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INTELLIGENT SYSTEM ALGORITHMS
AND APPLICATIONS IN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Research Notes on Computing and Communication Sciences

INTELLIGENT SYSTEM ALGORITHMS

AND APPLICATIONS IN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Edited by
Sunil Pathak, PhD
Pramod Kumar Bhatt, PhD
Sanjay Kumar Singh, PhD
Ashutosh Tripathi, PhD
Pankaj Kumar Pandey, PhD
First edition published 2022
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Intelligent system algorithms and applications in science and technology / edited by Sunil Pathak, PhD,
Pramod Kumar Bhatt, PhD, Sanjay Kumar Singh, PhD, Ashutosh Tripathi, PhD, Pankaj Kumar Pandey, PhD.
Names: Pathak, Sunil, editor. | Bhatt, Pramod Kumar, editor. | Singh, Sanjay Kumar (Research professional), editor. |
Tripathi, Ashutosh, editor. | Pandey, Pankaj Kumar, editor.
Description: First edition. | Series statement: Research notes on computing and communication sciences | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 2021020379X | Canadiana (ebook) 20210203978 | ISBN 9781774630211 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774639269 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003187059 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Computational intelligence. | LCSH: Machine learning. | LCSH: Artificial intelligence. | LCSH: Internet
of things. | LCSH: Big data. | LCSH: Computer networks. | LCSH: Process control.
Classification: LCC Q342 .I58 2022 | DDC 006.3—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Pathak, Sunil, editor.
Title: Intelligent system algorithms and applications in science and technology / edited by Sunil Pathak, PhD, Pramod Kumar
Bhatt, PhD, Sanjay Kumar Singh, PhD, Ashutosh Tripathi, PhD, Pankaj Kumar Pandey, PhD.
Description: First edition. | Palm Bay, FL, USA : Apple Academic Press, 2022. | Series: Research notes on computing and
communication sciences | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Intelligent System Algorithms
and Applications in Science and Technology explores the application of intelligent techniques in various fields of en-
gineering and technology. The volume addresses a selection of diverse topics in such areas as machine learning based
intelligent systems for healthcare, applications of artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things, intelligent data
analytics techniques, intelligent network systems and applications, and inequalities and process control systems. The
authors explore the full breadth of the field, which encompasses data analysis, image processing, speech processing
and recognition, medical science and health care monitoring, smart irrigation systems, insurance and banking, robotics
and process control, etc. The 21st century has witnessed massive changes around the world in intelligence systems
in order to become smarter, energy efficient, reliable, and cheaper. This collection of peer-reviewed book chapters,
contributed by renowned experts in the field, will help keep readers up to date; it sheds light on the culture of intelligent
techniques in the field of engineering and technology”-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021019214 (print) | LCCN 2021019215 (ebook) | ISBN 9781774630211 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774639269 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003187059 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Expert systems (Computer science) | Automation. | Artificial intelligence. | Algorithms.
Classification: LCC T56.24 .I69 2022 (print) | LCC T56.24 (ebook) | DDC 006.3/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021019214
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021019215

ISBN: 978-1-77463-021-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-77463-926-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00318-705-9 (ebk)
RESEARCH NOTES ON COMPUTING
AND COMMUNICATION SCIENCES

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Dr. Samarjeet Borah

Department of Computer Applications,
Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology,
Sikkim Manipal University (SMU),
Majhitar, East Sikkim-737136, India
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Brief Description of the Series

Computing can be defined as the practice in which computer technology is used
to do a goal-oriented assignment. It covers design and development of hardware
and software systems for various purposes. Computing devices are becoming an
integral part of life now-a-days, including desktops, laptops, hand-held devices,
smartphones, smart home appliances, etc. The evolution of the Internet of Things
(IoT) has further enriched the same. The domain is ever growing and opening up
many new endeavors, including cloud computing, social computing, ubiquitous
computing, parallel computing, grid computing, etc.
In parallel with computing, another field has emerged that deals with
the interconnection of devices. It is communication, and without which, the
modern world cannot be thought of. It works with a basic purpose of trans-
ferring information from one place or person to another. This technology has
a great influence in modern day society. It influences business and society
by making the interchange of ideas and facts more efficient. Communication
technologies include the Internet, multimedia, e-mail, telephone, and other
sound-based and video-based communication means.
This new book series consists of both edited volumes as well as selected
papers from various conferences. Volumes of the series will contain the
latest research findings in the field of communication engineering, computer
science and engineering, and informatics. Therefore, the books cater to the
needs of researchers and readers of a broader spectrum.
vi Research Notes on Computing and Communication Sciences

Coverage & Approach

The series
• Covers a broad spectrum of research domains
• Presents on market-demanded product-based research works
• Discusses the latest developments in the field
The book series broadly considers contributions from the following fields:
• Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems
• Big Data Analytics
• Broadband Convergence System and Integration Technologies
• Cellular and Mobile Communication
• Cloud Computing Technologies
• Computational Biology and Bioinformatics
• Computer and Information Security
• Computer Architecture
• Computer Graphics and Video Processing
• Control Systems
• Database Management Systems
• Data Mining
• Design Automation
• Digital Signal Processing
• GSM Communication
• High Performance Computing
• Human-Computer Interaction
• IoT and Blockchains
• Machine Learning
• Natural Language Processing
• Next Generation Communication Technologies
• Operating Systems & Networking
• Pervasive Computing and Cyber-Physical Systems
• Robotics and Automation
• Signal Processing
• Smart Internet of Everything
• SOC and System Platform Design Technologies
• Social Network Analysis
• Soft Computing
Research Notes on Computing and Communication Sciences vii

Types of Volumes
This series presents recent developments in the domains of computing and
communications. It will include mostly the current works and research find-
ings, going on in various research labs, universities and institutions and may
lead to development of market demanded products. It reports substantive
results on a wide range of computational approaches applied to a wide range
of problems. The series provides volumes having works with empirical
studies, theoretical analysis or comparison to psychological phenomena. The
series includes the following types of volumes:
• Conference Proceedings
• Authored Volumes
• Edited Volumes
Volumes from the series must be suitable as reference books for researchers,
academicians, students, and industry professionals.
To propose suggestions for this book series, please contact the book
series editor-in-chief. Book manuscripts should be minimum 250–500 pages
per volume (11 point Times Roman in MS-Word with 1.5 line spacing).
Books and chapters in the series are included in Google Scholar and
selectively in Scopus and possibly other related abstracting/indexing services.
BOOKS IN THE RESEARCH NOTES ON
COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATION
SCIENCES SERIES

• Applied Soft Computing: Techniques and Applications

Editors: Samarjeet Borah and Ranjit Panigrahi
• Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and
Technology
Editors: Sunil Pathak, Pramod Kumar Bhatt, Sanjay Kumar Singh,
Ashutosh Tripathi, and Pankaj Kumar Pandey
• Intelligent IoT Systems for Big Data Analysis: Concepts,
Applications, Challenges, and Future Scope
Editors: Subhendu Kumar Pani, Pani Abhay Kumar,
Samal Puneet Mishra, Ruchi Doshi, and Tzung-Pei Hong
• Computing and Communications Engineering in Real-Time
Application Development
Editors: B. K. Mishra, Samarjeet Borah, and Hemant Kasturiwale
ABOUT THE EDITORS

Sunil Pathak, PhD

Sunil Pathak, PhD, is an Associate Professor and
Head in the Department of Computer Science
and Engineering, Amit School of Engineering
and Technology at Amity University, Rajasthan,
India. Before joining Amity University, he was an
Associate Professor and Head in the Department
of Computer Science and Engineering at Kautilya
Institute of Engineering abd Technology. He was
also formerly at Chanakya Technical Campus
(Kauutilya Group of College) as Director of Academics and Poornima
College of Engineering, Jaipur, India. He has published more than 40
papers in international and national journals and conference proceedings,
10 book and one edited volume. He received 3rd prize for his book Web
Programming (Hind Edition) 2010, in the category of engineering diploma
level by AICTE New Delhi. His areas of research include clustering in ad
hoc networks, QoS supports in wireless networks, channel assignment in
cognitive radio networks and WDM optical networks, machine learning, and
deep learning. He is active as a reviewer for several journals, including IEEE
Transactions on Mobile Computing, IET Networks, EURASIP Journal on
Wireless Communications and Networking, Recent Patents on Engineering,
International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM), IEEE
Transactions on Network and Service Management, IEE Access, etc. He is
a professional member of IEEE, ACM, IACSE, and IAEN. He has received
his bachelor’s degree from Rajasthan University; MSc (Computer Science
& Engineer); Master of Technology in Information Technology from
Tezpur Central University, Assam, India; and PhD in Computer Science &
Engineering from JK Lakshmipat University Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
xii About the Editors

Pramod Kumar Bhatt, PhD

Pramod Kumar Bhatt, PhD, is Associate Professor
and Coordinator of PhD Programmes with the
Amity School of Engineering and Technology
(ASET), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. He has published
research papers in indexed journals and confer-
ences. His research interests include artificial
intelligence, machine learning, soft computing
applications in smart grid power quality analysis
and enhancement, renewable energy integration
challenges, opportunities in smart distribution and transmission systems,
smart microgrids, industrial microgrids, and condition monitoring of smart
grid components. For over 10 years he was extensively involved in industrial
assignments, in particular, R&D, system designing, modification, commis-
sioning, maintenance, systems automation such as PLC, SCADA, and power
drive installation and testing. He has worked in various capacities at universities
of national repute. His degrees include a BE (EE), ME (Power Electronics), and
PhD in Electrical Engineering.

