Experiment No.

-5
AIM- To identify blood group on the basis of ABO system of own blood.
REQUIREMENTS- Monoclonal Antibodies (Anti-A, B and D).
Sterile needle or blood lancet,
Spirit and cotton,
Tooth picks,
Clean microscopic glass slide.
THEORY
Blood has two main components 1) the Plasma, 2) the Blood Cells. Plasma is mainly
constituted by water, different kind of proteins and enzymes, glucose, fat particles, salts,
hormones, antibodies etc. in very low amount. Plasma constitutes about 60% of total the blood
amount. Blood cells are three types 1) RBC 2) WBC and 3) Platelets (platelets are not cell in
actual sense they are the fragments of cell named megakaryocytes). The formation of blood
cells occurs in the bone marrow of long bones by the 'stem cells' in the presence of
erythropoietin and vitamin B12. 3 basic blood cell types are as follows:
RBC
A type of blood cell which is produced in the bone marrow of long bones and released in blood
in form of erythrocytes. After 120 days they die. Spleen act as a graveyard of RBC where they
get broken down. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, a pigment which is made up by haem
and globin protein. The red color of RBC is due to the presence of haemoglobin, which carries
Oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. Determine the number of red blood cells in the
blood is usually a part of a complete blood cell (CBC) test. It is prescribed by health care
provider for conditions such as anaemia, dehydration, malnutrition, and leukemia etc.

WBC
White blood cells (leukocytes) are the cells of the immune system and provide immunity
against different kind of pathogens. They are basically two types ) granulocytes 2)
agranulocytes.

PLATELETS
They are the fragments of megakaryocyte cell which is also formed in bone marrow of long
bones of body. Basically these cells are important in platelet plug formation process.
In 1901, Karl Landsteiner (immunologist) discovered human blood groups. He worked b How
to determine blood groups and so that he opened a way for blood transfusions which Can be
carried out safely without any loss. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930 for his great
discovery and contribution. Blood transfusion was made much safer after the discovery of
blood groups.
There are various types of blood group is discovered in human being over 200 different blood
groups known till date. The most important blood groups are ABO and the RhD blood groups.
These are routinely determined before any transfusion and during pregnancy. ABO blood group
system is classified on the basis of antigens which are present on the surface on RBC, in the
Rh blood group Rh means Rhesus factor (an antigen occurring on the red blood cells )the name
is given because this factor is firstly discovered on rhesus monkey. We can classity blood
groups in 8 following groups after combining these two blood groups: A+, A-, O+, O-, B+, B
,AB+ and AB-.
Negative sign on blood group is indicated the absence of Rh Factor on the surtace of RBC,

6
while positive blood group is indicated presense of Rh factor on the surface of RBC.
PRINCIPLE
Blood groups of donor and recipient decide the success ofa blood transfusion between them.
When transfusion is required ABO and Rh blood groups determination is important for the
determination blood group. Monoclonal antibodies are available seoaretly for for A, B and Rh
antigen. Monoclonal antibody against antigen A(also called Anti-A), comes in a small bottles
with dropper in blue color; the monoclonal antibody for B antigen is comes in yellow colour.
Anti-D (monoclonal antibody against Rh) is colourless, these allcolor codes are universal
standards. If the RBCs present in sample blood in that particular sample carry the
corresponding antigen, clumps, can be observed after mixing antigen and antibody. A dropof
blood is left without adding any of the antiserum, which used as a control in the experiment.
ABO BLO0D GROUPING SYSTEM
A group: has A type of antigen on the surface of RBC and b type of antibody in their plasma.
B group: has B type of antigen on the surface of RBC and a type of antibody in their plasma.
AB group: Contain Both A and B type of antigen and neither a nor b type of antibody in their
plasma.
O group: has neither A nor B type of antigen on the surface of RBC and contain a and b type
of antibody in their plasma
NEED OF ESTIMATE BLOOD GROUP.

The test is required when blood transfusion is needed. Not all blood types are compatible to
one another, that's why it is important to know about blood group. If donor and recipient blood
group are not compatible they could trigger a dangerous immune response which red blood
cells from the donated blood will agglutinate, this can resulted into fatal consequences for the
patient. The agglutinated red blood cells can clog blood vessels and stop the circulation of the
blood to various parts of the body. The agglutinated red blood cells also venerable to break and
their contents leak outside the cel.

