Semiconductor Energy Bands and Optoelectronic Devices

Optoelectronics involves the conversion between electrical energy and light energy through
semiconductors. These semiconductors are solid crystalline materials1.

Energy and Light Emission:

◦
When external voltage is applied to valence electrons, they gain sufficient energy to break
bonding with the parent atom, becoming free electrons

The valence electrons' energy levels are grouped into a valence band, while free electrons'
energy levels are grouped into a conduction band.

Free electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than valence electrons/holes in the
valence band. To recombine with holes, free electrons must lose energy as light.

The intensity of emitted light depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap between the
conduction band and valence band. A larger forbidden gap emits high-intensity light.

Material and Light Color: The material used to construct an LED determines its color, which
corresponds to the wavelength of emitted light and depends on the material's energy gap.

Photodiodes and Bandgap: The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its
properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the
material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents.

Photoresistors and Energy: If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency,

photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band, lowering resistance.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Photoelectric Devices:

In intrinsic devices, electrons are only available in the valence band, so photons must have
enough energy to excite electrons across the entire bandgap.

Extrinsic devices have impurities (dopants) added, whose ground state energy is closer to
the conduction band. Lower energy photons are sufficient to trigger the device

Energy bands and charge carriers in semiconductors

Bonding forces in solids- When atoms are brought together, they interact and form bonds
with each other. The strong bonding forces lead to stable crystal structures like the tetragonal
diamond or zinc blende lattice structure seen in most semiconductors.

Energy bands Electrons can propagate through crystals and can be described by a wave
function. The allowed values of energy can be plotted vs. the propagation constant k4. Since
the periodicity of most lattices is different in various directions, the (E, k) diagram must be
plotted for the various crystal directions.

Metals, semiconductors and insulators Typical band structures at 0 K can be empty, filled,
partially filled or have an overlap.

Direct and indirect semiconductors In an indirect transition which involves a change in k,

part of the energy is generally given up as heat to the lattice rather than as an emitted photon.
This difference between direct and indirect band structures is very important for deciding
which semiconductors can be used in devices requiring light output.
Charge Carriers in Semiconductors The electrons in a crystal interact with the periodic
potential of the lattice. As a result, their “wave–particle” motion cannot be expected to be the
same as for electrons in free space6.

Effective mass Applying the usual equations of electrodynamics to charge carriers in a solid
requires using altered values of particle mass to account for most of the influences of the
lattice, so that the electrons and holes can be treated as “almost free” carriers in most
computations.

Doping By doping, a crystal can be altered so that it has a predominance of either electrons
or holes. When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium carrier concentrations n0 and p0
are different from the intrinsic carrier concentration n i, the material is said to be extrinsic.

The Fermi level The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentrations of
electrons and holes in a semiconductor if the densities of available states in the valence and
conduction bands are known.

Electron and hole concentrations at equilibrium

To understand electron and hole concentrations at equilibrium, consider the following points:

In a solid, electrons are restricted to certain energies, resulting in a range or band of

available energies. The discrete energy levels of an isolated atom spread into bands of
energies in the solid because the wave functions of electrons in neighbouring atoms overlap.

Fermi-Dirac distribution can be used to calculate the concentrations of electrons and holes
in a semiconductor, if the densities of available states in the valence and conduction bands are
known.

A key requirement for space charge neutrality is that the sum of positive charges (holes and
ionized donor atoms) must balance the sum of the negative charges (electrons and ionized
acceptor atoms).

For a semiconductor containing both donors and acceptors, the net electron concentration in
the conduction band is n0 = p0 + (N+ d - N- a )3.

When a semiconductor is doped, one type of carrier dominates. The small number of holes in
n-type material are minority carriers and the relatively large number of conduction band
electrons are majority carriers. Similarly, electrons are the minority carriers in p-type
material, and holes are the majority carriers.

For intrinsic material, the Fermi level EF must lie at the middle of the band gap in intrinsic
material. Since f(E) is symmetrical about EF, the electron probability "tail" of f(E) extending
into the conduction band is symmetrical with the hole probability tail f(E)] in the valence
band.

The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is n0 = L ∞Ec f(E)N(E)dE where

N(E)dE is the density of states in the energy range dE.

