MAA6617 COURSE NOTES

SPRING 2014

19. Normed vector spaces

Let X be a vector space over a field K (in this course we always have either K = R or
K = C).
Definition 19.1. A norm on X is a function k · k : X → K satisfying:
(i) (postivity) kxk ≥ 0 for all x ∈ X , and kxk = 0 if and only if x = 0;
(ii) (homogeneity) kkxk = |k|kxk for all x ∈ X and k ∈ K, and
(iii) (triangle inequality) kx + yk ≤ kxk + kyk for all x, y ∈ X .
Using these three properties it is straightforward to check that the quantity
d(x, y) := kx − yk (19.1)
defines a metric on X . The resulting topology is called the norm topology. The next propo-
sition is simple but fundamental; it says that the norm and the vector space operations are
continuous in the norm topology.
Proposition 19.2 (Continuity of vector space operations). Let X be a normed vector space
over K.
a) If xn → x in X , then kxn k → kxk in R.
b) If kn → k in K and xn → x in X , then kn xn → kx in X .
c) If xn → x and yn → y in X , then xn + yn → x + y in X .
Proof. The proofs follow readily from the properties of the norm, and are left as exercises. 
We say that two norms k · k1 , k · k2 on X are equivalent if there exist absolute constants
C, c > 0 such that
ckxk1 ≤ kxk2 ≤ Ckxk1 for all x ∈ X . (19.2)
Equivalent norms defined the same topology on X , and the same Cauchy sequences (Prob-
lem 20.2). A normed space is called a Banach space if it is complete in the norm topology,
that is, every Cauchy sequence in X converges in X . It follows that if X is equipped with
two equivalent norms k · k1 , k · k2 then it is complete in one norm if and only if it is complete
in the other.
We will want to prove the completeness of the first examples we consider,P so we begin
with a useful proposition. Say a series ∞ ∞
P
x
n=1 n in X is absolutely convergent if n=1 kxn k <
PN
∞. Say that the series converges in X if the limit limN →∞ P∞ n=1 xn exists in X (in the
norm topology). (Quite explicitly, we say that the series n=1 xn converges to x ∈ X if
limN →∞ x − N
P
n=1 xn = 0.)

Proposition 19.3. A normed space (X , k · k) is complete if and only if every absolutely

convergent series in X is convergent.
1
Proof. First suppose X is complete and let ∞
P
PN n=1 xn be absolutely
P∞
convergent. Write sN =
th
n=1 xn for the N Ppartial sum and let  > 0. Since n=1 kxn k is convergent, we can
choose L such that ∞ n=L kx n k < . Then for all N > M ≥ L,
N
X N
X
ksN − sM k = xn ≤ kxn k <  (19.3)
n=M +1 n=M +1

so the sequence (sN ) is Cauchy in X , hence convergent by hypothesis.

Conversely, suppose every absolutely convergent series in X is convergent. Let (xn ) be a
Cauchy sequence in X . The idea is to arrange an absolutely convergent series whose partial
sums form a subsequence of (xn ). To do this, first choose N1 such that kxn − xm k < 2−1
for all n, m ≥ N1 and put y1 = xN1 . Next choose N2 > N1 such that kxn − xm k < 2−2
for all n, m ≥ N2 and put y2 = xN2 − xN1 . Continuing, we may choose inductively an
increasing sequence of integers (NkP)∞
k=1 such that kxn − xm k < 2−k for all n, m ≥ Nk and
∞ P∞ −(k−1)
define yk = xNk − xP Nk−1 . We have k=1 kyk k < k=1 2 < ∞ by
P∞construction, and the
th ∞
K partial sum of k=1 yk is xNK . Thus by hypothesis, the series k=1 yk is convergent in
X , which means that the subsequence (xNk ) of (xn ) is convergent in X .
The proof is finished by invoking a standard fact about convergence in metric spaces: if
(xn ) is a Cauchy sequence which has a subsequence converging to x, then the full sequence
converges to x. 

19.1. Examples.
1/2
a) Of course, Rn with the usual Euclicean norm k(x1 , . . . xn )k = ( nk=1 |xk |2 )
P
is a
n n
Banach space. (Likewise C with the Euclidean norm.) Besides these, K can be
equipped with the `p -norms
n
!1/p
X
k(x1 , . . . xn )kp := |xk |p (19.4)
k=1

for 1 ≤ p < ∞, and the `∞ -norm

k(x1 , . . . xn )k∞ := max(|x1 |, . . . |xn |). (19.5)

It is not too hard to show that all of the `p norms (1 ≤ p ≤ ∞) are equivalent on Kn
(though the constants c, C must depend on the dimension n). It turns out that any
two norms on a finite-dimensional vector space are equivalent. As a corollary, every
finite-dimensional normed space is a Banach space. See Problem 20.3.
b) (Sequence spaces) Define

c0 := {f : N → K| lim |f (n)| = 0}
n→∞
∞
` := {f : N → K| sup |f (n)| < ∞}
n∈N
X∞
`1 := {f : N → K| |f (n)| < ∞}
n=0
2
 It is a simple exercise to check that each of these is a vector space. Define for
functions f : N → K
kf k∞ := sup |f (n)|
n
∞
X
kf k1 := |f (n)|.
n=1

Then kf k∞ defines a norm on both c0 and `∞ , and kf k1 is a norm on `1 . Equipped

with these respective norms, each is a Banach space. We sketch the proof for c0 , the
others are left as exercises (Problem 20.4).
The key observation is that fn → f in the k · k∞ norm if and only if fn →
f uniformly as functions on N. Suppose (fn ) is a Cauchy sequence in c0 . Then
the sequence of functions fn is uniformly Cauchy on N, and in particular converges
pointwise to a function f . To check completeness it will suffice to show that also
f ∈ c0 , but this is a straightforward consequence of uniform convergence on N. The
details are left as an exercise.
Along with these spaces it is also helpful to consider the vector space
c00 := {f : N → K|f (n) = 0 for all but finitely many n} (19.6)
1 ∞
Notice that c00 is a vector subspace of each of c0 , ` and ` . Thus it can be equipped
with either the k · k∞ or k · k1 norms. It is not complete in either of these norms,
however. What is true is that c00 is dense in c0 and `1 (but not in `∞ ). (See
Problem 20.9).
c) (L1 spaces) Let (X, M , m) be a measure space. The quantity
Z
kf k1 := |f | dm (19.7)
X
1
defines a norm on L (m), provided we agree to identify f and g when f = g a.e.
(Indeed the chief motivation for making this identification is that it makes k · k1 into
a norm. Note that `1 from the last example is a special case of this (what is the
measure space?))
Proposition 19.4. L1 (m) is a Banach space.
Proposition 19.3. Suppose ∞
P
Proof. We useP n=1 fn is absolutely convergent. Then the
∞ 1
function g := n=1 |fn | belongs to L and is thus finite m-a.e. In particular the series
P ∞ P∞
f
n=1 n (x) is absolutely convergent in K for a.e. x ∈ X. Define f (x) = n=1 fn (x).
1
Then f is an a.e.-defined measurable function, and belongs to L (m) since |f | ≤ g.
We claim that the partial sums N 1
P
n=1 fn converge to f in the L (m) norm: indeed,