PROCEDURE
1. Take a microscopic glass slide and divide it into three portion label as three portion A,
B and D.
2. Prick the ring finger after wiping with spirit with the help of cotton.
3. Then take blood sample on three spots lable as A, Band D.
4. Now add on drop of an antiserum on a spot. Mix the blood and A- antiserum wie the
help of toothpick.
5. Discard the tooth pick after using in one well (take a new one for the next mixing.
6. Add a drop of B antiserum on B spot; mix the blood and B- antiserum with the her of
toothpick.
7. Add a drop of D antiserum on D spot: mix the blood and D- antiserum with the hey of
toothpick
8. Wait for 5 min and observe for presence or absence of any clumping ot agglutination.
9. Observe the result.

RESULT- The blood group of given Blood sample or own blood was found to be.
 Experimnent No.-11
AIM-To study the lymphatic system with the help of charts & models.
REQUIREMENTS- Model of lymphatic system.
THEORY
Lymph flows in a closed system of vessels called the lymphatic systems. It consist of lymph
sinuses which from lymphatic capillaries and lymph vessels. The lymph capillaries are situated
in the intercellular spaces and their walls are formed by endothelial cells, supported by fibrous
connective tissues. Lymph capillaries join to form lymph vessels. There are superficial and
deep lymphatic vessels. They are found in skin, blood vessels, muscles and various visceral
organs. Various lymph vessels are linked together by free anastomosis. There are intervening
lymphatic glands. The lymphatic vessels are provided with one- way valves which help the
forward flow of lymph towards the chest.

Adenoids
Cervical
nodes
lymph Tonsils

Thoracic duct
Lymphatic duct
enter vein
Thymus gland
Lymphatics Axillary
of the mammary lymph
glands nodes
Bone marrow
Spleen
Cisterna chyli

Lymphatics
Lumbar lymph upper limb
nodes
Peyer's
patches
Pelvic lymph
nodes

Inguinal
Smpn
Lymphatics of
the lower limb

Lymph

Lymph
vessels

Figure: Lymphatic System

Lymph:
Lymph is a clear watery fluid. The composition of lymph is almost similar to the plasma and
the interstitial fluid . Lymph is made up of the following components:

23
 Functions of Lymph:
Nutrition and oxygen is supplied to low blood pressure.
Intestinal fats are absorbed through the lymphatics.
Lymph carries protein to the blood through tissue spaces.
Formation of Lymph:Lymph is formed from the interstitial fluid due the permeability of the
lymph capillaries. When the blood passes via blood capillaries in the tissues,9/1oh of fluid
passes into venous ends of capillaries from the arterial vein. And the remaining 1/10 of the
fluid passes into lymph capillaries, which have more permeability than blood capillaries.
So, when lymph passes through lymph capillaries, the composition of the lymph is more or less
similar to that of interstitial fluid including protein content. Proteins present in the interstitial
fluid cannot enter blood capillaries because of their large size. So, these proteins enter lymph
vessels , which are permeable to large particles also.
Factor Affecting Lymph Formation:
1. Capillary pressure
2. permeability of the lymph capillaries
3. Substances affecting the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid
4. Substances directly affecting the capillary wall
5. Anoxia
6. Metabolites

Lymph Gands or Lymph Nodes:

Lymph nodes are important glandular structure which are spread at all strategic spots of the
body to filter the germ, their toxins and foreign bodies. They also give birth to lymphocytes.
They are named according to the region where they are situated as follows:
1. Cervical Lymph Nodes: They are present in the head and neck region.
They are 6 in number and specifically located deep in the neck, behind the ears and bottom
of the jaw. They drain lymph from the scalp, face, nasal cavity, and pharynx.
2. Supraclavicular Lymph Nodes:_ They are present along the collarbone or clavicle,
and sometimes may be considered as a part Ithe cervical lymph node. They drain
lymph from the collarbone and upper parts of the chest.
3. Axillary Lymph Nodes: They are present in the area of armpit and are divided into
two types, superficial and deep lymph nodes They drain lymph from arms, thorax,
breast.
4. Mediastinal Lymph Nodes: They are located in the central part of the chest, and
between the lungs. They drain lymph from the middle section of chest cavity, parts of
the upper abdomen and lungs.
5. Supratrochlear Lymph Nodes: They are located on the arms just above the elbow
joints. They drain lymph from the fingers, arms and from the superficial areas of the
forearm.
6. Mesenteric Lymph Nodes:They are present in the lower abdomen , along the small
intestine. They drain lymph from the cecum, jejunum, ileum, colon and the upper part
of rectum.
7. Inguinal Lymph Nodes: They are present in the groin area either superficially or
deeply. They drain lymph from the genital area, posterior part of the large intestine,
abdominal wall and legs.
8. Femoral Lymph Nodes:They are present in the upper thigh potion along the femoral
veins just below the inguinal lymph nodes. They drain lymph from some of the genital
parts, buttock, thighs and the medial side of the legs.

