature between -100°C to 400°C.

Types of Thermistor
The thermistor is classified into types. They are the negative temperature coefficient and the
positive temperature coefficient thermistor.

1. Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – In this type of thermistor the temperature

increases with the decrease of the resistance. The resistance of the negative temperature
coefficient thermistor is very large due to which it detects the small variation in temperature.
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – The resistance of the thermistor increases with
the increases in temperature.

Advantages of Thermistor

The following are the advantages of the thermistor.

1. The thermistor is compact, long durable and less expensive.

2. The properly aged thermistor has good stability.
3. The response time of the thermistor changes from seconds to minutes. Their response time
depends on the detecting mass and the thermal capacity of the thermistor.
 76|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

4. The upper thermistor limit of the temperature depends on the physical variation of the
material, and the lower temperature depends on the resistance reaching a large value.
5. The self-heating of the thermistor is avoided by minimising the current passes through it.
6. The thermistor is installed at the distance of the measuring circuit. Thus the reading is free from
the error caused by the resistance of the lead.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
The resistance thermometer or resistance temperature detector (RTD) uses
the resistance of electrical conductor for measuring the temperature. The resistance of
the conductor varies with the time. This property of the conductor is used
for measuring the temperature. The main function of the RTD is to give a positive
change in resistance with temperature.

The metal has a high-temperature coefficient that means their temperature increases with the
increase in temperature. The carbon and germanium have low-temperature coefficient which
shows that their resistance is inversely proportional to temperature.

Material used in Resistive Thermometer

The resistance thermometer uses a sensitive element made of extremely pure metals like platinum,
copper or nickel. The resistance of the metal is directly proportional to the temperature. Mostly,
platinum is used in resistance thermometer. The platinum has high stability, and it can withstand
high temperature.

Gold and silver are not used for RTD because they have low resistivity. Tungsten has high resistivity,
but it is extremely brittles. The copper is used for making the RTD element. The copper has low
resistivity and also it is less expensive. The only disadvantage of the copper is that it has low linearity.
The maximum temperature of the copper is about 120ºC.

The RTD material is made of platinum, nickel or alloys of nickel. The nickel wires are used for a
limited temperature range, but they are quite nonlinear.

The following are the requirements of the conductor used in the RTDs.

1. The resistivity of the material is high so that the minimum volume of conductor is used for
construction.
2. The change in resistance of the material concerning temperature should be as high as possible.
3. The resistance of the material depends on the temperature.
 77|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The resistance versus temperature curve is shown in the figure below. The curves are nearly linear,
and for small temperature range, it is very
evident.

Construction of Resistive Thermometer

The resistance thermometer is placed inside the
protective tube for providing the protection
against damage. The resistive element is formed
by placing the platinum wire on the ceramic
bobbin. This resistance element is placed inside
the tube which is made up of stainless steel or
copper steel.

The lead wire is used for connecting the resistance element with the external lead. The lead wire is
covered by the insulated tube which protects it from short circuit. The ceramic material is used as
an insulator for high-temperature material and for low-temperature fibre or glass is used.

Operation of Resistance Thermometer

The tip of the resistance thermometer is placed near the measurand heat source. The heat is
uniformly distributed across the resistive element. The changes in the resistance vary the
temperature of the element. The final resistance is measured. The below mention equations
measure the variation in temperature.

Where, R0 – resistance at temperature T = 0 and α1, α2, α3……..αn are constants.

Linear Approximation

The linear approximation is the way of estimating the resistance versus temperature curve in the
form of the linear equation.

where Rθ – approximation resistance at θºC

Rθ0 – approximation resistance at θ0ºC
Δθ – θ – θ0 change in temperature ºC and the αθ0 – resistance temperature coefficient at θ0ºC
 78|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Quadratic Approximation

The quadratic approximation gives the accurate approximation of the resistance temperature curve.
The approximation is expressed in the form of
the quadratic equation.

α1 – linear fractional change in resistance

α2 – quadratic function change in resistance.

The resistance thermometer is very less sensitive, and the metal used for making the resistive
element is less expensive.

Difference between RTD & Thermistor

Basis For RTD (Resistance Thermistor

Comparison Temperature Detector)

Definition The device use for measuring It is a thermal resistor whose

the change in temperature is resistance changes with the
known as the RTD or temperature.
Resistance Temperature
Detector.

Symbol

Material Metals (platinum, nickel, Semiconductor

copper, etc.)