Sanjay Kumar Singh, PhD

Sanjay Kumar Singh, PhD, is an experienced
academician and a research professional with
around eight years of industrial experience and
almost 16 years of teaching experience at engi-
neering colleges. His research interests are in the
areas of intelligent control and automation, bio-
inspired techniques, modern instrumentation and
control engineering, and industrial electronics
with real-time applications. He was awarded his
BE with a specialization in Instrumentation from Poona University, India,
and MTech in Instrumentation from the School of Instrumentation, Devi
Ahilya Vishvidyalaya Indore (MP), India. He was awarded a PhD degree
in Engineering from M.N.I.T., Jaipur, India. He has published around 24
research papers in national and international journals and international
conferences. He is a reviewer and editorial board member of various national
and international journals. He is currently a member of IET UK, ICSES Iran,
and IAENG and a lifetime member of ISTE India.
About the Editors xiii

Ashutosh Tripathi, PhD

Ashutosh Tripathi, PhD, is Assistant Professor
at Amity University, Rajasthan, India. He has
presented and organized several conferences and
seminars and has published papers in interna-
tional journals. He has many years of teaching
experience engineering and is currently guiding a
research associate for a PhD. His area of interest
is wireless communication and embedded tech-
nology. He received a PhD in Engineering.

Pankaj Kumar Pandey, PhD

Pankaj Kumar Pandey, PhD, is Associate
Professor and Head, Chemical Engineering
Department at Amity University Rajasthan,
India. He has presented and organized several
conferences and seminars and has published
papers in international journals. He has 19
years of teaching experience at at the BE,
ME and PhD levels. He is currently guiding
a research associate for a PhD. His area of
interest is adsorption engineering and wastewater treatment. He holds a PhD
in Engineering.
CONTENTS

Contributors ........................................................................................................... xix

Abbreviations .......................................................................................................xxiii
Preface ................................................................................................................ xxvii

PART I: Machine Learning-Based Intelligent Systems

for Healthcare ..............................................................................................1
1. Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning Paradigm:
Predictive Analytics in the Healthcare Sector ..............................................3
Pratiyush Guleria

2. Cancer Cell Growth Discovery Utilizing Computerized Image

Processing Strategies.....................................................................................19
Medhavi Malik, Madhuri Sharma, Dileep Kumar Yadav, and Kavita

3. Analysis and Prediction of Asthma from Common Symptoms

Using Different Machine Learning Algorithms..........................................29
Udbhav Naryani, Praffulla Kumar Dubey, and Medhavi Malik

4. Logistic Regression Based Myocardial Infarction Disease Prediction .....39

Praffulla Kumar Dubey, Udbhav Naryani, and Medhavi Malik

5. New N-Valued Refined Neutrosophic Divergence Measure in

Medical Investigation and Project Selection ..............................................53
Adeeba Umar and Ram Naresh Saraswat

6. Implementation of Quick Response Code in Electronic Records

for Healthcare Monitoring ...........................................................................65
Ishita Banerjee and P. Madhumathy

7. An Innovative Approach to Healthcare Using Machine Learning ...........83

T. Kanagaraj, E. Udayakumar, K. Srihari, and Sunil Pathak

8. Machine Learning Theory and Methods ..................................................101

Ranjeet Yadav and Ashutosh Tripathi
xvi Contents

PART II: Applications of Artificial Intelligence and

the Internet of Things .............................................................................117
9. Artificial Intelligence (AI) .......................................................................... 119
Manju Kaushik

10. Smart Irrigation Using IoT ........................................................................135

Akula Padma Sri, Aakanksha Mudgal, and B. Suresh Kumar

PART III: Intelligent Data Analytics Techniques ................................145

11. A Study for Making Universities Intelligent Using Data
Analytics and Artificial Intelligence ..........................................................147
Yojna Arora and Rashi Kohli

12. Sentiment Analysis of Online Learners in Higher Education:

A Learning Perspective Through Unstructured Data .............................157
Priyanka Shukla and Adarsh Garg

13. Prediction of Aging-Related Bugs Using Software Code Metrics...........171

Arvinder Kaur and Harguneet Kaur

14. Application of CART-Based Modeling in Motor Insurance Fraud ........183

Rohan Yashraj Gupta, Satya Sai Mudigonda, Phani Krishna Kandala,
and Pallav Kumar Baruah

15. Application of Neural Networks for Assessing the Performance

of Insurance Business .................................................................................205
S. R. Pranav Sai, Satya Sai Mudigonda, Phani Krishna Kandala, and
Pallav Kumar Baruah

PART IV: Intelligent Network System and Application ......................231

16. A New Approach to Evaluate Computer Network Security Under
Intuitionistic Trapezoidal Fuzzy Information ..........................................233
Sapna Gahlot and Ram Naresh Saraswat

17. Optimization of Campus-Wide Fiber Networks: LINGO-Based

Derivative of Shortest Path Problems and Solution ................................243
Mohd. Rizwanullah

18. A Novel Approach to Sensors Using an Intensive Survey .......................273

R. Ramesh, E. Udayakumar, K. Srihari, and Sunil Pathak

19. Robotic Process Automation: An Application ..........................................295

Soniya Soni, Gireesh Kumar, and Richa Sharma
Contents xvii

PART V: Inequalities and Process Control Systems:

Application and Methods .......................................................................309
20. (λIR, µIR) Fuzzy Ideals in Γ-Near-Rings ..................................................... 311
Neha Gahlot and Nagaraju Dasari

21. Approximation for Chi-Square F-Divergence via

Midpoint Inequalities..................................................................................323
Anulika Sharma and R. N. Saraswat

22. New Coding Information Inequalities.......................................................337

Ram Naresh Saraswat and Adeeba Umar

23. Metaheuristics-Based Multi-Objective Design of Robust

Process Control Systems .............................................................................355
Nitish Katal and Sanjay Kumar Singh

24. Bianchi Type IX Axially Symmetric Cosmological Model with

Negative Deceleration Parameter in General Relativity .........................373
Sanjay Sharma and Laxmi Poonia

Index .....................................................................................................................383
CONTRIBUTORS

Yojna Arora
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Amity University, Haryana, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Ishita Banerjee
Research Scholar, Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, Bangalore, Karnataka,
India, E-mail: [email protected]

Pallav Kumar Baruah

Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India
Nagaraju Dasari
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

Praffulla Kumar Dubey

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Neha Gahlot
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Rajasthan, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
Sapna Gahlot
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan–303007, India

Adarsh Garg
Professor, School of Computing Science and Engineering Galgotias University, Greater Noida,
Uttar Pradesh, India

Pratiyush Guleria
National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Rohan Yashraj Gupta

Doctoral Research Scholar in Actuarial Science, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

T. Kanagaraj
Assistant Professor, Department of ECE, Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology (KIT),
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]
Phani Krishna Kandala
Visiting Faculty in Actuarial Science, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India

Nitish Katal
School of Electronics, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Una, Himachal Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
xx Contributors

Arvinder Kaur
University School of Information and Communication Technology (U.S.I.C.T),
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (G.G.S.I.P.U), New Delhi, India

Harguneet Kaur
University School of Information and Communication Technology (U.S.I.C.T), Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University (G.G.S.I.P.U), New Delhi, India, E-mail: [email protected]
Manju Kaushik
Associate Professor, Amity Institute of Information Technology (AIIT), Amity University Rajasthan,
India

Kavita
Jayoti Vidyapeeth Women’s University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Rashi Kohli
Senior Member, IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, US,
E-mail: [email protected]

B. Suresh Kumar
Amity University, Rajasthan, India

Gireesh Kumar
Department of Computer Science Engineering, JK Lakshmipat University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

P. Madhumathy
Professor, Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Medhavi Malik
Research Scholar, Jayoti Vidyapeeth Women’s University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India;
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Aakanksha Mudgal
Amity University, Rajasthan, India

Satya Sai Mudigonda

Honorary Professor in Actuarial Science, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India

Udbhav Naryani
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Sunil Pathak
Associate Professor, Department of CSE, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India

Laxmi Poonia
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan–303007, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

R. Ramesh
Department of ECE, Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology (KIT), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
India, E-mail: [email protected]

Mohd. Rizwanullah
Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India, E-mail: [email protected]
Contributors xxi

S. R. Pranav Sai
Doctoral Research Scholar in Actuarial Science, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Ram Naresh Saraswat

Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan–303007, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
Anulika Sharma
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan–303007, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
Madhuri Sharma
SRM IST Delhi NCR Campus, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Richa Sharma
Department of Mathematics, JK Lakshmipat University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India,
E-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]

Sanjay Sharma
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan–303007, India

Priyanka Shukla
Research Scholar, School of Computing Science and Engineering Galgotias University, Greater Noida,
Uttar Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Sanjay Kumar Singh

Department of EEE, Amity University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

Soniya Soni
Department of Computer Science Engineering, JK Lakshmipat University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

