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PROBLEMS
10.1. In the process shown in Fig. P10.1, the concentration of salt leaving the second tank
is controlled using a proportional controller by adding concentrated solution through
a control valve. The following data apply:
a) The controlled concentration is to be 0.1 lb salt/ft 3 solution. The inlet
concentration ci is always less than 0.1 lb/ft 3 .
b) The concentration of concentrated salt solution is 30 lb salt/ft 3 solution.
c) Transducer: the output of the transducer varies linearly from 3 to 15 psig as the
concentration varies from 0.05 to 0.15 lb/ft 3 .
d) Controller: the controller is a pneumatic, direct-acting, proportional controller.
e) Control valve: as valve-top pressure varies from 3 to 15 psig, the flow through
the control valve varies linearly from 0 to 0.005 cfm.
f) It takes 30 sec for the solution leaving the second tank to reach the transducer at
the end of the pipe.
Draw a block diagram of the control system. Place in each block the appropriate transfer
function. Calculate all the constants and give the units.

Figure P10.1
Solution 10.1

(5.23)
Use the process shown in Figs. 10.3 and 10.4 for Problems 10.2-10.5

Figure 10.3 Block diagram for a chemical-reactor control system.

An equivalent diagram is shown in Fig. 10.4 in which some of the blocks have been
combined.

Figure 10.4 Equivalent block diagram for a chemical-reactor control system ( CR is now
in concentration units).
10.2 Verify the values of τ 1 and τ 2
Solution 10.2
V
τ = residence time for each tank = , (time)
F
V τ
τ 1 = effective time constant for tank 1 = = , (time)
F + k1V 1 + k1τ
τ 3 3
τ1 = = = = 2 min
1 + k1τ 1 + *3 1.5
1
6
τ 3 3
τ2 = = = = 1min
1 + k2τ 1 + 2 *3 3
3

10.3 Determine the steady state value of the controller output, ps in mA.
From Eq(10.10), the steady state pressure signal to the control valve is 10.5psig:
( 20mA − 4mA) = 14mA is the signal to the transducer from the controller.
(10.5 psig )
(15 psig − 3 psig )
10.4 Use Simulink to determine simulate the open loop response of the two chemical
reactors to a step change in the feed concentration, C0, from 0.1 lbmole A/ft3 to 0.25
lbmole A/ft3.

0.67 0.333
2s+1 s+1
Step Transfer Fcn Transfer Fcn 1
Add Scope

0.0244

C2 steady state
10.5 The open loop process has an upset such that the flow rate to the process
instantaneously rises to 120CFM (from the original 100CFM). How does the open
loop block diagram change? Plot the outlet concentration of A both reactors as a
function of time.

Solution
Assuming the temperatures all stay the same, the increased flow rate changes the time
constants in the two reactors. The reduced residence time means less conversion, hence
the concentration of A exiting the 2 reactors will increase.

dC1 1 1 Fnew
τ 1new + C1 = C0 + M (1)
dt (1+ k1τ new ) (1+ k1τ new )
dC2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
τ 2 new + C2 = ⎢ ⎥ C1 (2)
dt ⎣1+ k2τ new ⎦
V 300 ft 3
τ new = = = 2.5 min
Fnew 120CFM
V τ new 2.5
τ 1new = = = = 1.765 min (was 2min)
Fnew + k1V 1 + k1τ new ⎛1⎞
1 + ⎜ ⎟ 2.5
⎝6⎠
V τ new 2.5
τ 2 new = = = = 0.9375 min (was 1min)
Fnew + k2V 1 + k2τ new ⎛2⎞
1 + ⎜ ⎟ (2.5)
⎝3⎠
Block diagram is essentially the same, except time constants are decreased
and the initial steady states are different... they are they steady state concentrations
from the previous conditions: C1 (0) = 0.0733 and C2 (0) = 0.0244.
Using (1) and (2) above:
dC
1.765 1 + C1 = 0.706(0.1) + 0.00588(1) C0 = 0.1 and M=1
dt
dC
0.9375 2 + C2 = 0.375C1
dt
Solving using MATLAB, using an m-file:

function CPRIME=prob10_5(t,C)
CPRIME(1,1)=((0.0706+0.00588)-C(1))/1.765;
CPRIME(2,1)=(0.375*C(1)-C(2))/0.9375;