24
 9. Popliteal Lymph Nodes: They are present in the knee area known ads popliteal fossa.
There are two pair of popliteal lymph nodes present below the popliteal fascia and
some are present between the popliteal artery and on the posterior surface of the knee
joint. They drain lymph from knee, thighs, calf and feet.

subcapsular collagenous
capsule
(marginal)
sinus cortex
paracortex
medulla
high
endothelial hilus
venule
efferent
primary lymphatic
follicle artery
germinal vein
centre of medullary
secondary cords
follicle

afferent
lymphatic trabeculae

Figure: Structure of a lymph node

Lymph node is an encapsulated collection of lymphatic tissue lying on the pathways of
lymphatics at various sites. Histologically , it has : (a) Cortex, (b) Medulla and (c) Hilum.
(a) Cortex:
The cortex is the outer part of the lymph gland containing peripherally the lymphatic nodules.
In the inner zone there are germinal centers which give birth to lymphocytes. Lymph sinuses
separate the peripheral lymph nodules from the capsule.
(b) Medulla:
It is the inner part of the lymph gland devoid of lymphatic nodules. It contains RES cells ,
lymph cells and few giant cells. There are lymph cords and lymph sinuses as well in the medulla
of the lymph node.
(c) Hilum: It is the mouth of the gland which looks as a depression in the gland at one side.
Here the cortex is thin and the medulla is thick. Hilum give (1) Entry to an entry, (2) Exit to
a vein and (3) Exit to an efferent lymphatic channel , a Efferent lymphatic pierce and the gland
from circumscribed periphery . join and rejoin to drain the lymph centrally.
Functions of Lvmph nodes
º They form the first line of defense like the soldier guarding respective areas through
through the strategic points.
º They screen the lymph and thus filter and prevent microbes, toxins and foreign bodies
from spreading. The spread of cancer cells is especially prevented by lymphatic glands.
º They aid immunological responses and also manufacture gamma- globulin. They give
birth to lymphocytes and also disperse them to circulate through the trabeculae.

25
Spleen:
> Spleen is an encapsulated lymphoid structure of the size of a fist, situated to extreme
left of upper abdomen, under the diaphragm. It has a diaphragmatic and an abdominal
and an abdominal surface. The latter has a hilum through which passes the arteries veins
and lymphatic vessels. It undergoes slow and rhythmic contraction.
Structure of Spleen:
Spleen is a lymphoid organ covered with an elastic, fibrous capsule that has some muscle fibres.
The capsule fibres pass in the substance of the spleen as trabeculae and form the network with
small compartments. The substances of spleen contain:
1.Malphighian corpuscles which are spread all over the spleen. Each malphighian is a mass
of lymphoid tissue with a central blood vessel and a germinating center for the production of
Iymphocytes.
2. Splenic pulp which contains masses of macrophages and giant cells. All these are
phagocytic. These are also reticulum cells which trap the microscopic debris.
Structure of Spleen:
Diaphragmatic
Surtaco

Spleen
(cross-section)
Renal surtace

Splenic artery

oplenic
Splenic vein hilum
Marginal zone
Splenic artery (white pulp)
-Periarteriolar
Gastric lymphoid sheath
Surface (PALS) (white pulp)

Splenic vein
Primary follicle
(white pulp)

Red pulp

Figure: Structure of Spleen

Functions of spleen
1. Formation of blood -cells: (a) RBCs are formed by the spleen only in foetal life. After
birth, it creates RBCs only in severe emergency (b)Lymphocytes are produced by
Malphighian corpuscles of the spleen. (c) Spleen develops monocytes to circulate in
the blood for defence. (d) Spleen also performs platelets.
2. Store -house of Blood: Spleen is a great reservoir of blood. Blood is poured out from
the spleen in circulation at the time of stress, anoxia, haemorhage, coal gas or CO gas
poisoning etc. Adrenaline injection contracts the spleen and squeezes out the stored
blood into circulation.