Akula Padma Sri

Amity University, Rajasthan, India

K. Srihari
Associate Professor, Department of CSE, SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Ashutosh Tripathi
Department of ECE, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

E. Udayakumar
Assistant Professor, Department of ECE, Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology (KIT),
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Adeeba Umar
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan–303007, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Dileep Kumar Yadav

Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Ranjeet Yadav
Amity University Rajasthan, India, E-mail: [email protected]
ABBREVIATIONS

ACC actuarial control cycle

AD average difference
AHE adaptive histogram equalization
AI artificial intelligence
AMU Aligarh Muslim University
API application interface
ARB aging-related bugs
AUC area under the curve
BPM beats per minute
CAM cooperative mindfulness message
CEC consumer electronics control
CNN convolutional neural networks
CRM customer relationship management
CSF cerebrospinal fluid
CSI camera serial interface
CSTR continuous stirred tank reactor
CUL channel utilization list
CW contention window
DCF dispersed coordination function
DoS Daniel of service
DVI digital visual interface
EDCA enhanced disseminated channel
EGC electrocardiogram
EHR electronic health record
FP false positive
FPR false positive rate
GLCM gray level co-occurrence matrix
GSM Global system for mobile
HITECH Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health
I2V infrastructure-to-vehicle
ID3 dichotomiser 3
IoT internet of things
IRC interest rate change
IRL interest rate level
xxiv Abbreviations

ISE integral square of error

IT insurer type
ITF intuitionistic trapezoidal fuzzy
IVITFWG interval-valued intuitionistic trapezoidal fuzzy weighted geometric
IVTrIFN interval-valued trapezoidal IFN
JSON JavaScript object notation
KNN K-nearest neighbor
KPIs key performance indicators
LDA latent Dirichlet allocation
LOC Lines of code
LSR link-state routing convention
LT launch time
LTI linear time-invariant
MANETs mobile uncommonly selected frameworks
MD maximum difference
ML machine learning
MOEA/D multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on decomposition
MOOCs massive open online course
MOP multi-objective optimization problem
MPR multipoint relay
MSE mean square error
NLP natural language processing
OBUs on board units
OCR optical character recognition
OFDM orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
ONF open networking foundation
PCA principal component analysis
PF page fault
PNC physical-layer network coding
POC proof of concept
POS pareto optimal solutions
PSNR peak signal to noise ratio
QoS Quality of service
QR quick response
RBF radial basis function
RMSE root mean square error
ROC receiver operating characteristics
RPA robotic process automation
RQs research questions
Abbreviations xxv

RRP route request packets

RSU roadside units
RW Robertson-Walker
SMAC social, mobile, analytic, cloud
SMO sequential minimal optimization
SMS short message service
SNA social network analysis
SNIP source normalized impact per paper
SPP shortest path problems
SVM support vector machine
TN true negative
TP true positive
TPR true positive rate
TrIFN trapezoidal IFN
TrIFWA intuitionistic trapezoidal fuzzy weighted average
TSP traveling salesperson problem
UI unexpected inflation
UP underwriting profits
URL uniform resource locator
V2V vehicle-to-vehicle
VANET vehicular ad-hoc network
VoIP voice over IP
WAGO weighted arithmetic averaging operator
WAVE wireless access in vehicular environment
WHO World Health Organization
ZN Ziegler Nichols
PREFACE

In the past few decades, intelligence in the field of engineering and technology
has become a fundamental objective for developing and developed countries.
The twenty-first century has witnessed massive changes around the world in
intelligence systems in order to become smarter, energy efficient, reliable,
and cheaper. Therefore, it is high time for the whole world to envisage and
ponder devising an apt mechanism for the adoption of an intelligent system in
the process of modernization.
The application of intelligence in engineering and technology is a vast
field; however, we have tried to explore the full breadth of the field, which
encompasses data analysis, image processing, speech processing, and
recognition medical science and healthcare monitoring, smart irrigation
systems, insurance, and banking, robotics, and process control, etc.
This book is an assortment of precious gem book chapters contributed by
renowned experts that focus on various aspects of fostering and imbibing the
culture of intelligent techniques in the field of engineering and technology.
Furthermore, this book puts a spotlight on various aspects of the application
of intelligent techniques in various fields of engineering and technology.
This book is separated into 24 chapters. Chapter 1 presents the patient-
centric healthcare frameworks in the context of big data and discusses the
Naïve Bayes, decision tree data mining techniques, and their solutions in
the healthcare sector. Chapter 2 discusses “Cancer Cell Growth Discovery
Utilizing Computerized Image Processing Strategies.” Chapter 3 describes
the different symptoms of asthma and implements different types of machine
learning algorithms, like the random forest, decision tree, and Naïve
Bayes algorithms in order to predict whether a person has asthma or not.
Chapter 4 discusses the proposal to predict myocardial infraction disease
by implementing various algorithms of machine learning like Naïve Bayes
algorithm, decision tree, logistic regression, and random forest. Chapter
5 proposes a novel divergence measure under the refined neutrosophic
environment with its proof of validity. The application of the proposed
divergence measure is given in decision making such as in medical diagnosis
and in project selection.
Chapter 6 focuses on the implementation of QR codes for the major
purpose of effective and effortless laboratory report exchange and in
xxviii Preface

healthcare monitoring. Chapter 7, for discussion, reflects on the latest

progress of the study on an innovative approach to healthcare using machine
learning. Chapter 8 in-depthly discusses artificial intelligence (AI), its
importance, and its application in various fields. Chapter 9 is related to
machine learning theory and the points to comprehend the basic standards
of learning as a computational procedure and joins devices from computer
science and statistics. Chapter 10 presents the sentiment analysis of online
learners in higher education and seeks to explore the unstructured data in
terms of sentiments of online learners on their perceived learning. Chapter 11
describes speech recognition with static and dynamic approaches in artificial
neural networks and shows the relative benefits of both static and dynamic
approaches with speech features for an improved visual speech recognition
system. Chapter 12 focuses on the presence of aging-related bugs (ARB)
using source code metrics. Six different machine learning algorithms are
applied to predict the non-frequent occurring bugs from Zookeeper software.
The experiment highlighted the Naïve Bayes classifier with the best results.
Chapter 13 presents an automated system that has been developed
to irrigate plants. The normal growth of plants, yield, and the quantity of
agricultural products are seriously affected by the water provided to them.
This automated system waters the plant automatically as and when required
without human interaction. Chapter 14 presents the main theories and key
application of CART-based modeling in motor insurance fraud detection.
Chapter 15 deals with big data analysis and artificial intelligence applications
to help the students predict their performance and teachers to scrutinize the
students’ performance. Chapter 16 discusses the theories and key applications
of neural networks for assessing the performance of the insurance business.
Chapter 17 presents the derivation and model for the physical inflationary
universe under the effect of the scalar field, which is purely massless and
with a flat potential.
Chapter 18 proposes MADM problems for evaluating computer network
security with TrIFN (intuitionistic trapezoidal fuzzy weighted average).
Chapter 19 presents an optimization of a network problem using LINGO
software to solve a campus-wide optical fiber network problem based on
a spanning tree. Chapter 20 establishes some new coding bounds using
well-known inequalities, and the results are proved through numerical
illustrations, which will be of interest in information and coding theory. A
major toolchain is formed by these inequalities for proving many outcomes
in information theory. Chapter 21 presents robotic process automation (RPA),
an automation technology based on software tools that could imitate human
Preface xxix

behavior for repetitive and on-value-added tasks such as tipping, copying,

pasting, extracting, merging, and moving data from one system to another
system. Chapter 22 introduced fuzzy ideals in Γ-near ring, for example, and
verifys few properties. Chapter 23 presents a novel approach on sensors and
examines the effects of a MAC layer, PHY layer remote channel situations,
and versatility of vehicles on group structure. Chapter 24 investigates a
metaheuristics-based multi-objective optimal design of robust controllers for
a parametrically uncertain pH neutralization process. The controller design
problem has been formulated as a multi-objective optimization problem
(MOP) using various time domain and frequency domain performance
indices.
The research contributions made by the academics of high pursuits not
only show their deep sense of agony but also suggests numerous plausible
solutions to conquer problems. Although this attempt is a tiny step intended
towards the massive change, we hope it will be a valuable contribution to
society at large.
—Editors
 PART I
Machine Learning-Based Intelligent
Systems for Healthcare
CHAPTER 1

BIG DATA ANALYTICS AND MACHINE

LEARNING PARADIGM: PREDICTIVE
ANALYTICS IN THE HEALTHCARE
SECTOR
PRATIYUSH GULERIA
National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology, Shimla,
Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Big data analytics is the emerging field of data mining where the major
challenge is to discover meaningful information from raw data. Big data
comprises of unstructured, semi-structured, and structured forms. The super-
vised and unsupervised learning techniques, i.e., classification and clustering
algorithms of data mining helps to retrieve meaningful information. The
big data managed using mining techniques have increased computational
intelligence and effective decision-making. In this chapter, the author has
proposed the patient-centric healthcare frameworks in the context of big data
and has discussed the Naïve Bayes, Decision tree data mining techniques,
and their solutions to the healthcare sector. The supervised and unsupervised
machine learning (ML) algorithms are implemented on the dataset for data
analysis and information retrieval.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Big data analytics has received attention from different fields of computer
science which involves data mining, artificial intelligence (AI), machine
learning (ML), and mathematical analytics. The big data term is based on
4 Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and Technology

the characteristics, which are (a) volume, (b) velocity, and (c) variety. The
first characteristics focus on the volume of data which may be in terabytes,
petabytes, or more. The second characteristics are the velocity of data where
the data emerges in every second, and the third is a variety of data. The
data can be in any format, i.e., images, pdf files, office automation, or it
can be data from internet resources, software, and database application files.
The Big data analytics field utilization in medical and healthcare sectors
is the demand of present research. The ML and data mining techniques
have been working in close interrelation with big data analytics to provide
solutions in (a) computer-aided medical diagnosis, (b) intelligent healthcare
informatics system, (c) predictive analytics in healthcare, (d) electronic
record maintenance of patients, (e) smart systems for identifying diseases
and diagnosis, (f) IoT enabled devices for medical diagnostics, (g) intelligent
web semantics for healthcare sector, (h) knowledge data discovery for
healthcare sector. ML algorithms help in handling healthcare challenges
and can discover the ethical implications of healthcare data, patient health
optimization, etc.
Authors Liang and Kelemen [1] have discussed the healthcare func-
tionalities, i.e., (a) clinical decision support, (b) diseases surveillance, (c)
healthcare management, etc., concerning big data.