Accuracy Less accurate. Their accuracy is high. It can

detect even small changes in
temperature because of
negative temperature
coefficient.

Response Slow Fast

Time

Temperature -230°C to 660°C -60°C to 15°C

Range

Characteristic Linear Non-linear

Graph
 79|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Sensitivity Low High

Size Large Small

Cost Cheap Expensive

Resistivity High Low

Hysteresis Low High

Effect

Applications In industries for measuring For measuring the

large temperature. temperature of home
appliances.

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Define thermistor and resistive temperature detector briefly with some examples.
2. Explain construction of thermistor with its characteristics.
3. Write down the types and advantages of thermistors.
4. Explain construction of RTD with its operation characteristics.
5. Differentiate between thermistor and RTD.

STRAIN GAUGES
The strain gauge is an electrical transducer; it is used to measure mechanical surface tension. Strain
gauge can detect and convert force or small mechanical displacement into electrical signals. On the
application of force a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes owing to the
fact both length and diameter of conductor change. Also, there is a change on the value of resistivity
of the conductor when it is strained and this property of the metal is called piezo-resistive effect.
Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo-resistive gauges. The strain gauges are
used for measurement of strain and associated stress in experimental stress analysis. Secondly, many
other detectors and transducers, for example the load cell, torque meter, flow meter, and
accelerometer employ strain gauge as a secondary transducer.

Theory of Resistance Strain Gauges

The change in the value of resistance by the application of force can be explained by the normal
dimensional changes of elastic material. If a positive strain occurs, its longitudinal dimension (x-
direction) will increase while there will be a reduction in the lateral dimension (y-direction). The
reverse happens for a negative strain. Since the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, the resistance changes. The resistivity of
a conductor is also changed when strained. This property is known as piezo-resistive effect.

Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has the dimensions:
 80|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

length L, area A, diameter D before being strained. The material of the wire has a resistivity ρ.

Poisson’s ratio

The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.

Where, ε= = Strain

Inductive Transducers

The inductive transducers work on the principle of the magnetic induction of magnetic
material. The induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of variables like the
number of turns of the coil on the material, the size of the magnetic material, and the
permeability of the flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials are used in
the flux path and there are one or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in change
in the inductance of the circuit and in most of the inductive transducers it is used for the
working of the instrument. There are two types of inductive transducers, they are given below:

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

(LVDT)
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). The transformer consists of a single primary winding
‘P’ and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former. A sinusoidal voltage of
amplitude 3 to 15 Volts and frequency 50 to 20000 Hz is used to excite the primary. The two
secondaries have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary
winding.
 81|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The primary winding is connected to an

alternating current source. A movable soft-iron
core is placed inside the former. The
displacement to be measured is applied to the
arm attached to the soft iron core. In practice the
core is made of high permeability, nickel iron.
This is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy
current losses. The assembly is placed in a
stainless steel housing to provide electrostatic
and electromagnetic shielding. The frequency of
ac signal applied to primary winding may be
between 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produces an alternating
magnetic field which in turn induces alternating voltages in the two secondary windings.
The output voltage of secondary S1 is ES1 and that of secondary S2 is ES2. In order to convert the outputs
from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondary S1 and S2 are connected in series
opposition. Differential output voltage is E0 = ES1 − ES2.
Operation
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings is
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus, at null position: ES1 = ES2. Thus, the output
voltage E0 is zero at null position.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with S1 and less with winding
S2. Accordingly, output voltages ES1 is greater than ES2. The magnitude of output voltage is thus, E0 =
ES1 − ES2 and say it is in phase with primary voltage.
Similarly, when the core is moved to the right of the null position ES2 will be more than ES1. Thus the
output voltage is E0 = ES1 − ES2 and 180° out of phase with primary voltage.

The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement
of the core. Hence, we have an indication of amount of linear motion. By noticing whether output
voltage is increased or decreased, we can determine the direction of motion.
Advantages of LVDT
 Linearity is good up to 5 mm of displacement.
 Output is rather high. Therefore, immediate amplification is not necessary.
 Output voltage is stepless and hence the resolution is very good.
 Sensitivity is high (about 40 V/mm).
 It does not load the measurand mechanically.
 It consumes low power and low hysteresis loss also.

Disadvantages of LVDT

 LVDT has large threshold.

 It is affected by stray electromagnetic fields. Hence proper shielding of the device is necessary.
 The ac inputs generate noise.
 Its sensitivity is lower at higher temperature.
 Being a first-order instrument, its dynamic response is not instantaneous.
 82|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Uses of LVDTs
The following are the major applications of LVDTs.

