UNIT 5:- METALS & NON-METALS

Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of human kind like sunlight, land, fossil fuels (crude oil, coal,
and natural gas), crops, water and air.
1) Renewable (Inexhaustible) resources
 Can be replenished (recovered) by natural processes & renewed at the same rate at which they are used
 are abundant in nature & environmentally friend i.e do not release toxic materials to atmosphere.
 Plants or forest ,plant materials or biomass or biofuels, fire wood, animals, soil, air and water
2) Non-renewable (Exhaustible) resources
 Cannot be replenished (recovered) by natural processes.
 They may be completely used up within a short period of time.
 are found in a fixed (small) amount in nature
 are not environment friendly as they release SO2, CH4 and other toxic gases while burning
 Rocks, natural gas, coal, petroleum, fossil fuels, nuclear energy, metallic and non-metallic minerals or ores.
Metallic minerals:-contain one or more metallic elements & occur in rare, naturally formed concentrations are mineral
deposits. Ex:-Haematite, bauxite, zinc blende, & malachite.
Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. Ex:-Diamond, gravel, and mica
The principal source of both minerals is planet Earth. They can also be found in seawater.
The majority of them are extracted from their minerals.
Some non-metallic elements, such as oxygen and nitrogen, are found in the atmosphere.


5.2.1 Properties and Extraction of Metals: - About 80 % of the known elements are metals.
A) Some physical properties of metals
 They have a shining appearance (lustrous) and can be polished. Au is shining yellow and Cu is brown. Fe, Al, Zn & Ag are
lustrous grey or silvery.
 They are malleable, (can be beaten into thin sheets). Al foils, used to wrap cigarettes, medicines, etc., Au & Ag ornaments
of different designs, are due to the malleability.
 They are ductile (can be drawn into wires). Ex: - Cu, Au, Fe and Ag are ductile.
 They are hard and have tensile strength ,high density except Li, K & Na
 They are usually sonorous-produce metallic sound when struck (e.g. school bell
B) Chemical properties of metals
Possess positive valency and have a tendency to lose electrons,
Have 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons.
oxidized by losing electrons and act as reducing agents
mostly form basic oxides and some amphoteric oxides
Form chlorides that are true salts and electrovalent.
They form hydrides which are ionic, unstable and reactive.
Except Cu, Ag & Au they replace H from dilute non-oxidizing acids like HCl and H2 SO4.

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C) Reactivity (Activity) series of metals: - is arrangement of metals in decreasing order of their activity.
 A less reactive metal (low in reactivity series) can be displaced from its compound or from its salt solution by a more
reactive metal (high in reactivity series). Thus, potassium can displace all the metals from their salt solution
 Metals at top of reactivity series are strong RAs. Metals at bottom of reactivity series are weak RAs. Hence, K is the
strongest RA whereas Au is the weakest RA in the above reactivity series.

D. Natural occurrence and extraction of metals

Noble metals Ag, Au, Bi, Cu, Pd, Pt exist in nature as uncombined or free State. More active metals like alkali and alkaline
earth metals exist in combined state (compounds) in form of carbonates, halides, oxides, phosphates, silicates, sulphides and
sulphates.
 The constituents of earth’s crust w/c contain these metals or their compounds are called minerals.
Ex: - Na → halite (NaCl), K→ sylvite (KCl), Mg→ magnesite (MgCO3), Ca→ lime stone (CaCO3).
Minerals containing high % of particular metals and from w/c it profitably extracted are called ores.
They contain a lot of impurities in form of sand and other undesirable materials called gangue.
Metallurgy: - science and technology of extracting metals from their ores and of compounding alloys.
The three principal steps in the extraction of a metal from its ore are
1) preparation (concentration) of the ore , example : oil floatation, magnetic separation
2) Production of the metal. Example: roasting, calcination, and
3) purification of the metal ( last step), example: chemical reduction, electrolytic reduction