1.1.1 CHALLENGES OF BIG DATA IN HEALTHCARE SECTOR

The challenges in handling big data related to the healthcare sector involves:

1. Data generation from multiple sources;

2. Diversified data formats;
3. Huge voluminous data;
4. Symptoms vary from patient to patient;
5. Patients pertain to different geographical areas;
6. Non-availability of data in electronic form;
7. Hidden and missing values in the datasets;
8. Non-availability of diagnostic data;
9. Missing historical record of patients;
10. Diversified healthcare areas;
11. Challenges in the collection of clinical reports and drug prescribed
information;
12. Drug prescriptions to patients are in unstructured and non-electronic
form.
Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning Paradigm 5

The vital role of Big data analytics in convergence with ML is to give

useful insight into these challenges. The tasks of transforming the raw data
into meaningful form, preprocess the data to detect outliers, and prediction
of fruitful results can be done using big data analytics, ML. The healthcare
data available in digital format enables the patients to communicate with
the patients having similar problems and gain information like (a) disease
symptoms, (b) side-effects of medicines, (c) clinical reports, etc. [2, 3]. The
predictive analytics can be done using data mining techniques. With the
help of mining and statistical techniques, future events can be predicted [4].
The big data consists of the MapReduce programming model which
uses the Hadoop distributed file system for analyzing the big data. In this
framework, the data is divided into <key, value> pair to filter the meaningful
information. Authors in Ref. [5] have proposed the architectural framework
for healthcare systems. The framework consists of layers where data
extraction and transformation take place in Transformation Layer and then
the data goes through staging processes. In the Big data platform layer, the
Hadoop ecosystem works using MapReduce Programming models. After
the Big data platform layer, the analytical layer work through data mining
techniques, reporting, etc.

1.1.2 ELECTRONIC HEALTH CARE FRAMEWORK

In the traditional approach, the patient approaches the doctor with some
symptoms, and in response, after the check-up of the patient, the doctor
recommends him to take some tests and diagnose the patients with some
medicines. The major challenge in this approach is that the data related to the
symptoms and diagnosis is not maintained electronically. In such a scenario,
big data analytics could help the patient, if the data is maintained electronically.
The electronically maintained data of the patient can be analyzed using big
data analytics and ML algorithms. It helps those patients who are having
similar diagnostics and unable to visit the hospital to take telemedicine for their
healthcare needs. The analytical results generated using the electronic healthcare
record-keeping system can further trigger regular alerts to patients in the future.
The semantic compatibility in clinical records results in inefficiency in
healthcare systems. The electronic health records (EHR) of patients need to
be converted into Web ontology language. The semantic analytics of health-
care data helps in the classification and visualization of data [6].
A framework based on the doctor-patient-centric is proposed in Figure 1.1.
The framework depicts the approach where the traditional approach needs
6 Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and Technology

to be converted into electronic healthcare, which becomes the first step for
getting meaningful information from huge unstructured data collected per-
second basis.

FIGURE 1.1 Healthcare framework in the context of big data analytics.

1.2 BIG DATA AND MACHINE LEARNING (ML) PARADIGM

Big data is related to storage, ingestion, and extraction tolls commonly

Hadoop. In Big data, data analysis is done, the hidden patterns are
discovered, and useful information is extracted from it. The ML techniques,
i.e., supervised, semi-supervised, and unsupervised learning techniques
are implemented on big data to find the hidden patterns and disseminate
useful information. The supervised learning helps in developing predictive
models based on both input and output data. The classification techniques
in supervised learning are support vector machines (SVM), discriminant
analysis, naïve Bayes and nearest neighbor, whereas linear regression and
neural network are regression techniques.
In unsupervised learning, it helps in discovering an internal representa-
tion from the input data only. The unsupervised learning techniques involve
clustering techniques like: k-means, hierarchical, and neural networks.

1.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIG DATA

Big data has four characteristics which are as follows:

Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning Paradigm 7

1. The volume which means a quantity of data;

2. Velocity means processing speed of data;
3. Variety means data which can be structured, semi-structured or
completely unstructured; and
4. Veracity means inconsistent and uncertain data, i.e., data having outliers.

The characteristics of big data are shown in Figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.2 Characteristics of big data.

1.2.2 BIG DATA ANALYTICS TOOLS

There are Big data analytical tools for storing and analyzing data for effec-
tive decision-making and faster information retrieval. Some of the tools are
shown in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1 Big Data Analytical Tools

Hadoop Data storage and processing platform. The Hadoop ecosystem consists
of Hadoop distributed file system, MapReduce, etc.
Hive Performs SQL query and is used in data warehousing.
Splunk Log analysis platform.
Apache Spark Real-time processing of large amount of data. The data is analyzed
using machine learning and perform faster execution. The programming
development environments used are R, Python, and Scala.
Kafka Messaging system.
Pig Data analysis platform. It uses scripting language.
Apache HBASE No SQL database.
Talend Software integration platform.
MapReduce Based upon parallel computing to handle big data.
8 Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and Technology

1.3 BIG DATA AND MACHINE LEARNING (ML) RELATIONSHIP

Big data comprises of data like images, spreadsheets, tabular data files, custom
files. Big data techniques use the file systems like HDFS/Hadoop and data-
bases like SQL and NoSQL for convenient data access. The data is explored,
processed, and analyzed using statistical techniques, ML techniques for storage
of data into memory and to find the data which do not fit into memory.
The unsupervised and supervised ML techniques are implemented on big
data to develop predictive models. The relationship between big data and
ML techniques are shown in Figure 1.3.

FIGURE 1.3 Big data and machine learning relationship.

1.3.1 MACHINE LEARNING (ML) PHASES

In ML, in the first phase, the data is accessed and explored. The data consists
of files, databases, information from sensors, etc. In the second phase, the
data is preprocessed which involves the following:

• Removal of outliers;
Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning Paradigm 9

• Extraction of meaningful information from unstructured data;

• Data reduction, transformation;
• Feature extraction.

In the third phase, the predictive models are developed on big data. The
predictive model involves:

• Model creation, i.e., ML;

• Parameter optimization;
• Model validation using techniques like neural network.

1.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF MACHINE LEARNING (ML) IN BIG DATA

ANALYTICS

• Predicting future trends of market.

• Better solutions to complex market problems in a stipulated time frame.
• Healthcare solutions by identifying diseases at early stages.
• The effective decision-making process of businesses.
• ML is advantageous in pattern recognition like speech, images, etc.
• In developing financial algorithms, biological problems like tumor
detection, drug discovery.

1.4 DATA ANALYTICS WITH MACHINE LEARNING (ML)

The big data, which may be structured, unstructured or semi-structured is

analyzed through ML techniques for effective decision-making. ML uses
data mining techniques to extract meaningful information from data and to
develop ML models. In Figure 1.4, the steps for data analytics with ML are
shown. The data which may be in the form of files like: .csv .arff .xlsx,
images, word or pdf files, etc., are imported.
The data is then preprocessed, which includes removing missing and
outliers. The learning techniques are then implemented to select and train
the model, validate it for predictive analytics. Effective ML systems can be
developed based on the following requirements:

• Effective data preparation capabilities;

• Algorithm development;
• Automotive and iterative processes;
10 Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and Technology

• Scalable;
• Ensemble modeling.

FIGURE 1.4 A framework for data analytics with machine learning.

1.4.1 MACHINE LEARNING (ML) APPROACHES

The Naïve Bayes and Decision tree classifiers are implemented for predictive
modeling. The blood pressure values are predicted and validated for the dataset
shown in Table 1.2. The semi-synthesized dataset is used for experimentation
purposes. The attributes of the dataset are: {gender, age, wgt, smoke, systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure}. The predictor names in the models
implemented are: {sex, age, wgt, and smoke}.
The decision tree and naïve Bayes techniques are implemented as super-
vised ML techniques here because they require target variable to find the
probability for a specific value of feature in Naïve Bayes and decision trees.