The concentration of holes in the valence band is p0 = Nv[1 - f(Ev)] where Nv is the effective
density of states in the valence band.
For intrinsic material, EF lies at some intrinsic level Ei near the middle of the band gap, and
the intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are n = p = ni....

The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are equal (since the carriers are created in
pairs), ni = pi; thus the intrinsic concentration is ni = 2NcNv e -Eg>2kT.

n0 = nie (EF - Ei)>kT and p0 = nie (Ei - EF)>kT. The electron concentrations is ni when EF is at
the intrinsic level Ei, and that n0 increases exponentially as the Fermi level moves away from
Ei toward the conduction band. Similarly, the hole concentration p0 varies from ni to larger
values as EF moves from Ei toward the valence band.

In a pure semiconductor, there is an intrinsic concentration of electrons (or holes), ni, that
result from thermal generation–recombination between the valence and conduction band (or
bond breaking).

The number of electrons, n, is the integral with respect to energy from the bottom to the top
of the conduction band of the product of the available density of states (DOS) and the Fermi–
Dirac (FD) distribution function11. The electron concentration n can also be expressed as the
product of an effective DOS at the band edge and the FD occupancy at Ec, and similarly for
holes p11. The np product in equilibrium is constant (ni).

Temperature dependence of carrier concentrations

To understand the temperature dependence of carrier concentrations, consider the following

points:

The variation of carrier concentration with temperature is indicated by the equations n0 =

nie (EF - Ei)/kT and p0 = nie (Ei - EF) /kT. Initially, the variation of n0 and p0 with T seems relatively
straightforward in these relations. However, it's complicated by the fact that ni has a strong
temperature dependence and that EF can also vary with temperature1.

The intrinsic carrier concentration is dominated by the exponential temperature

dependence, and a plot of ln ni vs. 103/T appears linear.

ni(T) = 2(2πkT/h)3/2(mnmp)3/4 e(-Eg/2kT)

With ni and T given, the unknowns are the carrier concentrations and the Fermi level position
relative to Ei. One of these two quantities must be given if the other is to be found. If the
carrier concentration is held at a certain value, as in heavily doped extrinsic material, EF can
be obtained.

The temperature dependence of electron concentration in a doped semiconductor can be

visualized in a plot of carrier concentration versus inverse temperature.

At very low temperatures, negligible intrinsic electron-hole pairs (EHPs) exist, and the donor
electrons are bound to the donor atoms3.

As the temperature is raised, these electrons are donated to the conduction band, and at a
certain temperature all the donor atoms are ionized. This temperature range is called the
ionization region.

Once the donors are ionized, the conduction band electron concentration is approximately
equal to the donor concentration, since one electron is obtained for each donor atom.
When every available extrinsic electron has been transferred to the conduction band, n0 is
virtually constant with temperature until the concentration of intrinsic carriers ni becomes
comparable to the extrinsic concentration Nd.

At higher temperatures ni is much greater than Nd, and the intrinsic carriers dominate.

In most devices it is desirable to control the carrier concentration by doping rather than by
thermal EHP generation. Thus one usually dopes the material such that the extrinsic range
extends beyond the highest temperature at which the device is to be used.

Conductivity and mobility

Charge carriers are in constant motion, even at thermal equilibrium.

At room temperature, the thermal motion of an individual electron can be visualized as

random scattering from lattice vibrations, impurities, other electrons, and defects.

Since the scattering is random, there is no net motion of the group of n electrons/cm3 over
any period of time. However, if a large number of electrons is considered, there will be no
preferred direction of motion for the group of electrons and no net current flow.

Conductivity () is proportional to the electric field:

Conductivity () can be expressed as = qnn), where:

(q) is the magnitude of the electronic charge.

(n) is the electron concentration.

(n) is the electron mobility.

Mobility (n) describes the ease with which electrons drift in the material and is a very
important quantity in characterizing semiconductor materials and in device development.

The unit of mobility is cm2/V⋅s

Mobility is influenced by lattice scattering and impurity scattering

Lattice scattering occurs when a carrier is scattered by a vibration of the lattice. The
frequency of such scattering events increases as the temperature increases, therefore, the
mobility decreases as the sample is heated.