[t,C]=ode45('prob10_5',[0,10],[0.0733 0.0244]);
plot(t,C)
 0.08

0.07

0.06
Conc A

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tim e

C =

0.0733 0.0244
0.0737 0.0251
0.0741 0.0257
0.0744 0.0262
0.0747 0.0266
0.0749 0.0270
0.0751 0.0272
0.0753 0.0275
… …..
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
Using Simulink:

dC1/dt 1 C1
s C1
IC=0.0733

Scope

0.0706 +0.00588 1/1.765

Add
Gain
Constant

0.375

Gain 1

1 1/0.9375
s C2 C2
Add 1
IC=0.0244 Gain 2

Same
solution.
10.6 Two isothermal stirred tank reactors are connected by a long pipe that acts as a pure
time delay between the two tanks (no reaction takes place in the pipe). CSTR #1 is
at a higher temperature than CSTR #2, but both temperatures remain constant.
Assume constant throughputs and holdups (volumes) and a first order, irreversible
reaction taking place in each CSTR (AÆ B). The flow rate through the system is 4
ft3/min and the delay time in the pipe is 30 seconds. The inlet concentration to
CSTR #1 is initially at steady state at 1 lbmole/ft3 and is increased at time zero
through a step change to 2 lbmole/ft3.
a) Draw the block diagram for the process, be sure to include all necessary constants.
b) Use Simulink to plot the exit concentration of A from each of the reactors.
c) Use Simulink to plot the exit concentration of B from each of the reactors.

DATA
CSTR #1 CSTR #2
Rate Constant (min-1) 0.3 0.15
Volume (ft3) 25 15

Reactor
Reactor Dead Time = 30 sec #2
#1
 0.348 Ca1' 0.64
2.17 s+1 2.4s+1 Ca2'
Step CSTR #1 Transport CSTR #2
Ca1' Delay

0.223

0.348 Initial Ca 2
Ca1 Ca2
Inital Ca 1

Cb1
Scope

This section calculates the total molar concentration

if there is no reaction , k=0. To get Cb 's we subtract Ca 's from
their corresponding total molar concentration .
Cb2

1 1
6.25 s+1 3.75 s+1
Step 1 CSTR #3 Transport CSTR #4
Delay 1

1 Initial Total Molar

Conc in Tk 2 Total Molar Coc out of Tk 2
Initial Total Molar
Conc in Tk 1
Total Molar Conc out of Tk 1
Key:
Yellow = CA2
Magenta= CA1
Red= CB1
Blue= CB2
Green= C2Total
Turquoise= C1Total
Another way to solve using Simulink:
dC
FC A0 − FC A1 − k1V1C A1 = V1 A1 (1)
dt
C AD = C A1u (t − τ D ) (2)
dC A2
FC AD − FC A2 − k2V2C A2 = V2 (3)
dt
Rearranging (1):
dC A1 F ⎛F ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + k1 ⎟ C A1 (1')
dt V1 ⎝ V1 ⎠
dC A1 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + 0.3 ⎟ C A1
dt 25 ⎝25 ⎠
0.46

Rearranging (2):
dC A 2 F ⎛F ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + k2 ⎟ C A 2 (1')
dt V2 ⎝ V2 ⎠
dC A 2 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + 0.15 ⎟ C A 2 (2')
dt 15
N ⎝
15 ⎠
0.267 0.417

Initial Steady States:

C A0 (0− ) = 1
From (1'): (4)(1) − 4C A1 (0) − (0.3)(25)C A1 (0) C A1 (0) = 0.348
CB1 (0) = 0.652 since CB1 (0) + C A1 (0) = 1.0
Now at steady-state, C A 2 = C AD since at SS the concentration entering the pipe equals
the concentration leaving the pipe.
From (2'): (0.267)(0.348) − (0.417)C A2 (0) C A2 (0) = 0.223
CB 2 (0) = 0.777