General metallurgical processes of metals

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 The most active metals such as K, Na, Ca. Mg are extracted from their compounds only by electrolysis because there is no
economic reducing agent that can reduce them from their compounds. It is only using electricity (electrolysis) that these
metals are extracted or reduced
5.2.2 Alloys: - are mixtures of two or more metals or metals and nonmetals when molten and do not separate when solidified.
The constituent elements are melted together and then allowed to cool to form a solid material called alloy.
Alloying of metals
 Increases hardness and strength, modify color, decrease melting point, decreases electrical conductivity, stop or make
difficult sliding of layers over one another and increase resistance to corrosion of metals. Examples
 Amalgam = Hg and another metal, Gun metal = Cu (87 %), Sn (10 %) and Zn (3 %).
 Solder (fuse metal) = 67 % Sn and 33 % Pb. used to join wires and electrical resistances, etc.
 Gold alloys: Gold is a very soft metal and therefore hardened by alloying it with Cu and Ag. The quantity of gold in an
alloy is called its gold content & expressed either in carats or as mass percent. A carat is equal to the mass unit of gold in
24 mass units of the alloy. Thus, 24 carat represents pure gold. It doesn’t contain any other metal.
 High purity of metals is not always required, because pure metals possess undesirable properties for most practical
applications. Example: - iron deteriorates by corrosion. Therefore, iron is generally more useful when it is alloyed or
coated with other metals.
 To make alloys, metals are melted together to form a molten solution, and the solution is cooled to the solid state. The
resulting alloy possesses the same general characteristics as the parent metals. However, because the alloy is a mixture in
the form of solid solutions, it is stronger than its parent metals.
5.2.3 Production of Aluminum, Iron and Copper
A) Aluminum
 3rd abundant after oxygen and silicon & Accounts 8%
 2nd In terms of consumption after iron & does not occur in uncombined or free state in nature.
 Exist in form of bauxite (Al2O3 .2H2O), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), cryolite (Na3AlF6), corundum (Al2O3), beryl (Be3Al2Si6O8)
and china clay (Al2Si2O7 .2H2O).
Industrially, Al is extracted from bauxite by Hall process following the following steps:-
1) Grinding and crushing ore to powdered form to increase surface area
2) Purification of ore, from impurities (SiO2, iron oxide, and titanium (IV) oxide) by heating powdered ore with 30% NaOH
aqueous solution to convert silica to soluble silicate.
SiO2 (s) Insoluble + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3 (aq) soluble + H2O (l)
Al2O3 (s) Insoluble + 2NaOH (aq) → NaAlO2 (aq) soluble + H2O (l)
The impurities like iron oxides and titanium (IV) oxide remain unaffected by base and are filtered off. Why they are not
affected?
3) Treating solution with acid to precipitate Al(OH)3. AlO2– (aq) + H3O+ (aq) → Al(OH)3(s)
4) Collect Al (OH)3 by filtration then washing, drying, and heating strongly in a furnace to get Al2O3 .
2Al (OH)3 (s) Heat Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O (g) to remove water by dehydration or evaporation

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5) Pure Al2O3 is mixed with some cryolite & melted. Cryolite is added to reduce its melting point from 2045oC to 1000oC &
provides a good conducting medium or to enhance electrical conductivity for electrolysis process.
6) Electrolyzing molten mixture to obtain pure Al in electrolytic cell, having graphite electrodes as both anode and cathode.

Note that under the prevailing conditions in electrolytic cell, anode (graphite electrode) will gradually oxidize to CO2 and
must be replaced regularly.
Molten aluminum is siphoned or drawn from the bottom of electrolytic cell.
We do not use reducing agents for reduction of aluminum from aluminum oxide; why do you think?
Physical Properties of Aluminum: - is a soft silvery-white and light metal having a density of 2.7 g/cm3. It melts at 660°C. It
can be shaped into wires, rolled, pressed or cast into different shapes. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Chemical Properties: Aluminum is a reactive metal, & its reactions are not vigorous in comparison with Na, K, Ca and other
metals of G IA and IIA. It undergoes the following reactions:
1) 4Al (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Al2O3 (s) forming a thin film of aluminum oxide on its surface which inhibits further reaction with
oxygen. It can be removed by rubbing with Hg or HgCl2 solution.
2) 2Al (s) + N2 (g) → 2AlN (s) Burning reaction
3) 2Al (s) + dil 3H2SO4 (aq) →Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2(g) & 2Al (s) + dil 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3 (s) +3H2 (g)
 It does not react with dilute or concentrated HNO3 due to formation of a protective oxide layer on its surface. Therefore,
materials made of Al may be used to transport HNO3
4) 2Al (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3(s) Burning reaction
5) 2Al (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 6H2O (l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Uses of Aluminum
 Manufacture of light alloys, like duralumin (Al, Cu, and Mg), Magnalium (Al + Mg) , Aluminium bronze (Al + Cu)
because it is lightweight & resistant to corrosion forming a protective oxide layer.
 Its alloy widely used in transportation industry to make airplanes, ships, and automobiles due to its lightness and strength.
 Manufacture household cook wares (utensils) due to high thermal conductivity &corrosion resistance.
 Manufacture of door and window frames and building roofs.
 As packaging material in food industry, and for power transmission lines or electric cables due to it is light, ductile and
corrosion resistance.
 Used in thermite (mixture of powdered Al and iron oxide) welding process which is useful in welding rails, propeller
shaft and other steel parts of machinery that are difficult to repair by any other method.
Al is more reactive than Fe, & displaces Fe from iron oxide. In the process, powdered Al when mixed with Fe2O3 and
ignited, produces a temperature of about 3000°C. This temperature is quite sufficient for welding metals.
2Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Iron oxide → 2Fe (l) + Al2O3 (s) Aluminum oxide
 to insulate (Al anodization) other metals from like Chromium :Al(s) + Cr2O3 → 2 Cr (l) + Al2O3 (s)