Impurity scattering from crystal defects such as ionized impurities becomes the dominant
mechanism at low temperatures. A slowly moving carrier is likely to be scattered more
strongly by an interaction with a charged ion than is a carrier with greater momentum,
impurity scattering events cause a decrease in mobility with decreasing temperature.

The approximate temperature dependencies are T-3/2 for lattice scattering and T3/2 for
impurity scattering.
Carrier mobility and concentration can be obtained by the Hall effect and resistivity
measurements. The mobility is simply the ratio of the Hall coefficient and the resistivity

Drift and resistance

Carrier drift occurs when holes in a semiconductor bar move as a group in the direction of
the electric field, and electrons move as a group in the opposite direction.

Both the electron and the hole components of current are in the direction of the field, since
conventional current is positive in the direction of hole flow and opposite to the direction of
electron flow.

The drift current is constant throughout the semiconductor bar.

Contacts to the semiconductor bar are ohmic, meaning they are perfect sources and sinks of
both carrier types and have no special tendency to inject or collect either electrons or holes.
•

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs):

Optoelectronics involves the conversion between electrical energy and light via
semiconductors, and an optoelectronic device is essentially an electronic device involving
light LEDs, laser diodes, photodiodes, and solar cells facilitate direct conversion between
electrons and photons

1.1 Introduction to LEDs

•
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a P-N semiconductor diode that emits light when current flows
through it. The color of light emitted depends on the energy required for electrons to cross the
band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs were first introduced as electronic components in 1962,
initially emitting low-intensity infrared (IR) light. Modern LEDs are available in visible,
ultraviolet (UV), and infrared wavelengths with high light output.

1.2 Types of Light Emitting Diodes

Different types of LEDs include: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red, Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange, Aluminum Gallium Arsenide Phosphide
(AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-red, orange, and yellow, Gallium Phosphide (GaP) –
red, yellow, and green, Aluminum Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green, Gallium Nitride (GaN)
– green, emerald green, Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green, and
blue, Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate, Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue, Aluminum
Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

1.3 Construction

The construction of an LED is similar to a normal p-n junction diode, but uses materials like
gallium, phosphorus, and arsenic6. Silicon or germanium emit energy as heat, not light, a nd
are thus not used in LEDs.

An LED consists of three layers: p-type semiconductor, n-type semiconductor, and a

depletion layer.

P-type semiconductor: Formed by adding trivalent impurities, where holes are the majority
charge carriers
N-type semiconductor: Formed by adding pentavalent impurities, where free electrons are t he
majority charge carriers.

Depletion layer: A region between the p-type and n-type semiconductors with no mobile
charge carriers, acting as a barrier to electric current.

One method to construct an LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on a substrate: n -

type, p-type, and an active region in between. When forward biased, electrons and holes are
pushed towards the active region, where they recombine and emit light.

1.4 Working Principle

LEDs work only in forward bias conditions

When forward biased, free electrons from the n-side and holes from the p-side are pushed
towards the junction. Recombination of free electrons and holes occurs in the depletion
region, reducing its width and allowing more charge carriers to cross the p-n junction.
Recombination occurs in the depletion region as well as in the p-type and n-type
semiconductors
Free electrons in the conduction band release energy as light before recombining w ith holes
in the valence band.Materials like gallium arsenide and gallium phosphide emit photons with
sufficient energy to produce intense visible light. The brightness of the emitted light depends
on the material used and the forward current. LEDs produce light due to the recombination
process, and only operate in forward bias.

1.5 I-V Characteristics of LED

Safe forward voltage ratings for most LEDs are 1V to 3V, and forward current ratings are
200mA to 100mA17.A resistor (Rs) in series with the LED is needed to prevent damage from
a sudden rise in current if the voltage exceeds 3V18. The current flowing through the LED is
mathematically written as IF = (VS - VD) / RS.

The amount of output light emitted is directly proportional to the forward current20.

1.6 Different Colored LEDs

The material used determines the color of an LED, with the wavelength of emitted light
dependent on the energy gap of the material.

Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared light

Gallium nitride LEDs emit bright blue light
Yttrium aluminum garnet LEDs emit white light
Gallium phosphide LEDs emit red, yellow, and green light
Aluminum gallium nitride LEDs emit ultraviolet light
Aluminum gallium phosphide LEDs emit green light

1.7 Advantages of LED

Brightness can be controlled by varying the current

Low energy consumption
Cheap and readily available
Lightweight and small in size
Longer lifetime and fast operation
Do not contain toxic materials
Can emit different colors of light

1.8 Disadvantages of LED

LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes
Luminous efficiency is low

1.9 Applications of LED

LEDs have various applications, including burglar alarm systems, calculators, picture phones,
traffic signals, digital computers, multimeters, microprocessors, digital watches, and
automotive heat lamps24....

Common uses include replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in
seven-segment displays in equipment like calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, and watches

1. Introduction to Lasers
A Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device that emits
coherent, monochromatic, and highly directional light through the process of stimulated
emission.

Key Characteristics of Laser Light

 Monochromatic: Single wavelength or color.

 Coherent: Waves are in phase.
 Highly Directional: Travels in a narrow beam.
 High Intensity: Concentrated energy.

2. Principle of Laser Operation

Lasers operate based on three fundamental processes:

1. Absorption: An electron absorbs a photon and moves to a higher energy level.

2. Spontaneous Emission: The electron returns to a lower level, emitting a photon
randomly.
3. Stimulated Emission: A photon interacts with an excited electron, forcing it to emit
another photon of the same phase, frequency, and direction.

Basic Components of a Laser

 Active Medium (Gain Medium): Provides the necessary atoms for lasing action
(e.g., Nd:YAG, He-Ne gas).
 Energy Source (Pump Source): Supplies energy to excite electrons (e.g., electrical
discharge, optical pumping).
  Optical Cavity (Resonator): A pair of mirrors that reflect light back and forth to
amplify it.

3. Types of Lasers
(A) Solid-State Lasers

 Nd:YAG Laser (Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet)

o Active Medium: Nd:YAG crystal (Neodymium ions in a YAG matrix).
o Pumping Source: Flashlamp or diode laser.
o Wavelength: 1064 nm (Infrared), with harmonic generation to 532 nm
(Green), 355 nm (UV).
o Applications: Laser cutting, medical treatments, military, and industrial
applications.
 Ruby Laser
o Active Medium: Cr3+ (Chromium) ions in an Al₂O₃ (Ruby) crystal.
o Pumping Source: Flashlamp.
o Wavelength: 694.3 nm (Red light).
o Applications: Holography, tattoo removal, and early research in lasers.

(B) Gas Lasers

 Helium-Neon (He-Ne) Laser

o Active Medium: He-Ne gas mixture (10:1 ratio).
o Pumping Source: Electric discharge.
o Wavelength: 632.8 nm (Red light).
o Applications: Bar code scanners, alignment, holography, educational
purposes.
 CO₂ Laser
o Active Medium: CO₂, N₂, He gas mixture.
o Pumping Source: Electric discharge.
o Wavelength: 10.6 µm (Infrared).
o Applications: Laser cutting, welding, medical treatments (skin resurfacing,
tumor removal).

(C) Semiconductor (Diode) Lasers

 Laser Diode (GaAs-based)

o Active Medium: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) or GaN.
o Pumping Source: Electrical current (p-n junction forward biasing).
o Wavelength: Varies (400 nm - 1600 nm, depending on material).
o Applications: Fiber-optic communication, laser pointers, CD/DVD players,
barcode scanners.
(D) Dye Lasers

 Organic Dye Laser

o Active Medium: Organic dye solutions (e.g., Rhodamine 6G, Coumarin).
o Pumping Source: Flashlamp or another laser.
o Wavelength: Tunable (400 nm - 1000 nm, depending on dye).
o Applications: Spectroscopy, medical applications, research.

(E) Fiber Lasers

 Erbium-Doped Fiber Laser (EDFL)

o Active Medium: Optical fiber doped with Erbium (Er3+) ions.
o Pumping Source: Diode laser or Raman pumping.
o Wavelength: 1.55 µm (near IR, optimal for fiber-optic communication).
o Applications: Telecommunications, industrial cutting, precision
machining.