1. It is used for measuring the displacement having a range from few mm to cm. The LVDT directly
converts the displacement into an electrical signal.

2. It is also used as the secondary transducer. The LVDT is used as a device for measuring the force,
weight and pressure. Some of the LVDT used for measuring the load and pressure.

3. The LVDT sensor works as the main transducer, and that changes dislocation to electrical signal
straight.

4. Some of these transducers are used to calculate the pressure and load.

5. LVDT’s are mostly used in industries as well as servomechanisms.

6. Other applications like power turbines, hydraulics, automation, aircraft, and satellites.

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Define strain gauge and for what this is used?
2. Explain the working principle of strain gauge briefly.
3. What is inductive transducer?
4. Explain the construction and working principle of LVDT with proper diagram.
5. Write down the advantages, disadvantages and uses of LVDT.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other physical
quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation. The capacitive
transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitance of the capacitive
transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping of plates, change in distance between
the plates and dielectric constant. The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These
plates are separated by the dielectric medium which is air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal
capacitor the distance between the plates are fixed, but in capacitive transducer the distance between
them are varied.

The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the mechanical
movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance which is
directly measured by the capacitive transducer.
 83|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The capacitors measure both the static and dynamic changes. The displacement is also measured
directly by connecting the measurable devices to the movable plate of the capacitor. It works on with
both the contacting and non-contacting modes.

Principle of Operation
The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacitor

Where A – overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in meter

ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m

εr – relative permittivity

ε0 – the permittivity of free space

The schematic diagram of a parallel plate capacitive transducer is shown in the figure below.

The change in capacitance occurs because of

the physicals variables like displacement, force,
pressure, etc. The capacitance of the
transducer also changes by the variation in
their dielectric constant which is usually
because of the measurement of liquid or gas
level.

The capacitance of the transducer is measured

with the bridge circuit. The output impedance

of transducer is given as

Where, C – capacitance

f – frequency of excitation in Hz.

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement. The capacitive
transducer uses the following three effects.

1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.

 84|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.

The following methods are used for the measuring displacement.

1. A transducer using the change in the Area of Plates (VARIABLE AREA

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER) –

The equation below shows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates. The
capacitance changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the plates.

The capacitive transducers are used for measuring

the large displacement approximately from 1mm
to several cms. The area of the capacitive
transducer changes linearly with the capacitance
and the displacement. Initially, the nonlinearity
occurs in the system because of the edges.
Otherwise, it gives the linear response.

The capacitance of the parallel plates is given

as

Where, x – the length of overlapping part of plates

ω – the width of overlapping part of plates.

The sensitivity of the displacement is constant, and therefore it gives the linear relation between the
capacitance and displacement.

The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular displacement. It is measured by the
movable plates shown below. One of the plates of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable.

The phasor diagram of the transducer is shown in the figure below.

 85|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The angular movement changes the capacitance of the transducers. The capacitance between them is
maximum when these plates overlap each other. The
maximum value of capacitance is expressed

as

The capacitance at angle θ is given expressed as,

θ – Angular displacement in radian. The sensitivity for the change in capacitance is given as

The 180° is the maximum value of the angular displacement of the capacitor.

2. The transducer using the change in distance between the plates –

The capacitance of the transducer is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. The
one plate of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable. The displacement which is to be
measured links to the movable plates.

The capacitance is inversely

proportional to the distance because
of which the capacitor shows the
nonlinear response. Such type of
transducer is used for measuring the
small displacement. The phasor
diagram of the capacitor is shown in
the figure.

The sensitivity of the transducer is not

constant and vary from places to
places.
 86|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Advantage of Capacitive Transducer

The following are the major advantages of

capacitive transducers.

1. It requires an external force for

operation and hence very useful for small
systems.
2. The capacitive transducer is very
sensitive.
3. It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for the dynamic study.
4. The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small loading effect.
5. It requires small output power for operation.

Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer

The main disadvantages of the transducer are as follows.

1. The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.

2. The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray magnetic field.
3. Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviors because of the edge effect which is
controlled by using the guard ring.
4. The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.

Uses of Capacitive Transducer

The following are the uses of capacitive transducer.