1.4.2 NAÏVE-BAYES

Here, one of the supervised learning approaches are implemented, i.e., Naïve-
Bayes in WEKA tool. WEKA means Waikato Environment for Knowledge
Analysis. It is a ML tool for data analysis and predictive modeling.
Bayesian theorem-based Naïve-Bayes algorithm is preferred when the
dimensionality of the input is high and requires a small amount of training
data. Naive-Bayes assumes that all the features are conditionally independent
for a given class label [7, 8]. Bayes theorem states that if the probability of
any event i conditional on event j is to be obtained, then calculate the prob-
ability of both i and j together and divide it by the probability of j. This is
Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning Paradigm 11

stated as follows: Pr (j | i) = Pr (i and j)/Pr (i) where P (j|i) is the Conditional

probability denoting the probability of j given that i has already occurred [9].
P (i|j) = P (j|i) × P (i)/P (j) (1)
Eqn. (1) states that the probability of i given j equals the probability of j
given i times the probability of i, divided by the probability of j. In Eqn. (1),
i is the hypothesis to be tested and j is the evidence associated with i.

 Objective: The objective is to predict the Blood Pressure values

using Bayes classifier. To model the systolic pressure as a function
of patients, the attributes classified are mentioned as below:
• Age;
• Smoker;
• Gender;
• Weight.
 Preprocess Data: During the preprocessing of data, the outliers are
detected and removed. The attributes, i.e., gender and smoke values are
converted into categorical form, i.e., Gender = {‘M,’ ‘F’}, Smoke = {1, 0}.

TABLE 1.2 Semi-Synthesized Dataset for Blood Pressure

Gender Age Weight Smoking Sys Blood Dia Blood Remarks
Pressure Pressure
The attribute “sex”
Independent

Independent

Independent

Independent

and “smoke” values are

Variable

Variable

Variable

Variable

defined as follows:

f 43 174 1 125 92 Sex = { Male-’m,’

f 38 162 1 108 76 Female-’f’
m 37 134 0 124 81
m 41 132 1 115 76 Smoke = {
f 48 120 0 121 81 1- ‘yes’
f 45 141 0 122 71 0- ‘no’
f 34 143 1 129 87 }
f 41 179 0 116 83
f 39 174 0 125 94
m 42 162 1 110 76
---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
F 46 174 1 113 87
12 Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and Technology

The results are shown in the form of confusion matrix shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 shows the target class, i.e., blood pressure value for the predictor
variables, i.e., age, smoke, gender, and weight.

TABLE 1.3 Naïve Bayes Classifier Model

Scheme: Naive Bayes classifier
Instances: 100 sex, age, wgt, smoke, sys, dia, class
Attributes: 7
Test mode: 10-fold cross-validation
=== Classifier model (full training set) ===
Class
Attribute High Normal
(0.33) (0.67)
sex
f 15.0 41.0
m 20.0 28.0
[total] 35.0 69.0
Time taken to build model: 0.01 seconds
=== Stratified cross-validation ===
=== Summary ===
Correctly Classified Instances – 89%
Incorrectly Classified Instances – 11%
=== Confusion Matrix ===
a…………b < Classified as
28…………5 | a = High
6…………61 | b = Normal

1.4.3 DECISION TREE

A decision tree is a data mining technique that generates trees after testing
the training set and defines predictions [10]. It is a supervised ML technique
for classification of data using training dataset. A decision tree is a tree-like
structure which uses if-then statements to generate decisions.

1.4.3.1 CALCULATION OF INFORMATION GAIN

Information gain, as the name specifies, it is the information that is obtained

by knowing the attribute values. The parameter which best classifies the data
Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning Paradigm 13

is Entropy (H). Entropy is a good measure of the information carried by a

group of events. There are two states, i.e., Positive and Negative examples
from set S. Entropy of set S is denoted by H(S).
The entropy is shown by Eqn. (2), where; S=sample of n training events
and Pi is the probability of occurrence of event.
(S ) ∑
n
H= i =1
− Pi log 2 Pi (2)

Such that: ∑ i =1 Pi = 1
n

Information gain is a statistical quantity measuring how well an attribute

classifies the data. The decision tree calculates the information gain for each
attribute.
The information gain (Gain(S, Ai)) for each attribute is calculated using
Eqn. (3). The attribute with the highest information gain has been chosen for
decision-making. In Eqn. (3), Ai is the attribute selected for classification.
H ( S ) − ∑ v∈Values( A ) P ( Ai =
Gain ( S, Ai ) = v ) H ( Sv ) (3)
i

The classifier model obtained using decision tree is shown in Table 1.4.
The decision tree is visualized in Figure 1.5. The figure shows that
systolic blood pressure attribute, i.e., “sys” is the root node.

Tree View

sys
<= 127 > 127

dia High (25.0/1.0)

<= 83 > 83
Normal (55.0/1.0) sys
<= 119 > 119
Normal (6.0) sex
=f =m
Normal (6.0/2.0) High (8.0/2.0)

FIGURE 1.5 Decision tree.

14 Intelligent System Algorithms and Applications in Science and Technology

TABLE 1.4 Decision Tree Classifier Model

=== Run information ===
Scheme: J48 classifier
Instances: 100
Attributes: 7 sex, age, wgt, smoke, sys, dia, class
Test mode: evaluate on training data
J48 pruned tree
sys <= 127
| dia <= 83: Normal (55.0/1.0)
| dia > 83
| | sys <= 119: Normal (6.0)
| | sys > 119
| | | sex = f: Normal (6.0/2.0)
| | | sex = m: High (8.0/2.0)
sys > 127: High (25.0/1.0)

Number of Leaves: 5
Size of the tree: 9

Time taken to build model: 0.01 seconds

=== Evaluation on training set ===
Time taken to build model: 0.01 seconds
=== Evaluation on training set ===
Time taken to test model on training data: 0 seconds
=== Summary ===
Correctly Classified Instances 94 94%
Incorrectly Classified Instances 6 6%
=== Confusion Matrix ===
a b <-- classified as
30 3 | a = High
3 64 | b = Normal