4. Applications of Lasers
Field Application
Eye surgery (LASIK), dermatology, tumor removal, photodynamic
Medical
therapy
Industrial Laser cutting, welding, engraving, 3D printing
Communication Optical fiber transmission, data transfer
Defense Laser-guided weapons, rangefinders
Research Spectroscopy, holography, nuclear fusion experiments
Consumer
CD/DVD/Blu-ray players, barcode scanners
Electronics

5. Summary
 Nd:YAG lasers are widely used in medical, industrial, and military applications.
 Gas lasers like He-Ne and CO₂ are used for alignment, cutting, and spectroscopy.
 Diode lasers are common in consumer electronics and telecommunications.
 Dye and fiber lasers offer tunability and high efficiency for specialized applications.

Population Inversion:
Population inversion refers to a state where there are more carriers in a higher
energy level than in a lower one, enabling stimulated emission to dominate
absorption.
Population inversion can be achieved in the energy bands of semiconductors.
In a forward-biased p-n junction laser, population inversion can occur along the
plane of the junction where a large population of electrons and holes coexist

The minimum requirement for population inversion in a semiconductor laser for

band-to-band transitions is when the quasi-Fermi level separation (Fn - Fp) is
greater than the band gap energy (Eg) [(Fn - Fp) > Eg]

3 Level Laser

In order to excite an electron we hit the electron with a photon.

• This excited electron again emits photon when fall back to the ground
state. Then how could light amplification or extra photons is
achieved?
• We may also use other types of energy sources such as electrical
energy to excite electrons.
• In such case, a single photon will generates large number of photons.
Thus, light amplification is achieved by using population inversion
method. The system which uses three energy levels is known as 3-
level laser.
• In a 3-level laser, at least half the population of electrons must be excited to
the higher energy state to achieve population inversion.
• Therefore, the laser medium must be very strongly pumped.
• This makes 3-level lasers inefficient to produce photons or
light.
• The three level lasers are the first type of lasers discovered.

4-level Laser
Consider a group of electrons with four energy levels E1, E2, E3, E4.
E1 is the lowest energy state, E2 is the next higher energy, E3 is the next higher
energy state after E2, E4 is the next higher energy state after E3.
The number of electrons in the lower energy state or ground state is given by N1,
the number of electrons in the energy state E2 is given by N2, the number of
electrons in the energy state E3 is given by N3 and the number of electrons in the
energy state E4 is given by N4.
We assume that E1 < E2 < E3 < E4. The lifetime of electrons in the energy
state E4 and energy state E2 is very less. Therefore, electrons in these states will
only stay for very short period.
When we supply light energy which is equal to the energy difference of E4 and E1,
the electrons in the lower energy state E1 gains sufficient energy and jumps into the
higher energy state E4.
• The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E4 is very small.
• Therefore, after a short period they fall back into the next lower energy state
E3 by releasing non-radiation energy.

• The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E3 is very large as compared to

E4 and E2.
• As a result, a large number of electrons accumulate in the energy level E3.
After completion of their lifetime, the electrons in the energy state E3 will
fall back into the next lower energy state E2 by releasing energy in the form
of photons.
• Like the energy state E4, the lifetime of electrons in the energy state E2 is
also very small. Therefore, the electrons in the energy state E2 will quickly
fall into the next lower energy state or ground state E1 by releasing non-
radiation energy.
Thus, population inversion is achieved between energy states E3 and E2.

Nd:YAG lasers
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation1
.This is the fundamental principle behind all laser operation, including Nd:YAG
lasers.

Laser light has unique properties: It is highly directional, monochromatic

(meaning it consists of a very narrow range of wavelengths), and coherent
(meaning the light waves are in phase with each other). Nd:YAG lasers also
exhibit these characteristics.

Stimulated Emission is key: Laser operation relies on stimulated emission,

where an incoming photon triggers an excited atom or ion to emit an identical
photon1 . This process amplifies the light.
•
opulation Inversion is necessary: For stimulated emission to dominate absorption
and achieve light amplification, a state called population inversion must be
created in the laser medium.This means there are more atoms or ions in an excited
energy state than in a lower one.

Optical Resonant Cavity enhances amplification: Lasers use an optical

resonant cavity, typically formed by reflecting mirrors at the ends of the laser
medium . This cavity allows photons of specific wavelengths to travel back and
forth, stimulating further emission and building up the intensity of the light. These
reflecting ends are sometimes referred to as Fabry-Perot faces . One of the
mirrors is partially transmitting to allow a portion of the amplified light to exit as
the laser beam.