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 Anode – Aluminium, cathode –chromium and electrolyte –Chromic acid
 also steel where anode is Al, cathode is steel and electrolyte is dilute H2SO4
 Aluminium anodization is coating a thin layer of oxide on it which resist attack for corrosive acidic or alkaline agents
B) Iron:-Cheapest and highly reactive metal
 2nd of metals & 4th of elements. It accounts 4.7% of weight of earth
 Never found free in nature & exists only in form of compounds like oxides hematite ((Fe2O3), limonite (Fe2O3 .H2O),
magnetite (Fe3O4), carbonates (siderite (FeCO3)) and sulphides (iron pyrites (FeS2)) commonly called fool’s gold. Why?
Extraction of Pig iron (Impure iron) in a blast furnace
The raw materials are iron ore, coke (C) from coal & used as RA, limestone (CaCO3) used to remove impurities and hot air.
The furnace is charged with a mixture of iron ore, limestone and coke at the top and a blast of hot air is blown at the bottom.
The reactions taking place in the blast furnace are:-
1) Oxidation of coke to CO2: C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + Heat ,near bottom at 20000C
2) Reduction of CO2 to CO: CO2 (g) + C (s) → 2CO (g)
3) Reduction of iron oxides to metallic iron by CO ( from Oxidation number 3→2.7→2→0)
3Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) → 2Fe3O4 (s) + CO2 (g)
Fe3O4 (s) + CO (g) → 3FeO (s) + CO2 (g) , FeO (s) + CO (g) → Fe (l) (Pig iron) + CO2 (g)
4) Decomposition of limestone by heat which serves as a flux to remove impurities during smelting process
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
5) Calcium oxide (CaO) removes impurities like sand or silica (SiO2 ) to form calcium silicate
CaO (Lime) (flux) + SiO2 sand (impurity) → CaSiO3 calcium silicate (Slag) glass-like material
 Molten slag is lighter than molten metal & floats over molten metal and thus the two can be easily separated. The slag is
used mostly for the manufacture of cement.
The iron obtained directly from blast furnace is called pig iron (Impure iron) (Crude Iron)
 Contains 92% Fe, very high carbon content (3.5 - 4.5 %.), 2 % Si, up to 1% P and Mn, and traces S.
 Hard & very brittle because of impurities or high carbon content.
 Intermediate product of iron industry in the production of steel.
 Not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.
Conversion of Pig Iron to other form of Iron
Original sub Process Obtained substance
Pig iron re-melting with scrap (small piece) iron and casting Cast iron.
in to moulds
Pig iron Heating with hematite and limestone in furnace to Wrought iron
remove impurities and increase purity  Purest form of commercial iron) 99.5% Fe.
 Tough, malleable and ductile
Pig iron Purification by oxidation in furnace at high Steel
temperatures (It involves 3 distinctive techniques)

1) The Bessemer converter: molten pig iron from blast furnace is transferred to a cylindrical vessel containing a refractory
lining of MgCO3 and CaCO3. A blast of hot air is blown through molten metal from set of small holes at bottom of vessel.

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 Conversion requires only 15 minutes, the reaction is difficult to control and quality of steel produced can be quite variable.