XN Z XN
f− fn = f− fn dm (19.8)
n=1 X n=1
1
Z ∞
X
≤ |fn | dm (19.9)
X n=N +1
X
= kfn k1 → 0 (19.10)
n=N +1
3
 as N → ∞. (What justifies the equality in the last line?) 

d) (Lp spaces) Again let (X, M , m) be a measure space. For 1 ≤ p < ∞ let Lp (m)
denote the set of measurable functions f for which
Z 1/p
p
kf kp := |f | dm <∞ (19.11)
X

(again we identify f and g when f = g a.e.). It turns out that this quantity is a
norm on Lp (m), and Lp (m) is complete, though we will not prove this yet (it is not
immediately obvious that the triangle inequality holds when p > 1). The sequence
space `p is defined analagously: it is the set of f : N → K for which

∞
!1/p
X
kf kp := |f (n)|p <∞ (19.12)
n=1

and this quantity is a norm making `p into a Banach space.

When p = ∞, we define L∞ (m) to be the set of all functions f : X → K with the
following property: there exists M > 0 such that

|f (x)| ≤ M for m − a.e. x ∈ X; (19.13)

as for the other Lp spaces we identify f and g when there are equal a.e. When
f ∈ L∞ , let kf k∞ be the smallest M for which (19.13) holds. Then k · k∞ is a norm
making L∞ (m) into a Banach space.
e) (C(X) spaces) Let X be a compact metric space and let C(X) denote the set of
continuous functions f : X → K. It is a standard fact from advanced calculus that
the quantity kf k∞ := supx∈X |f (x)| is a norm on C(X). A sequence is Cauchy in
this norm if and only if it is uniformly Cauchy. It is thus also a standard fact that
C(X) is complete in this norm—completeness just means that a uniformly Cauchy
sequence of continuous functions on X converges uniformly to a continuous function.
This example can be generalized somewhat: let X be a locally compact metric
space. Say a function f : X → K vanishes at infinity if for every  > 0, there
exists a compact set K ⊂ X such that supx∈K / |f (x)| < . Let C0 (X) denote the
set of continuous functions f : X → K that vanish at inifinity. Then C0 (X) is a
vector space, the quantity kf k∞ := supx∈X |f (x)| is a norm on C0 (X), and C0 (X) is
complete in this norm. (Note that c0 from above is a special case.)
f) (Subspaces and direct sums) If (X , k · k) is a normed vector space and Y ⊂ X is a
vector subspace, then the restriction of k · k to Y is clearly a norm on Y. If X is a
Banach space, then (Y, k · k) is a Banach space if and only if Y is closed in the norm
topology of X . (This is just a standard fact about metric spaces—a subspace of a
complete metric space is complete in the restricted metric if and only if it is closed.)
If X , Y are vector spaces then the algebraic direct sum is the vector space of ordered
pairs
X ⊕ Y := {(x, y) : x ∈ X , y ∈ Y} (19.14)
4
 with entrywise operations. If X , Y are equipped with norms k · kX , k · kY , then each
of the quanitites
k(x, y)k∞ := max(kxkX , kykY ),
k(x, y)k1 := kxkX + kykY
is a norm on X ⊕ Y. These two norms are equivalent; indeed it follows from the
definitions that
k(x, y)k∞ ≤ k(x, y)k1 ≤ 2k(x, y)k∞ . (19.15)
If X and Y are both complete, then X ⊕ Y is complete in both of these norms. The
resulting Banach spaces are denoted X ⊕∞ Y, X ⊕1 Y respectively.
g) (Quotient spaces) If X is a normed vector space and M is a proper subspace, then
one can form the algebraic quotient X /M, defined as the collection of distinct cosets
{x + M : x ∈ X }. From linear algebra, X /M is a vector space under the standard
operations. If M is a closed subspace of X , then the quantity
kx + Mk := inf kx − yk (19.16)
y∈M

is a norm on X /M, called the quotient norm. (Geometrically, kx+Mk is the distance
in X from x to the closed set M.) It turns out that if X is complete, so is X /M.
See Problem 20.20.
More examples are given in the exercises. Shortly we will construct further examples from
linear transformations T : X → Y; to do this we first need to build up a few facts.

19.2. Linear transformations between normed spaces.

Definition 19.5. Let X , Y be normed vector spaces. A linear transformation T : X → Y is
called bounded if there exists a constant C > 0 such that kT xkY ≤ CkxkX for all x ∈ X .
Remark: Note that in this definition it would suffice to require that kT xkY ≤ CkxkX
just for all x 6= 0, or for all x with kxkX = 1 (why?)
The importance of boundedness is hard to overstate; the following proposition explains
its importance.
Proposition 19.6. Let T : X → Y be a linear transformation between normed spaces. Then
the following are equivalent:
(i) T is bounded.
(ii) T is continuous.
(iii) T is continuous at 0.
Proof. Suppose T is bounded and kT xk ≤ Ckxk for all x ∈ X ; let  > 0. Then if kx1 − x2 k <
δ := /C, we have
kT x1 − T x2 k = kT (x1 − x2 )k ≤ Ckx1 − x2 k <  (19.17)
so T is continuous, and (i) implies (ii).
(ii) implies (iii) is trivial. For (iii) implies (i), we exploit homogeneity of the norm and
the linearity of T . By hypothesis, given  > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that if kxk < δ, then
5
kT xk < . Fix a nonzero vector x ∈ X and a real number 0 < λ < δ. The vector λx/kxk
has norm less than δ, so
 