1.5 UNSUPERVISED LEARNING APPLICATIONS IN HEALTHCARE

The unsupervised learning approach deals with unlabeled data and there is
no predefined training of input dataset is performed. In this approach, the
information is extracted on the basis of patterns and similarity.
The clustering is performed in the WEKA tool on the dataset shown in
Table 1.2. The K-Means clustering is applied on the dataset. K-Means is a
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 I may mention, in reference to this, that when a child or other
young animal takes its natural food in the form of milk, the milk is
converted into unpressed cheese, or curd, prior to its digestion.
Supposing that, on an average, cheese contains only one-half of
the 6 per cent. of phosphate of lime found, as above, in the casein,
and taking into consideration the water contained in flesh, the bone,
&c., we may conclude generally that one pound of average cheese
contains as much nutriment as three pounds of the average material
of the carcass of an ox or sheep as prepared for sale by the butcher;
or otherwise stated, a cheese of 20 lbs. weight contains as much
food as a sheep weighing 60 lbs. as it hangs in the butcher’s shop.
Now comes the practical question. Can we assimilate or convert
into our own substance the cheese-food as easily as we may the
flesh-food?
I reply that we certainly cannot, if the cheese is eaten raw; but
have no doubt that we may, if it be suitably cooked. Hence the
paramount importance of this part of my subject. A Swiss or
Scandinavian mountaineer can and does digest and assimilate raw
cheese as a staple article of food, and proves its nutritive value by
the result; but feebler bipeds of the plains and towns cannot do the
like.
I may here mention that I have recently made some experiments
on the dissolving of cheese by adding sufficient alkali (carbonate of
potash) to neutralise the acid it contains, in order to convert the
casein into its original soluble form as it existed in the milk, and have
partially succeeded both with water and milk as solvents; but before
reporting these results in detail I will describe some of the
practically-established methods of cooking cheese that are so
curiously unknown or little known in this country.
In the fatherland of my grandfather, Louis Gabriel Mattieu, one of
the commonest dishes of the peasant who tills his own freehold and
grows his own food is a fondu. This is a mixture of cheese and eggs,
the cheese grated and beaten into the egg as in making omelettes,
with a small addition of new milk or butter. It is placed in a little pan
like a flower-pot saucer, cooked gently, served as it comes off the
fire, and eaten from the vessel in which it is cooked. I have made
many a hearty dinner on one of these, plus a lump of black bread
and a small bottle of genuine but thin wine; the cost of the whole
banquet at a little auberge being usually less than sixpence. The
cheese is in a pasty condition, and partly dissolved in the milk or
butter. I have tested the sustaining power of such a meal by doing
some very stiff mountain climbing and long fasting after it. It is
rather too good—over nutritious—for a man only doing sedentary
work.
A diluted and delicate modification of this may be made by taking
slices of bread, or bread and butter, soaking them in a batter made
of eggs and milk—without flour—then placing the slices of soaked
bread in a pie-dish, covering each with a thick coating of grated
cheese, and thus building up a stratified deposit to fill the dish. The
surplus batter may be poured over the top; or if time is allowed for
saturation, the trouble of preliminary soaking may be saved by
simply pouring all the batter thus. This, when gently baked, supplies
a delicious and highly nutritious dish. We call it ‘cheese pudding’ at
home, but my own experience convinces me that we make a
mistake in using it to supplement the joint. It is far too nutritious for
this; its savoury character tempts one to eat it so freely that it would
be far wiser to use it as the Swiss peasant uses his fondu—i.e. as
the substantial dish of a wholesome dinner.
I have tested its digestibility by eating it heartily for supper. No
nightmare has followed. If I sup on a corresponding quantity of raw
cheese my sleep is miserably eventful.
A correspondent writes as follows from the Charlotte Square
Young Ladies’ Institution: ‘I have been trying the various ways of
cooking cheese mentioned in your articles in “Knowledge,” and have
one or two improvements to suggest in the making of cheese
pudding. I find the result is much better when the bread is grated
like the cheese, and thoroughly mixed with it; then the batter
poured over both. I think you will also find it better when baked in a
shallow tin, such as is used for Yorkshire pudding. This gives more of
the browned surface, which is the best of it. Another improvement is
to put some of the crumbled bread (on paper) in the oven till brown,
and eat with it (as for game). I have not succeeded in making any
improvement in the fondu (see page 139), which is delightful.’
My recollections of the fondu of the Swiss peasant being so
eminently satisfactory on all points—nutritive or sustaining value,
appetising flavour and economy—I have sought for a recipe in
several cookery-books, and find at last a near approach to it in an
old edition of Mrs. Rundell’s ‘Domestic Cookery.’ A similar dish is
described in that useful book ‘Cre-Fydd’s Family Fare,’ under the
name of ‘Cheese Soufflé or Fondu.’[12] I had looked for it in more
pretentious works, especially in the most pretentious and the most
disappointing one I have yet been tempted to purchase, viz. the
27th edition of Francatelli’s ‘Modern Cook,’ a work which I cannot
recommend to anybody who has less than 20,000l. a year and a
corresponding luxury of liver.
Amidst all the culinary monstrosities of these ‘high-class’ manuals,
I fail to find anything concerning the cookery of cheese that is worth
the attention of my readers. Francatelli has, under the name of ‘Eggs
à la Suisse,’ a sort of fondu, but decidedly inferior to the common
fondu of the humble Swiss osteria, as Francatelli lays the eggs upon
slices of cheese, and prescribes especially that the yolks shall not be
broken; omits the milk, but substitutes (for high-class extravagance’
sake, I suppose) ‘a gill of double cream,’ to be poured over the top.
Thus the cheese is not intermingled with the egg, lest it should spoil
the appearance of the unbroken yolks, its casein is made leathery
instead of being dissolved, and the substitution of sixpenny worth of
double cream for a halfpenny worth of milk supplies the high-class
victim with fivepence halfpenny worth of biliary derangement.
In Gouffé’s ‘Royal Cookery Book’ (the Household Edition of which
contains a great deal that is really useful to an English housewife) I
find a better recipe under the name of ‘Cheese Soufflés.’ He says:
‘Put two ounces and a quarter of flour in a stewpan, with one pint
and a half of milk; season with salt and pepper; stew over the fire till
boiling, and should there be any lumps, strain the soufflé paste
through a tammy cloth; add seven ounces of grated Parmesan
cheese, and seven yolks of eggs; whip the whites till they are firm,
and add them to the mixture; fill some paper cases with it, and bake
in the oven for fifteen minutes.’
Cre-Fydd says: ‘Grate six ounces of rich cheese (Parmesan is the
best); put it into an enamelled saucepan, with a teaspoonful of flour
of mustard, a saltspoonful of white pepper, a grain of cayenne, the
sixth part of a nutmeg, grated, two ounces of butter, two
tablespoonfuls of baked flour, and a gill of new milk; stir it over a
slow fire till it becomes like smooth, thick cream (but it must not
boil); add the well-beaten yolks of six eggs, beat for ten minutes,
then add the whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth; put the
mixture into a tin or a cardboard mould, and bake in a quick oven
for twenty minutes. Serve immediately.’
Here is a true cookery of cheese by solution, and the result is an
excellent dish. But there is some unnecessary complication and
kitchen pedantry involved. The soufflé part of the business is a mere
puffing up of the mixture for the purpose of displaying the
cleverness of the cook, being quite useless to the consumer, as it
subsides before it can be eaten. It further involves practical mischief,
as it cannot be obtained without toasting the surface of the cheese
into an air-tight leathery skin that is abnormally indigestible. The
following is my own simplified recipe:
Take a quarter of a pound of grated cheese; add it to a gill of milk
in which is dissolved as much powdered bicarbonate of potash as
will stand upon a threepenny-piece; mustard, pepper, &c., as
prescribed above by Cre-Fydd.[13] Heat this carefully until the
cheese is completely dissolved. Then beat up three eggs, yolks and
whites together, and add them to this solution of cheese, stirring the
whole. Now take a shallow metal or earthenware dish or tray that
will bear heating; put a little butter on this, and heat the butter till it
frizzles. Then pour the mixture into the tray, and bake or fry it until it
is nearly solidified.
A cheaper dish may be made by increasing the proportion of
cheese—say, six to eight ounces to three eggs, or only one egg to a
quarter of a pound of cheese for a hard-working man with powerful
digestion.
Mr. E. D. Girdlestone writes as follows (I quote with permission):
‘As regards the “cheese fondu,” your recipe for which has enabled
me to turn cheese to practical account as food, you may be glad to
hear that it has become a common dish in our microscopic ménage.
Indeed cheese, which formerly was poison to me, is now alike
pleasant and digestible. But some of your readers may like to know
that the addition of bread-crumbs is, in my judgment at least, a
great improvement, giving greater lightness to the compost, and
removing the harshness of flavour otherwise incidental to a mixture
which comprises so large a proportion of cheese. We (my wife and I)
think this a great improvement.’
I have received two other letters making, quite independently, the
same suggestion concerning the bread-crumbs. I have tried the
addition, and agree with Mr. Girdlestone that it is a great
improvement as food for such as ourselves, who are brain-workers,
and for all others whose occupations are at all sedentary. The
undiluted fondu is too nutritious for us, though suitable for the
mountaineer.
The chief difficulty in preparing this dish conveniently is that of
obtaining suitable vessels for the final frying or baking, as each
portion should be poured into, and fried or baked in, a separate dish,
so that each may, as in Switzerland, have his own fondu complete,
and eat it from the dish as it comes from the fire. As demand
creates supply, our ironmongers, &c., will soon learn to meet this
demand if it arises. I have written to Messrs. Griffiths & Browett, of
Birmingham, large manufacturers of what is technically called ‘hollow
ware’—i.e. vessels of all kinds knocked up from a single piece of
metal without any soldering—and they have made suitable fondu
dishes according to my specification, and supply them to the
shopkeepers.
The bicarbonate of potash is an original novelty that will possibly
alarm some of my non-chemical readers. I advocate its use for two
reasons: first, it effects a better solution of the casein by neutralising
the free lactic acid that inevitably exists in milk supplied to towns,
and any free acid that may remain in the cheese. At a farmhouse,
where the milk is just drawn from the cow, it is unnecessary for this
purpose, as such new milk is itself slightly alkaline.
My second reason is physiological, and of greater weight. Salts of
potash are necessary constituents of human food. They exist in all
kinds of wholesome vegetables and fruits, and in the juices of fresh
meat, but they are wanting in cheese, having, on account of their
great solubility, been left behind in the whey.
This absence of potash appears to me to be the one serious
objection to the free use of cheese diet. The Swiss peasant escapes
the mischief by his abundant salads, which eaten raw contain all
their potash salts, instead of leaving the greater part in the
saucepan, as do cabbages, &c., when cooked in boiling water. In
Norway, where salads are scarce, the bonder and his housemen
have at times suffered greatly from scurvy, especially in the far
north, and would be severely victimised but for special remedies that
they use (the mottebeer, cranberry, &c., grown and preserved
especially for the purpose). The Laplanders make a broth of scurvy-
grass and similar herbs; I have watched them gathering these, and
observed that the wild celery was a leading ingredient.
Scurvy on board ship results from eating salt meat, the potash of
which has escaped by exosmosis into the brine or pickle. The sailor
now escapes it by drinking citrate of potash in the form of lime-juice,
and by alternating salt junk with rations of tinned meats.
 I once lived for six days on bread and cheese only, tasting no
other food. I had, in company with C. M. Clayton (son of the Senator
of Delaware, who negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty), taken a
passage from Malta to Athens in a little schooner, and expecting a
three days’ journey we took no other rations than a lump of Cheshire
cheese and a supply of bread. Bad weather doubled the expected
length of our journey.
We were both young, and proud of our hardihood in bearing
privations, were staunch disciples of Diogenes; but on the last day
we succumbed, and bartered the remainder of our bread and cheese
for some of the boiled horse-beans and cabbage-broth of the
forecastle. The cheese, highly relished at first, had become positively
nauseous, and our craving for the forecastle vegetable broth was
absurd, considering the full view we had of its constituents and of
the dirtiness of its cooks.
I attribute this to the lack of potash salts in the cheese and bread.
It was similar to the craving for common salt by cattle that lack
necessary chlorides in their food. I am satisfied that cheese can
never take the place in an economic dietary, otherwise justified by
its nutritious composition, unless this deficiency of potash is
somehow supplied. My device of using it with milk as a solvent
supplies it in a simple and natural manner.
The milk is not necessary, though preferable. I find that a solution
of cheese may be made in water by simply grating or thinly slicing
the cheese, and adding it to about its own bulk of water in which the
bicarbonate of potash is dissolved.
The proportion of bicarbonate, which I theoretically estimate as
demanded for supplying the deficiency of potash, is at the rate of
about a quarter of an ounce to the pound of cheese; and I find that
it will bear this quantity without the flavour of the potash being
detected. The proportion of potash in cows’ milk is more than double
the quantity thus supplied, but I assume that the cheese loses about
half of its original supply, and base this assumption on the fact that
ordinary cheese contains an average of about 4 per cent. of saline
matter, while the proportion of saline matter to the casein and fat of
the milk amounts to 5 per cent. This is a rough practical estimate,
kept rather below the actual quantity demanded; therefore more
than the quarter ounce may be used with impunity. I have doubled it
in some of my experiments, and thus have just detected the bitter
flavour of the salt.
As regards the solubility of the cheese, I should add that there
are great differences in different samples. Generally speaking, the
newer and milder the cheese the more soluble. Some that I have
tried leave a stubbornly insoluble residuum, which is detestably
tough. I found the same cheese to be unusually indigestible when
eaten with bread in the ordinary raw state, and have reason to
believe that it is what I have called ‘bosch cheese,’ to be described
presently.
The successful solution, in either alkalised milk or alkalised water,
cools into a custard-like mass, the thickness or viscosity varying, of
course, with the quantity of solvent. It may be kept for use a short
time (from two or three days to two or three weeks, according to
the weather), after which it becomes putrescent.
As now well known to all concerned, a great deal of ‘butterine,’ or
‘oleomargarine,’ or ‘margarine,’ or ‘bosch,’ is made by extracting from
the waste fat of oxen and sheep some of its harder constituents, the
palmitic and stearic acids, then working up the softer remainder with
a little milk, or even without the milk, into a resemblance to butter.
When properly prepared and honestly sold for what it is, no fair
grounds for objection exist; but it is too commonly sold for what it is
not—i.e. as butter. For cookery purposes a fair sample of ‘bosch’ is
quite as good as ‘inferior dosset.’ I have tasted some that is scarcely
distinguishable from best Devonshire fresh.
More recently this enterprise has been further developed.
Genuine butter is made from cream skimmed from the milk. The
skimmed milk is then curdled, and to the whey thus precipitated a
sufficient quantity of bosch is added to replace the butter that has
been sent to market. A still more objectionable compound is made
by using hogs’ lard as a substitute for the natural cream. These
extraneous fats render the cheese more indigestible. The curd
precipitated from skim-milk is harder and tougher than that thrown
down from whole milk, and these added fats merely envelop the
broken fragments of this. Hence my suspicion that the cheese
leaving the above-described insoluble residuum was a sample of
‘bosch’ cheese.