2) The Open-hearth Furnace: It has a large, shallow hearth, w/c is usually lined with basic oxide refractory (MgO and CaO).
 The furnace is charged with a mixture of pig iron, Fe2O3 , scrap iron and limestone. A blast of hot air and burning fuel is
directed over the surface of the charge to maintain it in the molten state. Pig iron bubble out of the mixture as waste gases.
The impurities in pig iron are oxidized in the following way:
C + O2 → CO2, (waste gas) S + O2 → SO2 (waste gas)
12P + 10Fe2O3 → 3P4O10 + 20Fe 3Si + 2Fe2O3 → 3SiO2 + 4Fe
P4O10 + 6CaO → 2Ca3(PO4 )2 (slage) & SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3 (slage)
 Entire process takes 8 to 10 hours to complete
 Quality of the steel is much more easily controlled.
 A calculated amount of various elements can be added to steel to form steel alloys with desired properties

3) Basic Oxygen Process: Expensive & replaced open hearth, because of its high speed. It involves forcing a mixture of
powdered calcium oxide, CaO, and oxygen gas directly into the surface of the molten pig iron. The oxygen reacts
exothermically with carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus and impurity metals. Carbon and sulphur are oxidized to CO2 and
SO2, respectively, and are released as exhaust gases.
 SiO2, P4O10 and impurity metals combine with lime (CaO), forming slag.
 The charge in the converter is maintained in the molten state by the energy released in these oxidation reactions. The
converter is tilted to remove the slag. After a second blow of oxygen, the converter is tilted once again and the molten steel
is poured out. This process takes only about 20 to 25 minutes

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Tempering of steel is a process by which steel is conditioned to a desired hardness by heating and controlled rate of cooling.
Some of the carbon, in steel is present as a compound called cementite (FeC3 ). It reduces the hardness of steel. Cementite can
be removed by tempering which is difficult to remove by the above methods.
Physical Properties of Iron
 Is a grey, lustrous, malleable, ductile, good conductor of heat and electricity
 It has a high melting point (1580°C) and a high density (7.87 g/cm3 ).
 Iron is a ferromagnetic metal, which means it can be permanently magnetized.
Chemical Properties of Iron is a reactive metal. Its reactivity is very slow, compared to group IA and IIA metals.
1) It rusts in presence of air and moisture to form hydrated iron (III) oxide which is reddish thin film on the surface of an iron.
4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) Moisture 2Fe2O3 .xH2O(s) (rust)
2) Fe (s) + dilute 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) & Fe (s) + dilute H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
3) Heated Fe (s) + 2HCl (g) → FeCl2 (g) iron (II) chloride + H2 (g)
4) Heated 2Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2FeCl3 (s) & Heated Fe (s) + S (s) → FeS (s)
Iron exhibits different oxidation states commonly ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe+3) ions. Aqueous solutions of iron (II)
compounds are pale-green and solutions of iron (III) compounds are yellowish brown.
4Fe (OH)2 (s) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4Fe(OH)3 (s):oxidation on exposure to air
5) Fe (s) + Cu2+ (CuSO4 (aq) → Fe2+ (aq) (FeSO4) + Cu (s) reddish brown deposit on surface of iron
Uses of Iron: - most widely used metal and takes first position in worldwide consumption.
 As structural metal in construction of buildings and bridges.
 Pig iron to make domestic boilers, hot-water radiators, railings, water pipes, castings, & moldings.
 Wrought iron, in making nails, sheets, horseshoes, ornamental gates, door knockers, farm machinery
 Iron is also used in the manufacture of alloys such as carbon steels and alloy steels.
Table 5.1 Types and uses of carbon steels

Alloy Steel: contains iron and a relatively higher percentage of other metals. For example, stainless steel contains chromium
(14 –18%) and nickel (7 – 9%). Tool steels include tungsten steel and manganese steel. These metals give the alloy hardness,
toughness and heat resistance. They are used in rock drills, cutting edges &parts of machinery that are subjected to heavy wear.
C) Copper: - occasionally found as native Cu & mainly in compounds as sulphides, oxides & carbonates.
Examples: - chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S), covellite (CuS) , bornite (Cu5FeS4, cuprite (Cu2O), tenorite (CuO),
malachite (CuCO3 .Cu(OH)2).
Copper is principally extracted from chalcopyrite which contain very small amount of copper