λx kT xk
T =λ < . (19.18)
kxk kxk
Rearranging this we find kT xk ≤ (/λ)kxk for all x 6= 0, which shows T is bounded; in fact
we can take C = /δ. 
Definition 19.7 (The operator norm). Let X , Y be normed vector spaces and T : X → Y
a bounded linear transformation. Define
kT k := sup{kT xk : kxk = 1} (19.19)
kT xk
= sup{ } (19.20)
x6=0 kxk
= inf{C : kT xk ≤ Ckxk for all x ∈ X } (19.21)
(As an exercise, verify that the three quantities on the right-hand side are equal.) The
quantity kT k is called the operator norm of T . We write B(X , Y) for the set of all bounded
linear operators from X to Y. Note that immediately we have the inequality
kT xk ≤ kT kkxk (19.22)
for all x ∈ X . If T ∈ B(X , Y) and S ∈ B(Y, Z) then from two applications of the the
inequality (19.22) we have for all x ∈ X
kST xk ≤ kSkkT xk ≤ kSkkT kkxk (19.23)
and it follows that ST ∈ B(X , Z) and kST k ≤ kSkkT k. If X is a Banach space, then by the
next proposition B(X , X ) is complete, and this inequality says that B(X , X ) is a Banach
algebra.
Proposition 19.8. The operator norm makes B(X , Y) into a normed vector space, which
is complete if Y is complete.
Proof. That B(X , Y) is a normed vector space follows readily from the definitions and is left
as an exercise. Suppose now Y is complete, and let Tn be a Cauchy sequence in B(X , Y).
For each x ∈ X , we have
kTn x − Tm xk = k(Tn − Tm )xk ≤ kTn − Tm kkxk (19.24)
which shows that (Tn x) is a Cauchy sequence in Y. By hypothesis, Tn x converges in Y.
Define T : X → Y by setting T x := y. It is straightforward to check that T is linear. We
must show that T is bounded and kTn − T k → 0.
To see that T is bounded, note first that since (Tn ) is a Cauchy sequence in the metric space
B(X , Y), it is bounded as a subset of B(X , Y); that is, M := supn kTn k = supn d(0, Tn ) < ∞.
But then kTn xk ≤ M kxk for every x, and since T x = lim Tn x, we have kT xk ≤ M kxk for
every x also.
Finally, given  > 0 choose N so that kTn − Tm k <  for all n, m ≥ N . Then for all
x ∈ X with kxk = 1, we have kTn x − Tm xk < . Taking the limit as m → ∞, we see that
kTn x − T xk ≤  for all kxk = 1; thus kTn − T k ≤  for n ≥ N . 
6
 The following proposition is very useful in constructing bounded operators—at least when
the codomain is complete, it suffices to define the operator (and show that it is bounded) on
a dense subspace:
Proposition 19.9 (Extending bounded operators). Let X , Y be normed vector spaces with
Y complete, and E ⊂ X a dense linear subspace. If T : E → Y is a bounded linear operator,
then there exists a unique bounded linear operator Te : X → Y extending T (so Te|E = T ),
and kTek = kT k.
Proof. Let x ∈ X . By hypothesis there is a sequence (xn ) in E converging to x; in particular
this sequence is Cauchy. Since T is bounded on E, the sequence (T xn ) is Cauchy in Y, hence
convergent by hypothesis. Define Tex = limn T xn ; using the fact that T is bounded on E it
is not hard to see that Te is well-defined and agrees with T on E (the proof is an exercise).
It also follows readily that Te is linear. To see that Te is bounded (and prove the equality
of norms), fix x ∈ X with kxk = 1 and let (xn ) be a sequence in E converging to x. Then
kxn k → kxk; in particular for any  we have kxn k < 1 +  for all n sufficiently large. By
enlarging n if necessary, we may also assume that kTex − T xn k < . But then using the
triangle inequality,
kTexk <  + kT xn k <  + (1 + )kT k. (19.25)
Since  was arbitrary, we have kTek ≤ kT k. As the reverse inequality is trivial, the proof is
finished.

Remark: The completeness of Y is essential in the above proposition; Problem 20.11
suggests a counterexample.
A bounded linear transformation T ∈ B(X , Y) is said to be invertible if it is bijective (so
T exists as a linear transformation) and T −1 is bounded from Y to X . We can now define
−1