1. The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear and angular displacement. It
is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small distance.
2. It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or pressure, which is to be
measured is first converted into a displacement, and then the displacement changes the capacitances
of the transducer.
3. It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the transducer
changes with the pressure.
4. The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
5. The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density, weight etc.

The accuracy of the transducer depends on the variation of temperature to the high level.
 87|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the basic working principle of capacitive transducer.
2. What is Variable area capacitive transducer? Describe its working principle with proper diagram.
3. How do we change the value of capacitance by varying the distance between plates? Explain
briefly.
4. Write down few advantages, disadvantages and uses of capacitive transducer.

Piezoelectric Transducers

The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect. When mechanical
stress or forces are applied to some materials along certain planes, they produce electric
voltage. This electric voltage can be measured easily by the voltage measuring instruments,
which can be used to measure the stress or force.

There are certain materials that generate electric potential or voltage when mechanical strain
is applied to them or when the voltage is applied to them, they tend to change the dimensions
along certain plane. This effect is called as the piezoelectric effect. This effect was discovered
in the year 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. Some of the materials that exhibit piezoelectric
effect are quartz, Rochelle salt, polarized barium titanate, ammonium dihydrogen, ordinary
sugar etc.

The physical quantities like stress and force cannot be measured directly. In such cases the
material exhibiting piezoelectric transducers can be used. The stress or the force that has to be
measured is applied along certain planes to these materials. The voltage output obtained from
these materials due to piezoelectric effect is proportional to the applied stress or force. The
output voltage can be calibrated against the applied stress or the force so that the measured
value of the output voltage directly gives the value of the applied stress or force.

The piezoelectric effect can be made to response mechanical deformations of the material in
many different modes. The modes can be thickness expansion, transverse expansion, thickness
shear and face shear. The mode of motion affected depends on the shape of the body relative
to the crystal axis and location of the electrodes. The mechanical deformation generates a
charge and this charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes.

The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface are proportional to the magnitude and
direction of the applied force F. The polarity of induced charge depends upon the direction of
applied force. The charge is given by,

Q=d×F

where d = charge sensitivity of crystal

F = applied force
 88|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Modes of Operation of Piezo-electric Crystals There

are different mode of operation they are given below:

1. Thickness shear
2. Face shear
3. Thickness expansion
4. Transverse Expansion

Application

They are used for quality assurance, process control and for research and development in many
different industries.

Hall Effect Transducer

This transducer works on the principle of Hall Effect. When a current conducting material is
placed in the transverse magnetic field then the difference of potential is produced between
the opposite edges of the conductor. This effect is known as Hall Effect. The magnitude of the
voltage depends upon the current, the strength of magnetic field and the property of the
conductor.

Hall
strip EH
2
4

3
Transve
rse magnetic field

Let the current pass through edge 1 and 2 of the conductor and the output leads is connected
to edge 3 and 4. The edge 3 and 4 are at same potential when there is no transverse magnetic
field passing through the conductor. When a transverse magnetic field passing through the
conductor, an output voltage appears across the output leads. This output voltage is
proportional to the current and the field strength. The output voltage is given by,

EH = KH .t.I.B
 89|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Where KH = Hall Effect constant

t = thickness of the conductor

I = current in the circuit

B = Flux density

The voltage produces may be used for measurement of the current I or the magnetic field
strength B.

Application of Hall Effect Transducers

Main applications of the Hall Effect transducers are given below:

1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer

This transducer is used as a magnetic to electrical transducer. A semiconductor plate is

inserted into the magnetic field to be measured. The magnetic lines of force are
perpendicular to the semiconducting plate. The transducer gives and output voltage which
is proportional to the magnetic field density B. Also the element gives out a continuous
electric signal in direct response to the magnetic field strength.
2. Measurement of Displacement

The Hall Effect is used for measurement of the location or displacement of the elements. The Hall
Effect transducer is located in the gap adjacent the permanent magnet. The field strength produced
in the gap, adjacent to the permanent magnet in the gap, where the Hall Effect element is located,
is varied by changing the position of a ferromagnetic plate. The output voltage of the Hall Effect
transducer is proportional to the field strength in the gap which is a function of the position of the
ferromagnetic plate from the structure.

3. Measurement of Current

The Hall Effect transducer used to measure the current in conductor without the need for
interrupting the circuit and without making electrical connection between the conductor
and the meter. The current passes through the conductor and sets up a magnetic field
surrounding the conductor. The magnetic field is proportional to the current.