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1) Crushing and grounding ore to increase surface area for further process
2) Concentrating by froth flotation to increase concentration copper in ore from 2 % Cu to 30% Cu.
3) Roasting concentrated ore with a limited supply of air (oxygen) to remove volatile impurities and convert sulphide ore to
oxide : 2CuFeS2 (s) + 4O2 (g) → Cu2S (s) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2 (g)
4) Smelting roasted mixture by adding CaCO3 and sand to form a molten slag that removes impurities like silica (SiO2) and
FeO in the form of slag
CaCO3(s) (flux) w/c remove impurities) + SiO2 (s) →CaSiO3 (l) +CO2 (g) & FeO (s) + SiO2 (s) →FeSiO3 (l)
5) Reduction of Cu2S obtained from roasting by heating it in a limited supply of oxygen.
Cu2S (s) + O2 (g) → 2Cu (l) + SO2 (g) copper produced by this process is Blister copper (98.5 - 99.5 % purity & contains
Fe, Ag, Au and sometimes Zn as impurities.
6) Electrolytic refining or purification of Blister copper
Anode: A thick block of impure copper & Cathode: A thin strip of pure copper
Electrolyte: An aqueous solution of CuSO4, small quantity of dil.H2SO4 is also added to salt solution to prevent hydrolysis
Oxidation: - Cu (impure metal) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e
Reduction: - Cu2+ (aq) from solution + 2e → Cu (metal) w/c is deposited as metallic copper on cathode
The process of oxidation and reduction continues as long as current is passed & cathode becomes thicker and anode becomes
thinner. Pure Cu deposited at cathode is periodically removed and used. Cu obtained by electrolytic refining is 99.99% pure.
Physical Properties of Cu: - Is a soft, ductile, malleable, & reddish-brown with a density of 8.96 g /cm3. It is second to silver
in electrical conductivity. It melts at 1086°C and boils at 2310°C.
Chemical Properties of Cu: - is less reactive metal that is why it is found in native state. Although it is not very reactive, it
undergoes the following reactions:
1) Powdered 2Cu (s) + O2 (g) → 2CuO (s) black powder
2) Cu does not react with dilute HCl and H2SO4.But, it can be oxidized by oxidizing acids

3) Undergoes oxidation or corrosion by mixture of H2O, O2 and CO2 over a long period of time
2Cu (s) + H2O (l) + O2 (g) + CO2 (g) → CuCO3.Cu (OH)2 or Cu2 (OH)2 CO3 green verdigris or corroded copper which is
basic copper carbonate is responsible for the green layer that forms on the surface of copper and bronze objects.
4) Cu exhibits oxidation states of cuprous (Cu+) and cupric (Cu2+) ions. Compounds containing Cu1+ are unstable and cannot
exist in aqueous solution & it reduces and oxidizes (disproportionate) itself.
2Cu+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) (stable) + Cu (s)
 Soluble compounds containing Cu+, like CuCl, CuI and CuBr, are colourless solids.
 Aqueous solutions of many Cu (II) cpds are blue, thus Cu forms coloured Cpds in Ox. state of +2.
Ex: - CuSO4 .5H2 O, consists of blue crystals, and its aqueous solution is also blue.

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Uses of Copper
Manufacture alloys. Bronze (Cu & Sn), Brass (Cu & Zn) used for hardware tops, terminals and pipes.
Manufacturing of coins, medals, bells, machinery parts, etc
Widely used in the electrical industry in the form of electric wires, cables etc.
Copper compounds, such as CuCl2, CuCO3 and Cu (OH)2, are used as pesticides.
5.3 General Properties, Production & Common Uses some Important Nonmetals

Physical properties non-metals Chemical properties of non-metals

 Solids, liquids, gases  react with O2on heating or burning to form acidic or
 Non-lustrous neutral oxides
 Nonmalleable and non-ductile  Do not displace hydrogen on reaction with dilute acids
 Varying hardness and have low density  Combine with hydrogen to form stable hydrides
 Low melting and boiling points  Do not react with water
 do not show any metallic luster  They are more electronegative i.e form negative ions
 are soft in comparison to metals by gaining electrons
 are non-sonorous  They are good Oxidizing agents and undergoes
 Poor conductors of heat and electricity except graphite reduction
A. Nitrogen: - occurs in elemental state as diatomic molecule, N2 accounting 80% by volume in atmospheric air &
compounds like sodium nitrate (Chile salt peter, NaNO3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3) also called saltpetre. It is also
found in DNA molecules and proteins of all living things.
Industrial production of nitrogen follows the following steps
1) Remove impurities like dust and other particles from air.
2) Compressing the air under high P & low T to remove CO 2 and H2O vapor since they solidify at a relatively high
temperature compared to N2 and O2.
3) Continuously decreasing T condenses the air containing mainly N2 &O2 to give a pale-blue liquid.
4) Separating N2 by fractional distillation of liquid air, collecting and storing in steel cylinders under pressure.
The 2nd fraction consists of argon, which distills off the mixture at –186°C, leaving behind a blue liquid of oxygen that
boils at –183°C.
Laboratory preparation of N2, NH4Cl (aq) + NaNO2 (aq) Warming NaCl (aq) + N2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Physical Properties of Nitrogen
 Under ordinary conditions is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It boils at 77 K & freezes at 63 K.
 It is inert under ordinary conditions, and that is why it is found in atmospheric air as N2.
 Inertness of N2 at low Ts is directly related to strength bond, which requires high energy to break.
Chemical Properties of Nitrogen: - reacts with metals of G IA and IIA & O2 at higher temperatures.
1) When heated reactive metals it forms compounds, known as nitrides. The reaction is reduction it.
6Li (s) + N2 (g) → 2Li3N (s), 3Ca (s) + N2 (g) → Ca3N2 (s), 3Mg (s) + N2 (g) → Mg3N2 (s)
2) Combines with O2 at elevated temperatures or in an electric arc to form oxides.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g) & N2 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
 Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide), NO, is a colorless and reactive gas.