two useful notions of equivalence for normed vector spaces. Two normed spaces X , Y are said
to be (boundedly) isomorphic if there exists an invertible linear transformation T : X → Y.
The spaces are isometrically isomorphic if additionally kT xk = kxk for all x. A T with
this property is called an isometry; note that an isometry automatically injective; if it is
also surjective then it is automatically invertible, in which case T −1 is also an isometry. An
isometry need not be surjective, however.
19.3. Examples.
a) If X is a finite-dimensional normed space and Y is any normed space, then every
linear transformation T : X → Y is bounded.
b) Let X be c00 equipped with the k · k1 norm, and Y be c00 equipped with the k · k∞
norm. Then the identity map id : c00 → c00 is bounded as an operator from X to Y
(in fact its norm is equal to 1), but is unbounded as an operator from Y to X .
c) Consider c00 with the k · k∞ norm. Let a : N → K be any function and define a linear
transformation Ta : c00 → c00 by
Ta f (n) = a(n)f (n). (19.26)
Then Ta is bounded if and only if M = supn∈N |a(n)| < ∞, in which case kTa k = M .
When this happens, Ta extends uniquely to a bounded operator from c0 to c0 , and
one may check that the formula (19.26) defines the extension. All of these claims
7
 remain true if we use the k·k1 norm instead of the k·k∞ norm; we then get a bounded
operator from `1 to itself.
d) For f ∈ `1 , define the shift operator by Sf (1) = 0 and Sf (n) = f (n − 1) for n ≥ 1.
(Viewing f as a sequence, S shifts the sequence one place to the right and fills in a 0
in the first position). This S is an isometry, but is not surjective. In contrast, if X is
finite-dimensional, then the rank-nullity theorem from linear algebra guarantees that
every injective linear map T : X → X is also surjective.
e) Let C ∞ [0, 1] denote the space of functions on [0, 1] with continuous derivatives of all
df
orders. The differentiation map f → dx is a linear transformation from C ∞ [0, 1] to
e = tetx for all real t, we find that there is no norm on C ∞ [0, 1] for
d tx
itself. Since dx
d
which dx is bounded.
20. Problems
Problem 20.1. Prove Proposition 19.2.
Problem 20.2. Prove that equivalent norms define the same topology and the same Cauchy
sequences.
Problem 20.3. a) Prove that all norms on a finite dimensional P space X are
vector P
equivalent. (Hint: fix a basis e1 , . . . en for X and define k ak ek k1 := |ak |. Com-
pare any given norm k · k to this one. Begin by proving that the “unit sphere”
S = {x ∈ X : kxk1 = 1} is compact in the k · k1 topology.)
b) Combine the result of part (a) with the result of Problem 20.2 to conclude that every
finite-dimensional normed vector space is complete.
c) Let X be a normed vector space and M ⊂ X a finite-dimensional subspace. Prove
that M is closed in X .
Problem 20.4. Finish the proofs from Example 19.1(b).
Problem 20.5. A function f : [0, 1] → K is called Lipschitz continuous if there exists a
constant C such that
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ C|x − y| (20.1)
for all x, y ∈ [0, 1]. Define kf kLip to be the best possible constant in this inequality. That is,
|f (x) − f (y)|
kf kLip := sup (20.2)
x6=y |x − y|
Let Lip[0, 1] denote the set of all Lipschitz continuous functions on [0, 1]. Prove that kf k :=
|f (0)| + kf kLip is a norm on Lip[0, 1], and that Lip[0, 1] is complete in this norm.
Problem 20.6. Let C 1 [0, 1] denote the space of all functions f : [0, 1] → R such that f is
differentiable in (0, 1) and f 0 extends continuously to [0, 1]. Prove that
kf k := kf k∞ + kf 0 k∞ (20.3)
is a norm on C 1 [0, 1] and that C 1 is complete in this norm. Do the same for the norm
kf k := |f (0)| + kf 0 k∞ . (Is kf 0 k∞ a norm on C 1 ?)
Problem 20.7. Let (X, M ) be a measurable space. Let M (X) denote the (real) vector
space of all signed measures on (X, M ). Prove that the total variation norm kµk := |µ|(X)
is a norm on M (X), and M (X) is complete in this norm.
8
Problem 20.8. Prove that if X , Y are normed spaces, then the operator norm is a norm on
B(X , Y).
Problem 20.9. Prove that c00 is dense in c0 and `1 . (That is, given f ∈ c0 there is a
sequence fn in c00 such that kfn − f k∞ → 0, and the analogous statement for `1 .) Using
these facts, or otherwise, prove that c00 is not dense in `∞ . (In fact there exists f ∈ `∞ with
kf k∞ = 1 such that kf − gk∞ ≥ 1 for all g ∈ c00 .)
Problem 20.10. Prove that c00 is not complete in the k · k1 or k · k∞ norms. (After we have
studied the Baire Category theorem, you will be asked to prove that there is no norm on c00
making it complete.)
Problem 20.11. Consider c0 and c00 equipped with the k · k∞ norm. Prove that there is no
bounded operator T : c0 → c00 such that T |c00 is the identity map. (Thus the conclusion of
Proposotion 19.9 can fail if Y is not complete.)
Problem 20.12. Prove that the k · k1 and k · k∞ norms on c00 are not equivalent. Conclude
from your proof that the identity map on c00 is bounded from the k · k1 norm to the k · k∞
norm, but not the other way around.
Problem 20.13. a) Prove that f ∈ C0 (Rn ) if and only if f is continuous and lim|x|→∞ |f (x)| =
0. b) Let Cc (Rn ) denote the set of continuous, compactly supported functions on Rn . Prove
that Cc (Rn ) is dense in C0 (Rn ) (where C0 (Rn ) is equipped with sup norm).
Problem 20.14. Prove that if X , Y are normed spaces and X is finite dimensional, then
every linear transformation T : X → Y is bounded.
Problem 20.15. Prove the claims in Example 19.3(c).
Problem 20.16. Let g : R → K be a (Lebesgue) measurable function. The map M g :
f → gf is a linear transformation on the space of measurable functions. Prove that Mg is
bounded from L1 (R) to itself if and only if g ∈ L∞ (R), in which case kMg k = kgk∞ .
Problem 20.17. Prove the claims about direct sums in Example 19.1(f).
Problem 20.18. Let X be a normed vector space and M a proper closed subspace. Prove
that for every  > 0, there exists x ∈ X such that kxk = 1 and inf y∈M kx − yk > 1 − .
(Hint: take any u ∈ X \ M and let a = inf y∈M ku − yk. Choose δ > 0 small enough so that
a u−v
a+δ
> 1 − , and then choose v ∈ M so that ku − vk < a + δ. Finally let x = ku−vk .)
Problem 20.19. Prove that if X is an infinite-dimensional normed space, then the unit ball
ball(X ) := {x ∈ X : kxk ≤ 1} is not compact in the norm topology. (Hint: use the result of
Problem 20.18 to construct inductively a sequence of vectors xn ∈ X such that kxn k = 1 for
all n and kxn − xm k ≥ 21 for all m < n.)
Problem 20.20. (The quotient norm) Let X be a normed space and M a proper closed
subspace.
a) Prove that the quotient norm is a norm (see Example 19.1(g)).
b) Show that the quotient map x → x + M has norm 1. (Use Problem 20.18.)
c) Prove that if X is complete, so is X /M.
9
Problem 20.21. A normed vector space X is called separable if it is separable as a metric
space (that is, there is a countable subset of X which is dense in the norm topology). Prove
that c0 and `1 are separable, but `∞ is not. (Hint: for `∞ , show that there is an uncountable
collection of elements {fα } such that kfα − fβ k = 1 for α 6= β.)
21. Linear functionals and the Hahn-Banach theorem
If there is a “fundamental theorem of functional analysis,” it is the Hahn-Banach theorem.
The particular version of it we will prove is somewhat abstract-looking at first, but its
importance will be clear after studying some of its corollaries.
Let X be a normed vector space over the field K. A linear functional on X is a linear map
L : X → K. As one might expect, we are especially interested in bounded linear functionals.
Since K = R or C is complete, the vector space of bounded linear functionals B(X , K) is
itself a normed vector space, and is always complete (even if X is not). This space is called
the dual space of X and is denoted X ∗ . It is not yet obvious that X ∗ need be non-trivial
(that is, that there are any bounded linear functionals on X besides 0). One corollary of
the Hahn-Banach theorem will be that there always exist many linear functionals on any
normed space X (in particular, enough to separate points of X ).
21.1. Examples.
a) For each of the sequence spaces c0 , `1 , `∞ , for each n the map f → f (n) is a bounded
linear functional. If we fix g ∈ `1 , then the functional Lg : c0 → K defined by
X ∞
Lg (f ) := f (n)g(n) (21.1)
n=0
is bounded, since
∞
X ∞
X
|Lg (f )| ≤ |f (n)g(n)| ≤ kf k∞ |g(n)| = kgk1 kf k∞ . (21.2)
n=0 n=0

This shows that kLg k ≤ kgk1 . In fact, equality holds, and every bounded linear
functional on c0 is of this form:
Proposition 21.1. The map g → Lg is an ismoetric isomorphism from `1 onto the
dual space c∗0 .
Proof. We have already seen that each g ∈ `1 gives rise to a bounded linear functional
Lg ∈ c∗0 via
∞
X
Lg (f ) := g(n)f (n) (21.3)
n=0
and that kLg k ≤ kgk1 . We will prove simultaneously that this map is onto and that
kLg k ≥ kgk1 .
Let L ∈ c∗0 , we will first show that there is unique g ∈ `1 so that L = Lg . Let
en ∈ c0 be the indicator function of n, that is
en (m) = δnm . (21.4)
Define a function g : N → K by
g(n) = L(en ). (21.5)
10
 We claim that g ∈ `1 and L = Lg . To see this, fix an integer N and let h ∈ c00 be
the function
(
g(n)/|g(n)| if n ≤ N and g(n) 6= 0
h(n) = . (21.6)
0 otherwise