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:

1. What is piezoelectric effect?

2. Describe the working principle of piezoelectric transducer.
3. Name the modes of operation of piezoelectric crystals.
4. What is Hall Effect? Explain the working principle Hall Effect transducer.
5. What are the various applications of Hall Effect transducer?
 90|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

CHAPTER-8
OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electrical instrument which is used for showing the
measurement and analysis of waveforms and others electronic and electrical phenomenon. It is a very
fast X-Y plotter shows the input signal versus another signal or versus time. The CROs are used to
analyze the waveforms, transient, phenomena, and other time-varying quantities from a very low-
frequency range to the radio frequencies.

The CRO is mainly operated on voltages. Thus, the other physical quantities like current, strain,
acceleration, pressure are converted into the voltage with the help of the transducer and thus
represent on a CRO. It is also used for knowing the waveforms, transient phenomenon, and other time-
varying quantity from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies.

The CRO has Stylus (i.e., a luminous spot) which moves over the display area in response to an input
voltage. This luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking on a fluorescent screen. The
normal form of the CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is an internally generated ramp voltage
called “time base”.

The horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a horizontal direction from left to right
over the display area or screen. The vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation. The vertical
voltage moves the luminous spot up and down on the screen. When the input voltage moves very fast
on the screen, the display on the screen appears stationary. Thus, CRO provides a means of the
visualizing time-varying voltage.

Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The main parts of the cathode ray oscilloscope are as follows.

1. Cathode Ray Tube

2. Electronic Gun Assembly
3. Deflecting Plate
4. Fluorescent Screen For CRT
5. Glass Envelop

Their parts are explained below in details.

1. Cathode Ray Tube

The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the electrical signal into the visual signal. The
cathode ray tube mainly consists the electron gun and the electrostatic deflection plates (vertical and
horizontal).The electron gun produces a focused beam of the electron which is accelerated to high
frequency.

The vertical deflection plate moves the beams up and down and the horizontal beam moved the
electrons beams left to right. These movements are independent to each other and hence the beam
may be positioned anywhere on the screen.
 91|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

2. Electronic Gun Assembly

The electron gun emits the electrons and forms them into a beam. The electron gun mainly consists of
a heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode. For
gaining the high emission of electrons at the moderate temperature, the layers of barium and
strontium is deposited on the end of the cathode.

After the emission of an electron from the cathode grid, it passes through the control grid. The control
grid is usually a nickel cylinder with a centrally located co-axial with the CRT axis. It controls the
intensity of the emitted electron from the cathode.

The electron while passing through the control grid is accelerated by a high positive potential which is
applied to the pre-accelerating or accelerating nodes.

The electron beam is focused on focusing electrodes and then passes through the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates and then goes on to the fluorescent lamp. The pre-accelerating and
accelerating anode are connected to 1500V, and the focusing electrode is connected to 500V. There
are two methods of focusing on the electron beam. These methods are

 Electrostatic focusing
 Electromagnetic focusing.

The CRO uses an electrostatic focusing tube.

3. Deflecting Plate

The electron beam after leaving the electron gun passes through the two pairs of the deflecting plate.
The pair of plate producing the vertical deflection is called a vertical deflecting plate or Y plates, and
the pair of the plate which is used for horizontal deflection is called horizontal deflection plate or X
plates.

4. Fluorescent Screen for CRT

 92|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The front of the CRT is called the face plate. It is flat for screen sized up to about 100mm×100mm. The
screen of the CRT is slightly curved for larger displays. The face plate is formed by pressing the molten
glass into a mould and then annealing it.

The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal. The phosphor converts electrical
energy into light energy. When an electronics beam strike phosphor crystal, it raises their energy level
and hence light is emitted during phosphorous crystallization. This phenomenon is called fluorescence.

5. Glass Envelope

It is a highly evacuated conical shape structure. The inner surface of the CRT between the neck and the
screen is coated with the aquadag. The aquadag is a conducting material and act as a high-voltage
electrode. The coating surface is electrically connected to the accelerating anode and hence helps the
electron to be the focus.

Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through the control grid. The control
grid controls the intensity of electron in the vacuum tube. If the control grid has high negative
potential, then it allows only a few electrons to pass through it. Thus, the dim spot is produced on the
lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control grid is low, then the bright spot is produced.
Hence the intensity of light depends on the negative potential of the control grid.
After moving the control grid the electron beam passing through the focusing and accelerating anodes,
the accelerating anodes are at a high positive potential and hence they converge the beam at a point
on the screen.