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 It forms nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a reddish brown gas, when it comes into contact with O2 which in turn dimerizes at low
temperatures to give a colorless gas of N2O4 .2NO2 (g) → N2O4 (g)
 Nitrogen also forms oxides, N2O, (laughing gas), N2O3 and N2O5.
3) Nitrogen reacts directly with hydrogen in Haber process to form ammonia.

Ammonia primarily used in manufacture of fertilizers & production of nitric acid (HNO3).
Uses of Nitrogen
 Used in food packaging to prevent oxidation.
 To create an inert atmosphere in production of semiconductors.
 Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant to preserve bulls’ semen and blood.
 Its major use is in the production of ammonia.
B. Phosphorus: - is a relatively abundant element, ranking 12th in earth’s crust.
 It exists naturally only in combined state, such as in rock phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2 , fluoroapatite, Ca10(PO4) 6F2 or 3Ca3(PO4) 2
.CaF2 . It is also found in teeth, bones and DNA.
Allotropes are different forms of same element with same physical state but with different physical properties. This is due to
the difference in the arrangement of atoms. The two common allotropic forms of phosphorus are white &red phosphorus.
Physical Properties of Phosphorus
White phosphorus Red phosphorus
 is a very or extremely poisonous  much less reactive at normal temperatures
 White waxy solid substance melts at 44.1°C and  Relatively non-toxic compared to white form.
boils at 287°C. Its density is 1.8 g/cm3.  It consists of P4 molecules linked together to form a polymer
 Glows in the dark (large molecule).
 It consists of individual tetra atomic (P4) molecules  Dark red powder & Doesn’t glow in the dark
 is an unstable form of phosphorus  less denser (2.16 g/cm3 ) & Sublimes at 416oC
 Industrially Manufactured 2Ca3 (PO4)2(s) + 6SiO2  Prepared by heating white phosphorus in sunlight for several
(s) + 10C (s) → 6CaSiO3 (l) + P4 (g) + 10CO (g) days.
in an electric furnace  Much less reactive and does not need to be stored under water.
 Stored under H2O because it spontaneously ignites  insoluble in water, & very soluble in CS2
(bursts into flames) in the presence of O2.
 Its solution in CS2 is reasonably stable or soluble.
As soon as CS2 evaporates, however, the
phosphorous bursts in to flame.
Chemical Properties of Phosphorus
1) P4 (s) + 3O2 (g) (limited amount) → P4O6 (s) & P4(s) + 5O2 (g) (excess amount) → P4O10(s)
P4O6 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO3 (aq) (Phosphorous acid)
P4O10 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO4 (aq) (Ortho-phosphoric acid)
2) P4 (s) + 6Cl2 (g) (limited amount) → 4PCl3 (s) & P4 (s) + 10Cl2 (g) (excess amount) → 4PCl5 (s)
Uses of Phosphorus
 Red phosphorous is used to make matches.