By definition h ∈ c0 and khk∞ ≤ 1. Note that h = N

P
n=0 h(n)en . Now

N
X N
X
|g(n)| = h(n)g(n) = L(h) = |L(h)| ≤ kLkkhk ≤ kLk. (21.7)
n=0 n=0

It follows that g ∈ `1 and kgk1 ≤ kLk. Moreover, the same calculation shows
that L = Lg when restricted to c00 , so by the uniqueness of extensions of bounded
operators, L = Lg . Uniqueness of g is clear from its construction, since if L = Lg , we
must have g(n) = Lg (en ). Thus the map g → Lg is onto and kLg kc0 ∗ = kgk1 . 
Proposition 21.2. (`1 )∗ is isometrically isomorphic to `∞ .
Proof. The proof follows the same lines as the proof of the previous proposition; the
details are left as an exercise. 

The same mapping g → Lg also shows that every g ∈ `1 gives a bounded linear
functional on `∞ , but it turns out these do not exhaust (`∞ )∗ (see Problem 22.7).
b) If f ∈ L1 (m) and g is a bounded measurable function with supx∈X |g(x)| = M , then
the map
Z
Lg (f ) := f g dm (21.8)
X
is a bounded linear functional of norm at most M . We will prove in Section ?? that
the norm is in fact equal to M , and every bounded linear functional on L1 (m) is of
this type (at least when m is σ-finite).
c) If X is a compact metric space and µ is a finite, signed Borel measure on X, then
Z
Lµ (f ) := f dµ (21.9)
X

is a bounded linear functional on CR (X) of norm at most kµk.

To state and prove the Hahn-Banach theorem, we first work in the setting K = R, then
extend our results to the complex case.
Definition 21.3. Let X be a real vector space. A Minkowski functional is a function
p : X → R such that p(x + y) ≤ p(x) + p(y) and p(λx) = λp(x) for all x, y ∈ X and
nonnegative λ ∈ R.
For example, if L : X → R is any linear functional, then the function p(x) := |L(x)|
is a Minkowski functional. Also p(x) = kxk is a Minkowski functional. More generally,
p(x) = kxk is a Minkowski functional whenever kxk is a seminorm on X . (A seminorm is
a function obeying all the requirements of a norm, except we allow kxk = 0 for nonzero x.
Note that both of the given examples of Minkowski functionals come from seminorms.)
11
Theorem 21.4 (The Hahn-Banach Theorem, real version). Let X be a normed vector space
over R, p a Minkowski functional on X , M a subspace of X , and L a linear functional on
M such that L(x) ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ M. Then there exists a linear functional L0 on X such
that L0 (x) ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ X and L0 |M = L.
Proof. The idea is to show that the extension can be done one dimension at a time, and we
then infer the existence of an extension to the whole space by appeal to Zorn’s lemma. So,
fix a vector x ∈ X \ M and consider the subspace M + Rx ⊂ X . For any m1 , m2 ∈ M, we
have by hypothesis
L(m1 ) + L(m2 ) = L(m1 + m2 ) ≤ p(m1 + m2 ) ≤ p(m1 − x) + p(m2 + x). (21.10)
which rearranges to
L(m1 ) − p(m1 − x) ≤ p(m2 + x) − L(m2 ) for all m1 , m2 ∈ M (21.11)
so
sup {L(m) − p(m − x)} ≤ inf {p(m + x) − L(m)}. (21.12)
m∈M m∈M
Now choose any real number λ satisfying
sup {L(m) − p(m − x)} ≤ λ ≤ inf {p(m + x) − L(m)}. (21.13)
m∈M m∈M