Nd:YAG Laser Specifics

Active Medium: The active medium in an Nd:YAG laser is a solid-state crystal

of Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) that has been doped with neodymium
(Nd³⁺) ions. These neodymium ions are responsible for the laser's light emission.

Characteristic Wavelength: Nd:YAG lasers primarily emit light at a wavelength

of 1064 nanometers (nm), which is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. They can also operate at other wavelengths through different energy
transitions or by using frequency-doubling crystals.

Pumping Mechanism: To achieve population inversion in the neodymium ions,

an external energy source is required. This process is called pumping. Common
pumping methods for Nd:YAG lasers include using flash lamps or laser diodes.

Types of Operation: Nd:YAG lasers can operate in continuous wave (CW)

mode, where they emit a continuous beam of light, or in pulsed mode, where they
emit short bursts of high-intensity light.
He-Ne Laser

Construction of He-Ne Laser

A He-Ne laser consists of the following components:

1. Active Medium (Gain Medium)

 A gas mixture of helium (He) and neon (Ne) in the ratio 10:1 is used.
 The neon atoms are responsible for lasing action.

2. Energy Source (Pumping Mechanism)

 Electric discharge (DC voltage of ~5 kV) is applied to excite the helium atoms.
 Excited helium atoms transfer energy to neon atoms through collisional excitation.

3. Optical Resonator

 Two mirrors are placed at both ends of the discharge tube.

 One mirror is fully reflective (high-reflectivity mirror).
 The other mirror is partially transparent (output coupler).
 This setup allows multiple reflections inside the cavity, amplifying the laser beam.

Working Principle of He-Ne Laser

1. Excitation of Helium Atoms:
o A high-voltage electric discharge excites helium atoms to higher energy levels.
2. Energy Transfer to Neon Atoms:
o Excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms and transfer their energy.
o This brings neon atoms to their metastable states.
3. Stimulated Emission:
o When a neon atom in the excited state encounters a photon of the correct energy,
it releases another photon of the same phase, frequency, and direction.
o This leads to stimulated emission and amplification of light.
4. Optical Cavity Action:
o The mirrors reflect the light back and forth through the medium, enhancing
amplification.
o The laser beam escapes through the partially reflective mirror, producing a
coherent output.

Semiconductor Lasers:
Semiconductor lasers differ from solid, gas, and liquid lasers in their small
size, high efficiency, and the ease with which their output can be modulated by
controlling the junction current. They typically operate at low power levels

Types of Semiconductor Lasers:

Homojunction lasers contain only one p-n junction in a single type of material.
Heterojunction lasers use multiple layers of different semiconductor materials to
achieve better efficiency and room-temperature operation. They provide carrier
confinement to a narrow region, lowering the threshold current, and optical
confinement due to changes in refractive index at the heterojunction.

Single-heterojunction lasers use one heterojunction to confine carriers.

Double-heterojunction lasers sandwich the active layer between two layers of a
wider bandgap material, providing better carrier and light confinement.
Stripe geometry in double-heterojunction lasers restricts current injection to a
narrow region.
Separate confinement lasers (e.g., GaAs-AlxGa1-xAs) optimize carrier
confinement and optical waveguiding using different heterojunctions with varying
alloy compositions and refractive indices.

Graded index separate confinement heterostructure (GRINSCH) lasers use a

graded refractive index for improved waveguiding and carrier confinement

Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) emit light perpendicular to the

surface. They use distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) as cavity mirrors and have
short cavity lengths, facilitating single-mode operation at low currents.

Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) are unipolar lasers based on inter-subband

transitions in quantum wells, allowing operation in materials that are not direct

Short wavelength emitters, such as UV/blue semiconductor lasers made with

materials like InGaN multi-quantum-well heterostructures, are important for
high-density optical storage applications like DVDs
Applications of Lasers:

Fiber-optic communications for broadband telecommunications and data

transmission

Optical storage such as CD and DVD systems for reading digital information

In conjunction with photodiodes or other photosensitive devices to transmit

information optically between locations, including analog or digital signals
As part of optoelectronic isolators, providing electrical isolation between input
and output.