3. Destruction of Blood: Old grown out RBC and WBC are destroyed by RES of the
splenic pulp. The haemoglobin liberated from the destroyed RBC is broken down to
produce bilirubin pigment which is partly oxidized is biliverdin on its way to liver via
splenic vein.

26
RESULT-Lymphatic System was studied.

27
 Experiment No.-12
AIM-To study the sense organ (eye) with the help of charts & models.
REQUIREMENTS: Model of eye.
THEORY
The human eye is not much in use as a professional tool of astronomy. On the other hand, it is
of great interest to understand how it works and by doing so we may illustrate many of the
principles and problems that we will meet later in the course.
The eye and brain work together, and the brain can correct for many of the
aberrations suffered by the eye. Thus, the brain compensates for the fact that the image on the
retina is inverted and for chromatic aberration.

RECTUSMUSCLE VEIN FROM

CHOROID

CORNEA ARTERY TO
CHOROID
VIT DUS
PUPIL. BODY
AQUEOUS
HUMOUR VISUAL
LENS AXIS
FOVEA OPTICA.
AXIS
IRIS- BLIND
SPOT

SUSPENSORY
UGAMENT OPTI
NERVE
CONJUNCTIVA RETINALARTERY
AND VEIN
4USCL
RETINA CHORÒID scLÈROrIc
Figure 1: Cross section of the human eye, illustration of the eyes receptor cells; cones, used for
color vision with the iodopsin layers arranged to the rigth, and rods with rhodopsin layers.
Light enters these cells from the left before being absorbed by either iodopsin or rhodopsin.
Light is focussed on the retina, where there are two types of receptors: rods and cones. Cones
for color reception, rods for black and white with higher sensitivity.
In the rods a pigment known as rhodopsin absorbs radiation. A protein
with a weight of some 40 000 amu, arranged in layers 20 nm thick and 500 nm wide. Under
influence of light a small fragment, a chromophore, will will split off. The chromophore is a
vitamin A derivative called retinal (or retinaldehyde) with a molecular weight of 286 amu. The
ortion left behind is a coloriess called opsin. The moment of visual excitation occurs
potial
during this break off process as the notential changes. This change in potental
can then propagate along nerve cells to the brain. The rhodopsin molecule is then (slowly)
regenerated.
The response of cones is similar, but in this case the pigment is known as iodopsin which also
contains the retinaldehyde group. Cone cells come in three varieties with different spectral
sensitivities (see figure 2).
In bright light much of the rhodopsin is broken up into opsin and retinalde - hyde, and the rod
sensitivity is much reduced so that vision is primarly provided by the cones, even though their
light sensitivity is only of order 1% of the rods.

28
The three varieties of cones combine to give color vision. At low light levels only rods are
triggered by the ambient radiation and vision is then in black and white.
Relative
Absorbance 437 nm
rod
498 nm
one
533 nm
oe
564nm

Wavelength - nm
Figure 2: Absorption curves for the various types of cones and for rhodopsin.

Upon entering the dark from a brightly lit region rhodopsin will build up over a period of
roughly 30 min, thus dark-adaptation takes this long and is based on rod cells. Somewhere
between 1-10 photons are necessary to trigger an individual rod. However, several rods must
be triggered in order to result in a pulse being sent to the brain as many rods can be connected
to a single nerve fibre. The total number of rods is of order 108, of cones 6 x 106, these must
share some 106 nerve fibres. Thus there are roughly 100 visual receptors per nerve fibre, note
that there can be many cross connections between groups of receptors. Cones are concentrated
towards the fovea centralis which is the region of most acute vision, while rods are most
plentiful towards the periphery of the field of view. Weak objects are thus most easily visible
with averted vision, ie when it is not looked at directly. In sum with all these effects the eye is
usable over a range of illuminations differing by a factor 109 1010.
The Rayleigh limit of the eye, roughly given by ND where . is the wave- length of the observed
light and D is the size of the observing aperture, is of order 20 arcsec when the iris has its
maximum diameter of 5-7 mm. However, for two separate images to be distinguished, they
must be separated by at least one unexcited receptor cell, so even on the fovea centralis
resolutin is limited in practice to between I arcmin an 2 arcmin. This is much better than
elsewhere on the retina, since the fovea centralis is populated by small, tightly packed, singly
connected cones. The average resolution of the eye lies between 5 arcmin and 10 arcmin. The
effect of granularity of the retina is countered by rapid oscillations of the eye through a few 10
arcsec with a frequency of a few Hz, so that several receptors are involved in the detection
when averaged over time. The response of the eye to changes in illumination is logarithmic; if
two sources A andB are observed to differ by a given amount, and a third source C is seen to
lie midway between them, then the energy from C will differ from A by the same factor as it
differs from B. The faintest stars visible at a good site (magnitude 6m) corresponds to a
detection of approximately 3 x 1015 w.
Sensitivity will vary between indivduals and decreases with age, the retina of a 60 year old
person will receive some 30% of the light seen by a person of 30-years. The system used by
astronomers to measure the brightness of stars is a very old one, and is based on the sensitivity
of the eye. Hipparchos' catalogue of stars divided the stars into six classes from the brightest,
of the first rank or magnitude, to the dimmest of the sixth magnitude. The present day system
is based on this after the work of Norman Pogson put the magnitude scale on a firm basis in

