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3)Probability and statistics

The document discusses the graphical representation of data in statistics, emphasizing the importance of visual aids for conveying information effectively. It outlines three common types of graphs: histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives, providing examples and steps for constructing each. The document highlights how these graphs can help describe data sets, analyze trends, and engage audiences.

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13 views

3)Probability and statistics

The document discusses the graphical representation of data in statistics, emphasizing the importance of visual aids for conveying information effectively. It outlines three common types of graphs: histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives, providing examples and steps for constructing each. The document highlights how these graphs can help describe data sets, analyze trends, and engage audiences.

Uploaded by

ma2529313
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Probability & statistics for

Engineering
Lecture three
M. Sc. ALAA ABD AL SAJAD ALMALKI
Graphical representation of data

After you have organized the data into a frequency distribution, you can present them in graphical
form. The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the viewers in pictorial form. It is
easier for most people to comprehend the meaning of data presented graphically than data presented
numerically in tables or frequency distributions. This is especially true if the users have little or no
statistical knowledge. Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it. Graphs
are also useful in getting the audience’s attention in a publication or a speaking presentation. They
can be used to discuss an issue, reinforce a critical point, or summarize a data set. They can also be
used to discover a trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time.

The three most commonly used graphs in research are :


1. The histogram.
2. The frequency polygon.
3. The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (pronounced o-jive).
1-The histogram
The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the
frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes. The horizontal
axis is the class limits.
Example :
Construct a histogram to represent the data shown for the record high temperatures for each of
the 50 states :
Class limits Frequency
99.5–104.5 2
104.5–109.5 8
109.5–114.5 18
114.5–119.5 13
119.5–124.5 7
124.5–129.5 1
129.5–134.5 1
Solution
Step 1 Draw and label the x and y
axes. The x axis is always the
horizontal axis, and the y axis is
always the vertical axis.

Step 2 Represent the frequency on


the y axis and the class boundaries on
the x axis.

Step 3 Using the frequencies as the


heights, draw vertical bars for each
class.
2- Frequency polygon
The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect
points plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are
represented by the heights of the points.
Example:
Using the data given in the previous example, construct a frequency polygon.
solution:

Step 1 Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that midpoints are found by adding the upper and lower limits
and dividing by 2:

99.5+104.5
= 102 and so on .
2
The midpoints are :

Class limits Midpoints Frequency


99.5–104.5 102 2
104.5–109.5 107 8
109.5–114.5 112 18
114.5–119.5 117 13
119.5–124.5 122 7
124.5–129.5 127 1
129.5–134.5 132 1
Step 2 Draw the x and y axes. Label
the x axis with the midpoint of each
class, and then use a suitable scale
on the y axis for the frequencies.
Step 3 Using the midpoints for the x
values and the frequencies as the y
values, plot the points.
Step 4 Connect adjacent points with
line segments. Draw a line back to
the x axis at the beginning and end
of the graph, at the same distance
that the previous and next midpoints
would be located,
3- the ogive ( the cumulative frequency graph )

The third type of graph that can be used represents the cumulative frequencies for
the classes. This type of graph is called the cumulative frequency graph, or ogive.
The cumulative frequency is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper
boundary of a class in the distribution.
Example :
Construct an ogive for the frequency distribution described from the previous
example
Solution :

Step 1 Find the cumulative frequency for each class.


Class limits Cumulative frequency
Less than 99.5 0
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50

Remember, cumulative frequency = 0+ f1 + f2+….


Step 2 Draw the x and y axes. Label the x
axis with the class limits. Use an
appropriate scale for the y axis to represent
the cumulative frequencies. (Depending on
the numbers in the cumulative frequency
columns,

Step 3 Plot the cumulative frequency at


each upper class limit, Upper boundaries
are used since the cumulative frequencies
represent the number of data values
accumulated up to the upper boundary of
each class.
Step 4 Starting with the first upper class
boundary, 104.5, connect adjacent points
with line segments, Then extend the graph
to the first lower class boundary, 99.5, on
the x axis.

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