Potential use as light sources in modern fiber-optic systems operating near 1.3 and
1.55 µm wavelengths.
Comparison with Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs):

Both LEDs and lasers can emit light through recombination in semiconductors.

LEDs are incoherent light sources based on spontaneous recombination of

electrons and holes.
Lasers are coherent light sources based on stimulated emission of radiation,
requiring population inversion.

Laser light is highly directional, monochromatic, and coherent, while LED

light is typically broader in spectrum and less directional.

Lasers emit light in much narrower wavelength bands than LEDs.

LEDs can be switched ON and OFF at a very fast speed (around 1 ns).

Definition and Basic Principle:

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical

current. It is also called a photo-detector or light sensor.

A photodiode has a p–n junction that converts light photons into current. The
current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.The absorbed
photons create electron–hole pairs in the depletion region. This is known as the
inner photoelectric effect. If absorption occurs in the depletion region or within one
diffusion length of it, the built-in electric field sweeps these carriers, creating a
photocurrent . Holes move to the anode, and electrons to the cathode. The total
current is the sum of the dark current (current in the absence of light) and the
photocurrent . The dark current should be minimized for maximum sensitivity.
To a first order, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the irradiance for a
given spectral distribution.

Construction:

Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes but may be exposed or

packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the
sensitive part.
Many photodiodes use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction to increase the
speed of response.
Photodiodes may contain optical filters and built-in lenses. They can have large or
small surface areas. Larger surface areas usually result in a slower response time.

Materials:

The material used is critical because only photons with sufficient energy to excite
electrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrent.

Commonly used materials include Silicon (190–1100 nm wavelength range),

Germanium (400–1700 nm), Indium gallium arsenide (800–2600 nm), Lead(II)
sulfide (<1000–3500 nm), and Mercury cadmium telluride (400–14000 nm).

Silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based photodiodes

due to their greater bandgap.

Binary materials such as MoS2 and graphene have emerged as new materials.

Working Modes:

Photovoltaic mode (zero bias): Photocurrent flows out of the anode through a
short circuit to the cathode. If the circuit is open or has a load, a voltage builds up,
forward biasing the diode (anode positive). This mode exploits the photovoltaic
effect and is the basis for solar cells (which are large area photodiodes). For
optimum power output, the cell operates at a voltage causing only a small forward
current compared to the photocurrent .

Photoconductive mode (reverse bias): The cathode is driven positive with

respect to the anode. This reduces response time by increasing the depletion layer
width, decreasing junction capacitance, and increasing the region with an electric
field for quick electron collection. Reverse bias also creates dark current without
much change in photocurrent. While faster, this mode can exhibit more electronic
noise due to dark current or avalanche effects.

Characteristics:

Photodiodes can operate in both reverse and forward biasing.

A small leakage current (dark current) flows in the reverse direction even with no
light.

The current in the diode is directly proportional to the intensity of absorbed light.

Photodiodes generally have a slower response time as their surface area increases
Compared to photomultipliers, photodiodes have:

Lower gain (typically 1)

Much lower overall sensitivity

Photon counting possible only with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes
with special electronics

Response time for many designs is slower

Latent effect

Applications

Used in consumer electronics like compact disc players, smoke detectors, medical
devices, and infrared remote control receiver.
Used for light measurement (camera light meters) and to respond to light levels
(switching on street lighting)
Used in combination with a light emitter (usually an LED) to detect mechanical
obstructions (slotted optical switch) or to couple digital or analog circuits.
Used in sensor systems to characterize products based on optical absorbance.

Used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science.

Similar applications to other photodetectors like photoconductors, charge-coupled
devices (CCD), and photomultiplier tubes.
Can generate an output dependent on illumination (analog for measurement) or
change the state of circuitry (digital for control, switching, or digital signal
processing).

Relationship with Other Devices:

The common, traditional solar cell is a large area photodiode.

If the base and collector leads of a phototransistor are used and the emitter is left
unconnected, it becomes a photodiode.
Photodiodes are less light-sensitive than phototransistors.
Photodiodes are true semiconductor devices, unlike photoresistors which do not
have a PN-junction.
Phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light but are not better at detecting
low light levels than photodiodes and have significantly longer response times