29
1856. Pogson suggested a logarithmic scale that approximately agreed with earlier
measurements: the difference between stars of magnitude
ml and m2 are given by
ml - m2=-2.5 log ElE2
where Eland E2 are the energies per unit area at the surface of Earth for the two stars
RESULT-Sense organ (Eye) with the help of charts and models was studied.

30
 Experiment No.-13
AIM-To study the sense organ (ears) with the help of charts & models.
REQUIREMENTS: Model of ear
THEORY:
EAR
Outer ear, middle ear, inner ear
Outer ear: Pinna - external part, Auditory canal
Middle ear: Eardrum - hard membrane, Ossicles
Inner ear: Oval window, Cochlea, Auditory nerve

The Pinna's function is to help in direction finding at high frequencies and helps funnel high
frequencies into the auditory canal. The auditory canal acts as a resonant cavity in the range
of 3,400 Hz, and causes our hearing to be more sensitive in this range.
Middle ear: Eardrum - hard membrane, Ossicles
The eardrum is a little more then 0.5 cm in diameter. Its function, along with the ossicles
(hammer, anvil, stirrup), is to convert the sound waves into mechanical vibrations. Remember
that sound is pressure waves and that pressure is force/area. The mechanical vibrations carried
through the lever action of the ossicles presses on the oval window in the cochlea. The cochlea
is very small, in part, to be able to detect very small vibrations. The middle ear enhances the
sound wave energy two ways. First, through a reduction in size of the oval window relative to
the size of the eardrum. The area of the oval window is 20-25 times smaller then the eardrum,
Second, through a level action of the ossicles, which increases the force imparted on the oval
window by 30%. The net effect is to increase the pressure up to 30 times on the much smaller
oval window of the cochlea.
Eardrum- changes pressure fluctuations into mechanical vibrations.

The ear
(a) Orientation in the head

External ear

Inner ear (b) Cochlea

Tympanic Facial
membrane Auditory
herve Auditory nerve

nerve

Cochlea
Eustachian
Earcanal Ossicles
tube
Round
window

Ossicles - transfer these vibrations to the oval window of the cochlea. hammer, anvil and
Stirrup
31
THE FUNCTION OF THE INNER EAR
Cochlea - tapered, coiled tube, snail shaped, size of a pea! Stretched out it would be about 3
cm long. The cochlea is a very complex, very small device that converts the mechanical
vibrations into neural impulses.
HOW THE COCHLEA WORKS
Two tubes connected at the end of the cochlea (scala vestubuli and scala timpani) are filled
with fluid called perilymph. Vibrations pass from the oval window to the round window. When
the oval window pushes in the round window pushes out and visa-versa. The basilar membrane
and related structures (cochlear duct, organ of corti), vary along the channel from thin and stiff
to thick and loose. The cochlear duct is filled with viscous fluid called endolymph that is like
spinal fluid. This causes the cochlear duct to be acoustically inactive. The vibrations of the
basilar membrane primarily determine what we hear. The organ of cortirides along as the
basilar membrane vibrates and senses its motion. High frequencies tend to vibrate the front end
of the basilar membrane and low frequencies vibrate the back end.
Hair cells (approx. 24,000) sense the vibration of the basilar membrane and excite nerve cells
that send nerve impulses down the individual fibers of the auditory nerve. The nerve cells fire
more frequently when the vibrations are large amplitude. In fact, the hairs themselves vibrate
when stimulated causing a positive feedback mechanism (this is a fairly recent research result).
The location of the vibrations and the associated nerve impulses crudely determines the
frequency of the sound. The auditory cortex in the brain does much more "signal processing."
helping us to better distinguish musical sounds.
RESULT-Sense organ (Ear) with the help of charts and models was studied.