Since the above was written I have met with the following in the
Times, bringing the subject up to latest date, and I take the liberty
of reprinting the larger part of this interesting and clearly-written
communication:
‘IMITATED DAIRY PRODUCTS.
‘The profitable utilisation of refuse products has
always been one of the most difficult problems which
have confronted manufacturers. Until recently the
disposal of skim-milk was one of the difficulties of the
managers of butter factories, or “creameries” as they
are termed in the United States. Similarly, the sale of
the internal fat of animals slaughtered for food, with
the exception of lard, was practically restricted to the
manufacturers of soap and candles. It was reserved to
a Frenchman, M. Mège-Mauries, to discover the first
step towards a more profitable use of these
substances. He showed that by a judicious
combination of milk and the clarified fat of animals a
substance could be produced which closely resembled
butter. So close, indeed, is the resemblance of
imitation butter to the real article that the skill of the
chemist must be invoked to render detection positive,
if the artificial butter is good of its kind. So recondite,
indeed, is the test of the chemist that it depends upon
the percentage of volatile oils in butter-fat and in caul-
fat respectively.
‘Artificial butter is the result of several processes.
The internal fat of cattle is first chopped into small
pieces, and then passed through a huge and
somewhat modified sausage-machine. The finely-
divided suet is afterwards placed in suitable vessels,
and heated up to 122° Fahr., but a higher temperature
must be avoided, otherwise a portion of the stearine,
or true tallow of the suet, becomes inextricably mixed
with the oleomargarine. It need scarcely be added that
the tallow taste would be fatal to the manufacture of a
first-class article. The melted fat is transferred to casks
and left to cool; afterwards it is put in small quantities
into coarse bags, several of which are made into a pile
with iron plates between them, and placed in a
hydraulic press. The result is the expression of the
pure oleomargarine as a clear yellow oil, the solid
stearine remaining in the bags.
‘The next step is the manufacture of this
oleomargarine into the substance which has been
designated “butterine,” and which is quoted on the
London market as “bosch.” The “oleo” is remelted at
the lowest possible temperature, mixed with a certain
proportion of milk and of butter, and then churned.
The result is the production of a material closely
resembling butter, in fact practically identical so far as
appearance is concerned. It is washed, worked, and
otherwise treated like real butter, and packed to
simulate the kinds of butter which are most in demand
on the market to which it is sent. In London all kinds
of butter are sold, and we believe that they are all
more or less imitated.
 ‘Unfortunately for the consumer of butterine, not all
that is sold, even as butter, is made with so much
regard to care and cleanliness, or with such
comparatively unobjectionable materials. The demand
for oleomargarine, which constitutes about 60 per
cent. of the mass that is churned, has naturally raised
its price, and various substitutes have been tried with
more or less success. Lard has been extensively used,
and is said to answer fairly well. Oils of various kinds
have also had their trial, but used alone their melting
point is too low. Earth-nut oil is used in small
quantities by some makers in order to impart an
agreeable flavour, especially in cases where the
artificial butter has been “weighted” by the addition of
water to the milk, or meal to an inferior oil.
‘The adaptation of M. Mège’s process to the
imitation of other dairy products is a natural sequence
to the success, in a commercial sense, which has
attended the manufacture of artificial butter. The skim-
milk difficulty in the American butter factories has set
their managers to work at the problem of its
conversion into something saleable for some time past.
This difficulty has been increased of late years by the
invention of the cream separator, which deprives the
milk of practically all its cream; but on the large dairy
farms of Denmark, where from 100 to 300 cows are
kept and these separators are used, the skim-milk is
made into skim-cheese, and the working classes in
that country do not object to eat a nutritious article of
diet which they can buy at about fourpence per pound.
But neither the American nor the English labourer, as a
general rule, likes a cheese that is at the same time
exceedingly poor in fat and excessively hard to bite.
 ‘Obviously the first step was to add fat to the skim-
milk so as to replace the cream which had been taken
off. This, however, was no easy matter, for neither
oleomargarine nor lard would mix with the skim-milk
when directly applied. The imitation cheese attempted
to be made in this way was wretchedly bad; and, when
cut, the added fatty matter was found in streaks, and
to a great extent oozed out in its original condition.
“Lard-cheese,” in fact, soon became a by-word and a
reproach, and it is stated that last year a large quantity
of poor, unsophisticated cheese was sold under that
name, and thus increased its evil reputation.
‘But the utilisation of the skim-milk still remained a
necessity to the managers of the “creameries,” if they
were to be commercially successful. The question was,
therefore, considered whether it would not be possible
to make an artificial cream which should replace the
natural cream which had been taken off the milk. This
idea was soon put to a practical test, and with most
remarkable results.
‘The process now adopted begins with the
manufacture of artificial cream as follows: A certain
quantity of skim-milk is heated to about 85° Fahr., and
one-half the quantity of either lard, oleomargarine, or
olive oil, as the case may be. These substances are
conveyed through separate pipes into an “emulsion”
machine, which subdivides both materials to a
surprising degree, while it mixes them thoroughly
together—the arrangement insuring that the machine
is regularly fed with the due proportions of the
substances which are being used. It is stated that the
artificial cream made with olive oil in this way is not
objected to in the United States for use in tea and
coffee.
 ‘For the manufacture of imitation cheese, about 4½
per cent. of this imitation cream is added to the skim-
milk. The latter being raised to 85° Fahr., and the
former to 135° Fahr. or upwards, the mixture attains a
temperature of about 90° Fahr. The remainder of the
process is identical with that used in the manufacture
of American Cheddar cheese, except that a special
mechanical agitator is used to insure that the curd
shall be evenly stirred and cooked, so as to avoid any
loss of fat in the whey. Success or failure in the
manufacture of imitation cheese seems to depend
chiefly upon the perfect emulsion of the skim-milk with
the fat in the preliminary process of making artificial
cream. That having been accomplished, the remaining
processes are said to be perfectly easy and
satisfactory. It has been asserted by competent judges
that the best descriptions of oleomargarine cheese can
with difficulty, if at all, be detected from the ordinary
American Cheddar of commerce; but the imitation
product has nevertheless a tendency to become rapidly
mouldy after having been cut.
‘The trade in imitation butter is now something
enormous and increases every year; in the Netherlands
alone there are sixty or seventy factories. Imitation
cheese is only just beginning to appear on the London
market, but there can be little doubt that before long it
will compete successfully with all but the best and
most delicate descriptions of the real article, unless it
is branded so as to show its true character. One firm
alone, in New York State, made 200,000 lbs. of
imitation cheese last year, and their factories are in full
work again this year.’
My first acquaintance with the rational cookery of cheese was in
the autumn of 1842, when I dined with the monks of St. Bernard.
Being the only guest, I was the first to be supplied with soup, and
then came a dish of grated cheese. Being young and bashful, I was
ashamed to display my ignorance by asking what I was to do with
the cheese, but made a bold dash, nevertheless, and sprinkled some
of it into my soup. I then learned that my guess was quite correct;
the prior and the monks did the same.
On walking on to Italy I learned that there such use of cheese is
universal. Minestra without Parmesan would in Italy be regarded as
we in England should regard muffins and crumpets without butter.
During the forty years that have elapsed since my first sojourn in
Italy, my sympathies are continually lacerated when I contemplate
the melancholy spectacle of human beings eating thin soup without
any grated cheese.
Not only in soups, but in many other dishes, it is similarly used.
As an example, I may name ‘Risotto à la Milanese,’ a delicious,
wholesome, and economical dish—a sort of stew composed of rice
and the giblets of fowls, usually charged about twopence to
threepence per portion at Italian restaurants. This, I suppose, is the
reason why I find no recipe for it in the ‘high-class’ cookery-books. It