After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under the effect of the deflecting plates.
When the deflecting plate is at zero potential, the beam produces a spot at the centre. If the voltage
is applied to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron beam focuses at the upward and when the
voltage is applied horizontally the spot of light will be deflected horizontally.

Cathode Ray Tube

 93|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Block Diagram of CRO

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. What is Oscilloscope and what are its different parts and functions?
2. Explain the working principle of Cathode Ray Tube with proper diagram.
3. Explain the working principle of Oscilloscope with proper block diagram.

Measurement of DC Voltage and Current

The expression for electrostatic deflection is

, where

L = distance between screen and the centre of the deflecting plates

Id = length of deflecting plates
Ed = potential between deflecting plates
d= distance between deflecting plates
Ea = voltage of pre accelerating anode
So deflection is proportional to the deflecting-plate voltage. Thus, the cathode ray tube will measure
voltage. It is used to calibrate the tube under the given operating conditions by observing the
deflection produced by a known voltage. Direct voltage may be obtained from the static deflection of
the spot, alternating voltage from the length of the line produced when the voltage is applied to Y-
plates while no voltage is applied to X-plates. The length of the line corresponds to the peak to peak
voltage. While dealing with sinusoidal voltages, the rms value is given by dividing the peak to peak
voltage by

For measurement of current, the current under measurement is passed through a known non
inductive resistance and the voltage drop across it is measured by CRO, as mentioned above. The
current can be determined simply by dividing the voltage drop measured by the value of non inductive
 94|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

resistance. When the current to be measured is of very small magnitude, the voltage drop across non-
inductive resistance (small value) is usually amplified by a calibrated amplifier.

Measurement of Frequency
It is interesting to consider the characteristics of patterns that appear on the screen of a CRO when
sinusoidal voltages are simultaneously applied to the horizontal and vertical plates. These patterns are
called Lissajous patterns.

Lissajous patterns may be used for accurate measurement of frequency. The signal, whose frequency
is to be measured, is applied to the Y-plates. An accurately calibrated standard variable frequency
source is used to supply voltage to the X-plates, with the internal sweep generator switched off. The
standard frequency is adjusted until the pattern appears as a circle or an ellipse, indicating that both
signals are of the same frequency. Where it is not possible to adjust the standard signal frequency to
the exact frequency of the unknown signal, the standard is adjusted to a multiple or sub-multiple of
the frequency of the unknown source so that the pattern appears stationary.

Let us consider an example. Suppose sine waves are applied to X and Y plates as shown in figure
below. Let the frequency of wave applied to Y plates is twice that of the voltage applied to the X plates.
This means that the CRT spot travels two complete cycles in the vertical direction against one of the
horizontal direction.

The two waves start at the same instant. A Lissajous pattern may be constructed in the usual way
and an 8 shaped pattern with two loops is obtained. If the two waves do not start at the same instant
we get different pattern for the same frequency ratio. The Lissajous pattern for the other frequency
ratios can be similarly drawn. Some of these patterns are shown in figures.

Lissajous pattern with frequency ratio 2:1

 95|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Lissajous patterns with different frequency ratio

It can be shown that for all the above cases, the ratios of the two frequencies is

Where, fy = Frequency of signal applied to Y plates fx

= Frequency of signal applied to X plates

The above rule, however, does not hold for the Lissajous patterns with free ends as shown in figure.
The simple rule mentioned above needs the following modifications:

Two lines are drawn, one horizontal and the other vertical so that they do not pass through any
intersections of different parts of the Lissajous curve. The number of intersections of the horizontal
and the vertical lines with the Lissajous curve are individually counted. The frequency ratio is given by

The applications of these rules to figure give a frequency ratio

The modified rule is applicable in all cases whether the Lissajous pattern is open or closed.
 96|ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Lissajous pattern with half tangencies

The ratio of frequencies when open ended Lissajous patterns are obtained can also be found by
treating the open ends as half tangencies as shown in figure.

There are some restrictions on the frequencies which can be applied to the deflection plates. One
obviously, is that the CRO must have the bandwidth required for these frequencies. The other
restriction is that the ratio of the two frequencies should not be such as to make the pattern too
complicated otherwise determination of frequency would become difficult. As a rule, ratios of as high
as 10:1 and as low as 10:9 can be determined comfortably.

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. How is the Voltage and Current of an ac signal measured with the help of CRO?
2. What are Lissajous patterns? From the Lissajous patterns, how can the frequency be
measured?