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 Most of white phosphorous produced is used to make H3PO4 or other phosphorous compounds.
 Used in making fireworks, smoke bombs, rat-poisons, and tracer bullets.
 Essential for plant growth.
 Large quantities of its compounds are converted into acids and salts to be used as fertilizers, in baking powder in the
chemical industries.
C) Oxygen: - is most abundant element on earth & accounts 46.6% by weight of earth’s crust in the form of compounds such
as oxides, silicates, carbonates, phosphates etc.
 It exists in nature in elemental state in atmospheric air constituting about 20% by volume.
 Manufactured industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air in a way similar to that of nitrogen.
 Oxygen has two allotropic forms, diatomic (O2) and triatomic (O3), ozone
Ozone is naturally produced in stratosphere by a two- step reactive process.
st
1 step, solar ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) breaks apart an O2 molecule to form two separate O2 atoms.
In overall process, 3O2 molecules plus sunlight react to form 2O3 molecules. 3O2 UV – light 2O3
 This process in upper atmosphere removes radiation that would be harmful to life on surface of Earth.
Physical Properties Oxygen
 Is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It changes from a gas to a liquid at a temperature of -182.96°C.
 The liquid formed has a slightly bluish color to it.
 Liquid O2 solidified or frozen at a T of -218.4°C. The density of O2 is 1.429 grams per liter.
 It is denser than air & the density of air is about 1.29 grams per liter.
Chemical Properties of Oxygen
1) The more active metals form peroxides or superoxides. Less active metals and the nonmetals give oxides.
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → MgO (s), 2Ca (s) + O2 (s) → 2CaO (s) ,P4 (s) + 5O2 (g) ⟶ P4O10(s)
2) Combustion reaction C (s) (charcoal) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g), CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
3) Reaction with compounds 2H2S(g) + 3O2 (g) ⟶ 2H2O(l) + 2SO2 (g)
4) It oxidizes oxides of CO and P4O6 that contain an element with a lower oxidation state.
D) Sulphur: - found in the form of compounds such as galena (PbS), pyrites (FeS2) (fool’s gold), cinnabar (HgS), sphalerite
(ZnS), gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2O), barite (BaSO4), and as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in natural gas and crude oil.
 It is extracted from underground deposits of elemental sulphur by Frasch process in which, three concentric pipes are sent
down to the sulphur deposit.
 Superheated water at about 170 oC is pumped through outermost pipes. Hot air is compressed in the innermost tube. A
froth of sulphur, air and water come out to surface of earth forced by hot compressed air in middle tube. The molten
sulphur is then cooled and solidified.

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 Allotropic Forms of Sulphur
Rhombic Sulphur (α-sulphur) Monoclinic Sulphur (β-sulphur)
 Most stable form of sulphur consisting of S8 Is a yellow solid with a monoclinic crystal form and is less
Molecules. dense than α-sulphur.
 Is crystalline in nature and has octahedral shape. Like α- form it contains puckered S8 rings and only differs
 On heating solution of roll sulphur in CS2 we from it in the way the rings are packed in the crystal.
get rhombic sulphur. Is unusual because it is only stable above 95.3 °C; below this
 It is yellow with a melting point of 385.8K and temperature it converts to α-sulphur.
specific gravity 2.06.
 Cannot be dissolved in H2O but can be
dissolved in benzene, ether, alcohol etc.

Physical Properties of Sulphur Pure sulphur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor
conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water
Chemical Properties of Sulphur: - is relatively stable and unreactive at room temperature. However, it reacts with metals and
non-metals when heated. 1) 8Fe (s) + S8 (s) → 8FeS (s) 2) S8 (s) + 8O2 (g) → 8SO2 (g)
Uses: Nearly one-half of sulfur needed by chemical industries is obtained as a waste product of other industrial processes. For
example:-Sulfur can be obtained in the form of
 H2S from natural gas and during purification of crude oil.
 SO2 from roasting of sulfide ores during extraction of metals.
 The use of sulfur obtained from waste products of other industries reduces demand for element from natural deposits,
pollution of atmospheric air and formation of acid rain.
 Sulfur is raw material for industrial production of H2SO4 by Contact Process which involves the following steps.
Step 1) Oxidation of sulfur: S8 (s) + 8O2 (g) → 8SO2 (g)
Step 2) the gases are mixed with more air then cleaned by electrostatic precipitation to remove any particulate matter.
Step 3) Oxidation of SO2: slow 2SO2 (g) + O2 V2O5 catalyst at high T (4500C) ,P(1-2 atm) 2SO3 (g) (98%).Because of SO2
and O2 molecules react on contact with surface of V2O5, the process is called Contact process. The reaction is exothermic
reaction (energy is released).
Step 4) any unreacted gases from the above reaction are recylced back into the above reaction.
Step 5) Absorption of SO3 to H2SO4: SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) →H2S2O7 (l) Pyro (di) (fuming) H2SO4 (oleum)
This is done because when water is added directly to SO3 to produce H2SO4, the reaction is slow and tends to form a mist in
which the reaction becomes very slow.
Step 6) Dilution of oleum to desired concentration of H2SO4:H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq).
 Commercially used concentrated sulphuric acid is 98% H2SO4