is always served with grated Parmesan. The same with the many
varieties of paste, of which macaroni and vermicelli are the best
known in this country.
In all these the cheese is sprinkled over, and then stirred into the
soup, &c., while it is hot. The cheese being finely divided is fused at
once, and thus delicately cooked. This is quite different from the
‘macaroni cheese’ commonly prepared in England by depositing
macaroni in a pie-dish, then covering it with a stratum of grated
cheese, and placing this in an oven or before a fire until the cheese
is desiccated, browned, and converted into a horny, caseous form of
carbon that would induce chronic dyspepsia in the stomach of a wild
boar if he fed upon it for a week.
In all preparations of Italian pastes, risottos, purées, &c., the
cheese is intimately mixed throughout, and softened and diffused
thereby in the manner above described.
The Italians themselves imagine that only their own Parmesan
cheese is fit for this purpose, and have infected many Englishmen
with the same idea. Thus it happens that fancy prices are paid in
this country for that particular cheese, which nearly resembles the
cheese known in our midland counties as ‘skim dick’—sold there at
about fourpence per pound, or given by the farmers to their
labourers. It is cheese ‘that has sent its butter to market,’ being
made from the skim-milk which remains in the dairy after the pigs
have been fully supplied.
I have used this kind of cheese as a substitute for Parmesan, and
I find it answers the purpose, though it has not the fine flavour of
the best qualities of Parmesan. The only fault of our ordinary whole-
milk English and American cheeses is that they are too rich, and
cannot be so finely grated on account of their more unctuous
structure, due to the cream they contain.
I note that in the recipes of high-class cookery-books, where
Parmesan is prescribed, cream is commonly added. Sensible English
cooks, who use Cheshire, Cheddar, or good American cheese, are
practically including the Parmesan and the cream in natural
combination. By allowing these cheeses to dry, or by setting aside
the outer part of the cheese for the purpose, the difficulty of grating
is overcome.
I have now to communicate another result of my cheese-cooking
researches, viz. a new dish—cheese-porridge—or, I may say, a new
class of dishes—cheese-porridges. They are not intended for
epicures, who only live to eat, but for men and women who eat in
order to live and work. These combinations of cheese are more
especially fitted for those whose work is muscular, and who work in
the open air. Sedentary brain-workers should use them carefully, lest
they suffer from over-nutrition, which is but a few degrees worse
than partial starvation.
 My typical cheese-porridge is ordinary oatmeal-porridge made in
the usual manner, but to which grated cheese, or some of the
cheese solution above described, is added, either while in the
cookery-pot or after it is taken out, and yet as hot as possible. It
should be sprinkled gradually and well stirred in.
Another kind of cheese-porridge or cheese-pudding is made by
adding cheese to baked potatoes—the potatoes to be taken out of
their skins and well mashed while the grated cheese is sprinkled and
intermingled. A little milk may or may not be added, according to
taste and convenience. This is better suited for those whose
occupations are sedentary, potatoes being less nutritious and more
easily digested than oatmeal. They are chiefly composed of starch,
which is a heat-giver or fattener, while the cheese is highly
nitrogenous, and supplies the elements in which the potato is
deficient, the two together forming a fair approach to the
theoretically demanded balance of constituents.
I say baked potatoes rather than boiled, and perhaps should
explain my reasons, though in doing so I anticipate what I shall
explain more fully when on the subject of vegetable food.
Raw potatoes contain potash salts which are easily soluble in
water. I find that when the potato is boiled some of the potash
comes out into the water, and thus the vegetable is robbed of a very
valuable constituent. The baked potato contains all its original saline
constituents which, as I have already stated, are specially demanded
as an addition to cheese-food.
Hasty pudding made, as usual, of wheat flour, may be converted
from an insipid to a savoury and highly nutritious porridge by the
addition of cheese in like manner.
The same with boiled rice, whether whole or ground, also sago,
tapioca, and other forms of edible starch. Supposing whole rice is
used—and I think this is the best—the cheese may be sprinkled
among the grains of rice and well stirred or mashed up with them.
The addition of a little brown gravy to this, with or without chicken
giblets, gives us an Italian risotto. The Indian-corn stirabout of the
poor Irish cottier would be much improved both in flavour and
nutritive value by the addition of a little grated cheese.
Pease pudding is not improved by cheese. The chemistry of this
will come out when I explain the composition of peas, beans, &c.
The same applies to pea soup.
I might enumerate other methods of cooking cheese by thus
adding it in a finely-divided state to other kinds of food, but if I were
to express my own convictions on the subject I should stir up
prejudice by naming some mixtures which many people would
denounce. As an example I may refer to a dish which I invented
more than twenty years ago—viz. fish and cheese pudding, made by
taking the remains from a dish of boiled codfish, haddock, or other
white fish, mashing it with bread-crumbs, grated cheese, and
ketchup, then warming in an oven and serving after the usual
manner of scalloped fish. Any remains of oyster sauce may be
advantageously included.
I find this delicious, but others may not. I frequently add grated
cheese to boiled fish as ordinarily served, and have lately made a
fish sauce by dissolving grated cheese in milk with the aid of a little
bicarbonate of potash, and adding this to ordinary melted butter. I
suggest these cheese mixtures to others with some misgivings as
regards palatability, after learning the revelations of Darwin on the
persistence of heredity. It is quite possible that, being a compound
of the Swiss Mattieu with the Welsh Williams (cheese on both sides),
I may inherit an abnormal fondness for this staple food of the
mountaineers.
Be this as it may, so far as the mere palate is concerned; but in
the chemistry of all my advocacy of cheese and its cookery I have
full confidence. Rendered digestible by simple and suitable cookery,
and added with a little potash salt to farinaceous food of all kinds, it
affords exactly what is required to supply a theoretically complete
and a most economical dietary, without the aid of any other kind of
animal food. The potash salts may be advantageously supplied by a
liberal second course of fruit or salad.
One more of my heretical applications of grated cheese must be
specified. It is that of sprinkling it freely over ordinary stewed tripe,
which thus becomes extraordinary stewed tripe. Or a solution of
cheese may be mixed with liquor of the stew. It may not be
generally known that stewed tripe is the most easily digestible of all
solid animal food. This was shown by the experiments of Dr.
Beaumont on his patient, Alexis St. Martin, who was so obliging
(from a scientific point of view) as to discharge a gun in such a
manner that it shot away the front of his own stomach and left
there, after the healing of the wound, a valved window through
which, with the aid of a simple optical contrivance, the work of
digestion could be watched. Dr. Beaumont found that while beef and
mutton required three hours for digestion, tripe was digested in one
hour.[14]
I add by way of postscript a recipe for a dish lately invented by
my wife. It is vegetable marrow au gratin, prepared by simply boiling
the vegetable as usual, slicing it, placing the slices in a dish,
covering them with grated cheese, and then browning slightly in an
oven or before the fire, as in preparing the well-known ‘cauliflower
au gratin.’ I have modified this (with improvement, I believe) by
mashing the boiled marrow and stirring the grated cheese into the
midst of it whilst as hot as possible; or, better still, by adding a little
of the solution of cheese above described to the purée of mashed
marrow and stirring it well in while hot. To please the ladies, and
make it look pretty on the table, a little more grated cheese may be
sprinkled on the top of this and browned in the oven or with a
salamander. People with weak digestive powers should set aside the
pretty.
Turnips may be similarly treated as ‘mashed turnips au gratin.’ I
recommend this especially to my vegetarian friends, who have no
objection to cheese, but do not properly appreciate it.
 Taking as I do great interest in their efforts, regarding them as
pioneers of a great and certainly approaching reform, I have
frequently dined at their restaurants (always do so when within
reach, as I am only a flesh-eater for convenience’ sake), and by the
experience thus afforded of their cookery, am convinced that they
are losing many converts by the lack of cheese in many of their most
important dishes.
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