32
 Experiment No.-14
AIM-To study the sense organ (Skin) with the help of charts & models.
REQUIREMENTS- Model of skin

THEORY
The first, topmost, or superficial, layer of the skin the sun's rays hit is called the epidermis.
Again, the epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. The epidermis is itself made up of
several layers. From outer to innermost, they are the:
OStratum corneum
DStratum lucidum
DStratum granulosum
OStratum spinosum
OStratum basale

rneurn Sweat duct Hair shatt

Sebaceous gland
Nerve fibres
Epidermis
inulosum.

nosum
Dermis

ale

(subcutaneous
tissue)
irculation
Hypodermis

a i v falliela

Do note, however, that the stratum lucidum is typically only found in places like the soles of
your feet or the palms of your hand. Regardless, it's pretty easy to remember the exact order of
the layers of the epidermis. Since we're on the topic of possible sunburns, the coolest mnemonic
to remember the layers of the epidermis from top to bottom, or superficial to
deepest, is:
Come, Let's Get Sun Burn'.

33
Each word's first letter represents the first letter of each layer. In case you were wondering,the
epidermis is actually the layer of skin that is primarily affected in most cases of sunburn and
begins to peel off if damaged by the light's dangerous UV rays.
Types of Skin Cells
However, your skin isn't a weakling, and does have a defense mechanism that tries to fight off
dangerous ultraviolet rays found in sunlight. In the deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum
basale, which is also sometimes called the basal layer, are cells called melanocytes. These are
cells that produce the pigment me lanin. It is this substance, melanin, which determines the skin
color of an individual. Those with larger amounts of melanin in their skin have darker skin, or
their skin darkens with more exposure to sunlight.
Melanocytes in the basal layer of the epidermis produce the pigment melanin Basically, as the
sunlight hits your skin, the light rays stimulate the production of melanin by melanocytes. Since
the majority of melanin is called eumelanin, which is a brownish black color, your skin begins
to darken as more melanin is produced. Keep in mind that this melanin isn't produced to give
you a nice tan for aesthetic reasons, but instead, helps protect you from cancer-causing
ultraviolet radiation found in the sunlight that is baking and peeling your skin off at the beach.
At least the pale vampires who come out after twilight don't have to worry about this. Pale
vampires aside, your epidermis has other cells that are quite important. One of these cells are
called keratinocytes. Keratinocytes are cells that eventually die in order to comprise the
majority of the stratum corneum. The keratinocytes actually originate in the stratum basale, but
as they mature and age, they move from the deepest to the most superficial layer of the
epidermis. Once the really old keratinocytes reach the stratum coneum they are known as
'corneocytes'. The coneocytes are basically the cells that are shed off your skin and become
part of the dust floating around you. Disgusting, isn't it? When you inhale dust, you also inhale
dead human skin cells. As yucky as that might sound, the keratinocytes do play a lot of
important roles. One of these roles actually involves the melanin produced by melanocytes.
The keratinocytes take up and store some of the melanin produced by the melanocytes, and this
gives your skin an extra layer of protection from the damaging ultraviolet radiation of the sun's
light rays. Keratinocytes store melanin, giving skin an extra layer of protection from UV rays
In addition to housing young keratinocytes and melanocytes, the basal layer of your skin also
contains other cells, such as Merkel cells, which are cells that are important in the sensation
of touch. With all of that in mind, Ido have an important point to make. The topmost layer of
your skin we are going over, the epidermis, is made up of something called 'squamous' cells,
which are basically a bunch of really flat cells. Bearing those squamous cells in mind, the 'basal'
layer of the epidermis where the Merkel' cells and 'me lanocytes' are located, it should come as
absolutely no shocker that:
DSquamous cell carcinoma
OBasal cell carcinoma
OMerkel cell carcinoma
OMelanoma
are just some of the types of skin cancer you can get due to overexposure to damaging
ultraviolet radiation from the sun's light rays. The next time you're frying at the beach,
remember, your tan may be pretty, but skin cancer looks really nasty.
RESULT-Sense organ (Skin) with the help of charts and models was studied.

34