A flow scheme for Contact process

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E) Chlorine: most abundant among halogens & chiefly found in form of chlorides of Na, K, Ca and Mg.
 NaCl is chief source of chlorine, and it is obtained from seawater or as deposits of rock salt.
 Commercially, manufactured by electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous solution of NaCl
 During electrolysis, chlorine is formed at anode and reduction of water occurs at cathode, producing hydrogen gas and
hydroxide ions (OH– )

Although NaOH forms at cathode compartment and Cl2 at anode, the two substances must be kept apart from one another. This
is because, if they come into contact with each other, they can react according to the following equation.
NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) → NaOCl (aq) + HCl (aq)
Question: What is the oxidation number of chlorine in NaOCl?
Physical properties
Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas at room temperature.
It melts at –102°C and boils at –34°C.
It is fairly soluble in water.
It is extremely poisonous, causing inflammation of lungs and mucous membranes if inhaled, even in very small amounts.
It is fatal if inhaled in higher amounts.
Chemical Properties: - is a highly reactive non-metal. It reacts directly with almost all elements except the noble gases,
carbon and nitrogen. It is a powerful oxidizing agent and oxidizes most of the elements with which it reacts.
1) With heated metals to form chloride salts
2Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g) →2FeCl3 (s) & 2Al (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
2) Smoothly with H2, in presence of a charcoal as a catalyst, at room T.H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) →2HCl (g)
3) Displaces less reactive halogens (Br2 and I2) from aqueous solutions of their compounds.
Cl2 (g) + 2KBr (aq) →2KCl (aq) + Br2 (l) & Cl2 (g) + 2Kl (aq) →2KCl (aq) + I2 (aq)
4) Dissolves in water and reacts with it, forming an acidic solution containing hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid
(HOCl). Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) →HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)
 This type of reaction is called a disproportionation reaction, where chlorine is itself reduced and oxidized.
 Chlorine is commercially used as a:-
 Bleaching agent and disinfectant (kills germs).
 As elemental chlorine or as chlorine water
 It is strong enough to oxidize dyes and to bleach coloured materials. For example, it can be used to remove yellow or
brown colours from wood pulp, paper and cotton

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 Common uses of some important compounds of nonmetals

Compounds Common Use of them

CO2  Used as refrigerant, in fire extinguishers, carbonated beverages, blasting coal, foaming rubber and plastics.
Na2CO3  Used in production of glass, soaps and detergents, paper.
 as a laboratory reagent, cleaning agent, removal of permanent hardness of water (water softener)
NH3 As fertilizers, directly to soil as anhydrous NH3 or converted into solids like NH4NO3 , (NH4)3PO4 , (NH4)2SO4
and urea (H2NCONH2).
As ingredient in many household cleaning products
As a refrigerant gas and in air-conditioning equipment.
HNO3  Widely used in manufacture of NH4NO3 to manufacture plastics, dyes, and fertilizers.
 It is used in making explosives such as TNT, nitroglycerine, and nitrocellulose
H3PO4  As rust remover from metals like iron, steel, etc
 Common food additive like in soft drinks.
 It prevents bacterial growth in bottled solutions.
 Most of it is used in fertilizer production.
 Production of cleansing products, bath products, fragrances, hair care products and dyes, nail products, makeup,
and other skin care products.
Ca3 (PO4)2  ingredient of triple superphosphate fertilizer, Ca(H2PO4)2
SO2  in manufacture of other chemical compounds, mostly NaHSO3
 Other compounds H2SO4, ClO2, sodium dithionate (Na2S2O6 •2H2O), and sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3 •5H2O).
 As a bleaching agent for pulp and paper, textile fibers, straw, glue, gelatin, starches, grains, and various oils.
H2SO4  The major is production of fertilizers, e.g., superphosphate of lime and (NH4)2SO4.
 Widely in manufacture of chemicals, e.g., in making hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfate salts synthetic
detergents, dyes and pigments, explosives, and drugs.
 In petroleum refining to wash impurities out of gasoline and other refinery products.
 In processing metals, - in pickling (cleaning) Fe & steel before plating with tin or zinc.
 Rayon is made with sulfuric acid.
 It serves as the electrolyte in lead-acid storage battery commonly used in motor vehicles (acid for this use,
containing about 33% H2SO4 and with specific gravity about 1.25, is often called battery acid).

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