and define L0 (m + tx) = L(m) + tλ. This L0 is linear by definition and agrees with L on
M. We now check that L0 (y) ≤ p(y) for all y ∈ M + Rx. This is immediate if y ∈ M. In
general let y = m + tx with m ∈ M and t > 0. Then
 m   m m m 
L0 (m + tx) = t L( ) + λ ≤ t L( ) + p( + x) − L( ) = p(m + tx) (21.14)
t t t t
and a similar estimate shows that L0 (m + tx) ≤ p(m + tx) for t < 0.
We have thus successfully extended L to M + Rx. To finish, let L denote the set of pairs
(L0 , N ) where N is a subspace of X containing M, and L0 is an extension of L to N obeying
L0 (y) ≤ p(y) on N . Declare (L01 , N1 ) ≤ (L02 , N2 ) if N1 ⊂ N2 and L02 |nn1 = L01 . This is a
partial order on L. SGiven any increasing chain (L0α , Nα ) in L, it has an upper bound (L0 , N )
in L, where N := α Nα and L(nα ) := L0α (nα ) for nα ∈ Nα . By Zorn’s lemma, then, the
collection L has a maximal element (L0 , N ) with respect to the order ≤. Since it always
possible to extend to a strictly larger subspace, the maximal element must have N = X ,
and the proof is finished. 
The proof is a typical application of Zorn’s lemma—one knows how to carry out a con-
struction one step a time, but there is no clear way to do it all at once.
In the special case that p is a seminorm, since L(−x) = −L(x) and p(−x) = p(x) the
inequality L ≤ p is equivalent to |L| ≤ p.
Corollary 21.5. Let X be a normed vector space over R, M a subspace, and L a bounded
linear functional on M satisfying |L(x)| ≤ Ckxk for all x ∈ M. Then there exists a bounded
linear functional L0 on X extending L, with kL0 k ≤ C.
Proof. Apply the Hahn-Banach theorem with the Minkowski functional p(x) = Ckxk. 
Before obtaining further corollaries, we extend these results to the complex case. First,
if X is a vector space over C then trivially it is also a vector space over R, and there is a
simple relationship between the R- and C-linear functionals.
12
Proposition 21.6. Let X be a vector space over C. If L : X → C is a C-linear functional,
then u(x) = ReL(x) defines an R-linear functional on X , and L(x) = u(x) − iu(ix). Con-
versely if u : X → R is R-linear then L(x) := u(x) − iu(ix) is C-linear. If in addition X is
normed, then kuk = kLk.
Proof. Problem ?? 
Theorem 21.7 (The Hahn-Banach Theorem, complex version). Let X be a normed vector
space over C, p a seminorm on X , M a subspace of X , and L : M → C a C-linear functional
satisfying |L(x)| ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ M. Then there exists a linear functional L0 : X → C
satisfying |L0 (x)| ≤ p(x) for all x ∈ X .
Proof. The proof consists of applying the real Hahn-Banach theorem to extend the R-linear
functional u = ReL to a functional u0 : X → R and then defining L0 from u0 as in Proposi-
tion 21.6. The details are left as an exercise. 
The following corollaries are quite important, and when the Hahn-Banach theorem is
applied it is usually in one of the following forms:
Corollary 21.8. Let X be a normed vector space.
(i) (Linear functionals detect norms) If x ∈ X is nonzero, there exists L ∈ X ∗ with
kLk = 1 such that L(x) = kxk.
(ii) (Linear functionals separate points) If x 6= y in X , there exists L ∈ X ∗ such that
L(x) 6= L(y).
(iii) (Linear functionals detect distance to subspaces) If M ⊂ X is a closed subspace
and x ∈ X \ M, there exists L ∈ X ∗ such that L|M = 0 and L(x) = dist(x, M) =
inf y∈M kx − yk > 0.
Proof. (i): Let M be the one-dimensional subspace of X spanned by x. Define a functional
x
L : M → K by L(t kxk ) = t. For p(x) = kxk, we have |L(x)| ≤ p(x) on M, and L(x) = kxk.
By the Hahn-Banach theorem the functional L extends to a functional (still denoted L) on
X and satisfies |L(y)| ≤ kyk for all y ∈ X ; thus kLk ≤ 1; since L(x) = kxk by construction
we conclude kLk = 1.
(ii): Apply (i) to the vector x − y.
(iii): Let δ = dist(x, M). Define a functional L : M + Kx → K by L(y + tx) = tδ. Since
for t 6= 0
ky + txk = |t|kt−1 y + xk ≥ |t|δ = |L(y + tx)|, (21.15)
∗
by Hahn-Banach we can extend L to a functional L ∈ X with kLk ≤ 1. 
Needless to say, the proof of the Hahn-Banach theorem is thoroughly non-constructive,
and in general it is an important (and often difficult) problem, given a normed space X , to
find some concrete description of the dual space X ∗ . Usually this means finding a Banach
space Y and a bounded (or, better, isometric) isomorphism T : Y → X ∗ .
A final corollary, which is also quite important. Note that since X ∗ is a normed space, we
can form its dual, denoted X ∗∗ and called the bidual of X . There is a canonical relationship
between X and X ∗∗ . First observe that if L ∈ X ∗ , each fixed x ∈ X gives rise to a linear
functional x̂ : X ∗ → K via evaluation:
x̂(L) := L(x). (21.16)
13
Corollary 21.9. (Embedding in the bidual) The map x → x̂ is an isometric linear map from
X into X ∗∗ .
Proof. First, from the definition we see that
|x̂(L)| = |L(x)| ≤ kLkkxk (21.17)
so x̂ ∈ X ∗∗ and kx̂k ≤ kxk. It is straightforward to check (recalling that the L’s are linear)
that the map x → x̂ is linear. Finally, to show that kx̂k = kxk, fix a nonzero x ∈ X . From
Corollary 21.8(i) there exists L ∈ X ∗ with kLk = 1 and L(x) = kxk. But then for this x and
L, we have |x̂(L)| = |L(x)| = kxk so kx̂k ≥ kxk, and the proof is complete. 
Definition 21.10. A Banach space X is called reflexive if the mapˆ: X → X ∗∗ is surjective.
In other words, X is reflexive if the mapˆ is an isomorphism of X with X ∗∗ . For example,
every finite dimensional Banach space is reflexive (Problem ??). On the other hand, we will
see below that c∗∗ ∞ p p
0 = ` , so c0 is not reflexive. After we have studied the L and ` spaces
p
in more detail, we will see that L is reflexive for 1 < p < ∞.
The embedding into the bidual has many applications; one of the most basic is the follow-
ing:
Proposition 21.11 (Completion of normed spaces). If X is a normed vector space, there is
a Banach space X and in isometric map ι : X → X such that the image ι(X ) is dense in X .
Proof. Embed X into X ∗∗ via the map x → x̂ and let X be the closure of the image of X in
X ∗∗ . Since X is a closed subspace of a complete space, it is complete. 
The space X is called the completion of X . It is unique in the sense that if Y is another
Banach space and j : X → Y embeds X isometrically as a dense subspace of Y, then Y is
isometrically isomorphic to X . The proof of this fact is left as an exercise.
21.2. Dual spaces and adjoint operators. Let X, Y be normed spaces with duals X ∗ , Y ∗ .
If T : X → Y is a linear transformation, then given any linear map f : Y → K we can define
another linear map T ∗ f : X → K by the formula
(T ∗ f )(x) = f (T x). (21.18)
In fact, if f is bounded then so is T ∗ f , and more is true:
Theorem 21.12. The formula (21.18) defines a bounded linear transformation T ∗ : Y ∗ →
X ∗ , and in fact kT ∗ k = kT k.
Proof. Let f ∈ Y ∗ and x ∈ X. Then
|T ∗ f (x)| = |f (T x)| ≤ kf kkT xk ≤ kf kkT kkxk. (21.19)
Taking the supremum over kxk = 1, we find that T ∗ f is bounded and kT ∗ f k ≤ kT kkf k,
so kT ∗ k ≤ kT k. For the reverse inequality, let 0 <  < 1 be given and choose x ∈ X with
kxk = 1 and kT xk > (1 − )kT k. Now consider T x. By the Hahn-Banach theorem, there
exists f ∈ Y ∗ such that kf k = 1 and f (T x) = kT xk. For this f , we have
kT ∗ f k ≥ |T ∗ f (x)| = |f (T x)| = kT xk > (1 − )kT k. (21.20)
Since  was arbitrary, we conclude that kT ∗ k := supkf k=1 kT ∗ f k ≥ kT k. 
14
 22. Problems
Problem 22.1. a) Prove that if X is a finite-dimensional normed space, then every linear
functional f : X → K is bounded.
b) Prove that if X is any normed vector space, {x1 , . . . xn } is a linearly independent set
in X , and α1 , . . . αn are scalars, then there exists a bounded linear functional f on X such
that f (xj ) = αj for j = 1, . . . n.
Problem 22.2. Let X , Y be normed spaces and T : X → Y a linear transformation. Prove
that T is bounded if and only if there exists a constant C such that for all x ∈ X and f ∈ Y ∗ ,
|f (T x)| ≤ Ckf kkxk; (22.1)
in which case kT k is equal to the best possible C in (22.1).
Problem 22.3. Let X be a normed vector space. Show that if M is a closed subspace of
X and x ∈/ M, then M + Cx is closed. Use this to give another proof that every finite-
dimensional subspace of X is closed.
Problem 22.4. Prove that if M is a finite-dimensional subspace of a Banach space X , then
there exists a closed subspace N ⊂ X such that M ∩ N = {0} and M + N = X . (In other
words, every x ∈ X can be written uniquely as x = y + z with y ∈ M, z ∈ N .) Hint: Choose
a basis x1 , . . . xn for M and construct bounded linear functionals f1 , . . . fn on X such that
fi (xj ) = δij . Now let N = ∩ni=1 ker fi . (Warning: this conclusion can fail badly if M is not
assumed finite dimensional, even if M is still assumed closed.)
Problem 22.5. Let X and Y be normed vector spaces and T ∈ L(X , Y).
a) Consider T ∗∗ : X ∗∗ → Y ∗∗ . Identifying X , Y with their images in X ∗∗ and Y ∗∗ , show
that T ∗∗ |X = T .
b) Prove that T ∗ is injective if and only if the range of T is dense in Y.
c) Prove that if the range of T ∗ is dense in X ∗ , then T is injective; if X is reflexive then
the converse is true.
Problem 22.6. Prove that if X is a Banach space and X ∗ is separable, then X is separable.
Hint: let {fn } be a countable dense subset of X ∗ . For each n choose xn such that |fn (xn )| ≥
1
2
kfn k. Show that the set of linear combinations of {xn } is dense in X .
Problem 22.7. a) Prove that there exists a bounded linear functional L ∈ (`∞ )∗ with
the following property: whenever f ∈ `∞ and limn→∞ f (n) exists, then L(f ) is equal
to this limit. (Hint: first show that the set of such f forms a closed subspace M ⊂
`∞ ).
b) Show that such a functional L is not equal to Lg for any g ∈ `1 ; thus the map
T : `1 → (`∞ )∗ given by T (g) = Lg is not surjective.
c) Give another proof that T is not surjective, using Problem 22.6.

23. The Baire Cateogry Theorem and applications

A topological space X is called a Baire space if it has the following property: whenever
(Un )∞ ∞
n=1 is a countable sequence of open, dense subsets of X, the intersection ∩n=1 Un is dense
in X. An equivalent formulation can be given in terms of nowhere dense sets: X is Baire
if and only if it is not a countable union of nowhere dense sets. (Recall that a set E ⊂ X
15
is called nowhere dense if its closure has empty interior.) In particular, note that if E is
nowhere dense, then X \ E is open and dense. The Baire property is used as a kind of
pigeonhole principle: the “thick” Baire space X cannot be expressed as a countable
S union
of the “thin” nowhere dense sets En . Equivalently, if X is Baire and X = n En , then at
least one of the En is somewhere dense.
Theorem 23.1 (The Baire Category Theorem). Every complete metric space X is a Baire
space.
Proof. Let Un be a sequence of open dense sets in X. Note that a set is dense if and only if it
has nonempty intersection with every nonempty open set W ⊂ X. Fix such a W . Since U1 is
open and dense, there is a point x1 ∈ W ∩ U1 and a radius 0 < r1 < 1 such that the B(x1 , r1 )
is contained in W ∩ U1 . Similarly, since U2 is dense there is a point x2 ∈ B(x1 , r1 ) ∩ U2 and
a radius 0 < r2 < 12 such that
B(x2 , r2 ) ⊂ B(x1 , r1 ) ∩ U2 . (23.1)
Continuing inductively, since each Un is dense we obtain a sequence of points (xn )∞
n=1 and
1
radii 0 < rn < n such that
B(xn , rn ) ⊂ B(xn−1 , rn−1 ) ∩ Un . (23.2)
Since xm ∈ B(xn , rn ) for all m ≥ n and rn → 0, the sequence (xn ) is Cauchy, and thus
convergent since X is complete. Moreover, since each the closed sets B(xn , rn ) contains a
tail of the sequence, each contains the limit x as well. Thus x ∈ W ∩ U1 ∩ · · · ∩ Un for all n,
and the proof is complete. 
Remark: In some books a countable intersection of open dense sets is called residual
or second category and a countable union of nowhere dense sets is called meager or first
category. In R with the usual topology, Q is first category and R \ Q is second category.
We now give three important applications of the Baire category theorem in functional
analysis: the Principle of Uniform boundedness (also known as the Banach-Steinhaus the-
orem), the Open Mapping Theorem, and the Closed Graph Theorem. (In learning these
theorems, keep careful track of what completeness hypotheses are needed.)
Theorem 23.2 (The Principle of Uniform Boundedness (PUB)). Let X , Y be normed spaces
with X complete, and let {Tα : α ∈ A} ⊂ B(X , Y) a collection of bounded linear transfor-
mations from X to Y. If
M (x) := sup kTα xk < ∞ (23.3)
α
for each x ∈ X , then supα kTα k < ∞. (In other words, a pointwise bounded family of linear
operators is uniformly bounded.)
Proof. For each integer n ≥ 1 consider the set
Vn := {x ∈ X : M (x) > n}. (23.4)
Since each Tα is bounded, the sets Vn are open. (Indeed, for each α the map x → kTα xk is
continuous from X to R, so if kTα xk > n for some α then also kTα yk > n for all y sufficiently
close to x.) If each Vn were dense, then since X is complete we would conclude from the
Baire Category theorem that the intersection V = ∩∞ n=1 Vn is nonempty. But then for any
16
x ∈ V , we would have M (x) > n for all n, which contradicts the pointwise boundedness
hypothesis (23.3). Thus for some N , VN is not dense.
Choose x0 ∈ X \ VN and r > 0 so that x0 − x ∈ X \ VN for all kxk < r. Then for every α
and every kxk < r we have
kTα xk ≤ kTα (x − x0 )k + kTα x0 k ≤ N + M (x0 ) := R. (23.5)
That is, kTα xk ≤ R for all kxk < r, so by rescaling x we conclude that kTα xk ≤ R/r for all
kxk < 1, so supα kTα k ≤ R/r < ∞. 
Recall that if X, Y are topological spaces, a mapping f : X → Y is called open if f (U ) is
open in Y whenever U is open in X. In the case of normed linear spaces the condition that
a linear map be open can be refined somewhat:
Lemma 23.3 (Translation and Dilation lemma). Let X , Y be normed vector spaces, let B
denote the open unit ball of X , and let T : X → Y be a linear map. Then the map T is open
if and only if T (B) contains an open ball centered at 0.
Proof. This is more or less immediate from the fact that the translation map z → z + z0 , for
fixed z0 , and dilation map z → rz, r ∈ K are continuous in any normed vector space. The
details are left as an exercise. 
Theorem 23.4 (The Open Mapping Theorem). Suppose that X , Y are Banach spaces and
T : X → Y is a bounded, surjective linear map. Then T is open.
S∞
S∞ r centered at 0 in X . Trivially X = n=1 Bn
Proof. Let Br denote the open ball of radius
and since Y is surjective, we have Y = n=1 T (Bn ). Since Y is complete, from the Baire
category theorem we have that T (BN ) is somewhere dense, for some N . That is, T (BN ) has
nonempty interior; by rescaling we conclude that T (B1 ) has nonempty interior. We must
deduce from this that in fact T (B1 ) contains an open ball centered at 0 in Y. First we show
that T (B1 ) contains an open ball centered at 0.
There exists y0 ∈ Y and r > 0 such that T (B1 ) contains BrY (y0 ). Choose y1 = T x1 in
T (B1 ) such that ky1 − y0 k < r/2, then by the triangle inequality
Y
Br/2 (y1 ) ⊂ BrY (y0 ) ⊂ T (B1 ). (23.6)
It follows that for all kyk < r/2,
y = −y1 + (y + y1 ) = −T x1 + (y + y1 ) ∈ T (−x1 + B1 ) ⊂ T (B2 ). (23.7)
Halving the radius again, we conclude that if kyk < r/4, then y ∈ T (B1 ).
Finally, we show that by shrinking the radius further we can find an open ball contained in
T (B1 ). From the previous paragraph, by scaling again for each n, we see that if kyk < r/2n+2
then y ∈ T (B1/2n ). If kyk < r/8, then there exists
P x1 ∈ B1/2 such that ky − T xP 1 k < r/16.
Inductively there exist xn ∈ B1/2n with ky − T nk=1 xj k < r2−n−3 . The series ∞ k=1 xk is
thus absolutely convergent, and hence convergent, since X is complete. Call its sum x. By
construction we have the estimate kxk < ∞ −k
P
k=1 2 , so x ∈ B1 and y = T x. In conclusion,
we have shown that y ∈ T (B1 ) whenever kyk < r/8, so the proof is finished. 
Corollary 23.5 (The Banach Isomorphism Theorem). If X , Y are Banach spaces and T :
X → Y is a bounded bijection, then T −1 is also bounded (hence, T is an isomorphism).
17
Proof. Note that when T is bijection, T is open if and only if T −1 is continuous. The result
then follows from the Open Mapping Theorem and Proposition 19.6.

To state the final result of this section, we need a few more definitions. Let X , Y be
normed spaces. The Cartesian product X × Y is then a topological space in the product
topology. (In fact the product topology can be realized by norming X ×Y, e.g. with the norm
k(x, y)k := max(kxk, kyk).) The space X × Y is equipped with the coordinate projections
πX (x, y) = x, πY (x, y) = y; it is clear that these maps are continuous. Given a linear map
T : X → Y, its graph is the set
G(T ) := {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : y = T x} (23.8)
Observe that since T is a linear map, G(T ) is a linear subspace of X ×Y. The transformation
T is called closed if G(T ) is a closed subset of X × Y. This criterion is usually expressed in
the following equivalent formulation: whenever xn → x in X and T xn → y in Y, it holds
that T x = y. Note that this is not the same thing as saying that T is continuous: T is
continuous if and only if whenever xn → x in X , then T xn → T x in Y. Evidently, if T is
continuous then T is closed. The converse is false in general (see Problem 24.2). However,
the converse does hold when X and Y are complete:
Theorem 23.6 (The Closed Graph Theorem). If X , Y are Banach spaces and T : X → Y
is closed, then T is bounded.
Proof. Let π1 , π2 be the coordinate projections πX , πY restricted to G(T ); explicitly π1 (x, T x) =
x and π2 (x, T x) = T x. Note that π1 is a bijection between G(T ) and X . Moreover, as maps
between sets we have T = π2 ◦ π1−1 . So, it suffices to prove that π1−1 is bounded.
By the remarks above π1 and π2 are bounded (from G(T ) to X , Y respectively). Since X
and Y are complete, so is X × Y, and therefore G(T ) is complete since it is assumed closed.
Since π1 is a bijection between G(T ) and X , its inverse is also bounded (Corollary 23.5).


24. Problems
Problem 24.1. Show that there exists a sequence of open, dense subsets Un ⊂ R such that
m( ∞
T
n=1 n ) = 0.
U
Problem 24.2. Consider the linear subspace D ⊂ c0 defined by
D = {f ∈ c0 : lim |nf (n)| = 0} (24.1)
n→∞

and the linear transformation T : D → c0 defined by (T f )(n) = nf (n).

a) Prove that T is closed, but not bounded. b) Prove that T −1 : c0 → D is bounded and
surjective, but not open.
Problem 24.3. Suppose X is a vector space equipped with two norms k · k1 , k · k2 such that
k · k1 ≤ k · k2 . Prove that if X is complete in both norms, then the two norms are equivalent.
Problem 24.4. Let X , Y be Banach spaces. Provisionally, say that a linear transformation
T : X → Y is weakly bounded if f ◦ T ∈ X ∗ whenever f ∈ Y ∗ . Prove that if T is weakly
bounded, then T is bounded.
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Problem 24.5. Let X , Y be Banach spaces. Suppose (Tn ) is a sequence in B(X , Y) and
limn Tn x exists for every x ∈ X . Prove that if T is defined by T x = limn Tn x, then T is
bounded.
Problem 24.6. Suppose that X is a vector space with a countably infinite basis. (That
is, there is a linearly independent set {xn } ⊂ X such that every vector x ∈ X is ex-
pressed uniquely as a finite linear combination of the xn ’s.) Prove that there is no norm
on X under which it is complete. (Hint: consider the finite-dimensional subspaces Xn :=
span{x1 , . . . xn }.)
Problem 24.7. The Baire Category Theorem can be used to prove the existence of (very
many!) continuous, nowhere differentiable functions on [0, 1]. To see this, let Fn denote the
set of all functions f ∈ C[0, 1] for which there exists x0 ∈ [0, 1] (which may depend on f ) such
that |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ n|x − x0 | for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Prove that the sets En are nowhere dense
in C[0, 1]; the Baire Category Theorem then shows that the set of nowhere differentiable
functions is residual. (To see that En is nowhere dense, approximate an arbitrary continuous
function f uniformly by piecewise linear functions g, whose pieces have slopes greater than
2n in absolute value. Any function sufficiently close to such a g will not lie in En .)

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