Programming on Simulink:
 dCa 1/dt

1 Ca1
s 0.46

Integrator
Gain

4/25

Constant

Transport
Delay

0.348

Ca1o
Scope 2

dCa 1/dt

1 Cb1
s 4/25

Integrator 1
Gain 1

Cb1 0.3

Gain 2
0.267

Gain 3

Transport
Delay 1
0.652

1 Ca2 Cb 10
s 0.417

Integrator 2 0.223
Gain 4

Ca2 initial

0.267

Cb2 Gain 5
Cb2

1
s
0.777
Integrator 3 0.15

Gain 6 Cb2 initial1

Key:
Red = CA2
Yellow = CA1
Magenta= CB1
Green= CB2
Blue= C2Total
Turquoise= C1Total

Same results as previously.

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twelve wire strings. It resembles the bûche, and may be regarded as
an antiquated species of our present horizontal cither. A bell-harp,
made by John Simcock, in Bath, about the year 1700: length, 20 in.
It has sixteen tones. Each tone is produced by three thin brass wire-
strings tuned in unison. The strings are twanged with two little
plectra, or quills, of which the performer fastens one to the thumb of
each hand. The two wooden handles, one on each side of the
instrument, are for holding while swinging it during the performance,
to produce the effect of a distant bell. A bell-harp; English, about
1700. Inscribed: "Bath, John Simcock, inventor and maker." This
instrument has twenty-four tones produced by thin brass wire-
strings. The highest tones have each four strings tuned in unison,
the others have three, except the deepest, which is produced by a
single string covered with wire. The instrument is in its old case.
Dulcimer; English, with movable bridges. Inscribed: "Old Weston,
Huntingdonshire, 1846." Dulcimer; English, beginning of the present
century; of mahogany, the sound-board of pine, being painted
green, and gilt. Sixteen sets of wire-strings, each set consisting of
three strings tuned in unison. Salterio, Italian dulcimer, made by
Antonio Bertefice, at Florence, in the year 1745. Salterio; Italian
dulcimer; a small specimen, inscribed at the back: "Antonius Berri
fecit, Anno 1722." From Signor Mario's museum. Echelette; French,
eighteenth century. It has twenty-two slabs of a hard and sonorous
wood, which are sounded by being struck with two little mallets. A
sordino, or boat-shaped pochette; English, seventeenth century. An
Italian sordino, dating from about the year 1600. The body is of
tortoise-shell, inlaid with silver; the tuning-pegs are of ivory; with a
carved head of wood and ivory. The entire length of this sordino is
only 14 inches. A kit, or pochette, in the shape of the violin; Italian,
about 1600. Violetta piccola, the smallest kind of the old viol
instruments, shaped with a slanting neck like the viola da gamba.
This small species of treble viol was called by the French haute-
contre. Italian, seventeenth century. A five-stringed viol, called by
the French quinton. Inscription "Antonius Gragnani fecit, Anno
1741." A small six-stringed viol, called by the French dessus-de-
viole; French, seventeenth century. A six-stringed viol, called by the
French pardessus; French, seventeenth century. A treble viol, with a
carved head; English, about 1700. Its neck has catgut frets, and its
six strings were tuned like those of the bass-viol, or viola da gamba,
but an octave higher. A countertenor-viol; English, seventeenth
century. Inside is the inscription: "Henry Jay, in Southwarke, 1667."
The scroll is finely carved. The belly has, besides the usual two
sound-holes, an oval sound-hole in the middle, with an ornamental
rose. The back has a peculiar curve towards the end; probably, the
instrument was intended to rest on the left shoulder when played.
Like the viola da gamba, it has six strings and catgut frets. It was
tuned a fifth higher than the viola da gamba. A tenor-viol; English,
about 1620. This small species of viola da gamba is now very scarce.
It was tuned a fourth higher than the larger viola da gamba, or
bass-viol. Viola da gamba, inlaid with mythological representations
and other ornamentation in ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, and
precious stones. Made about the year 1580, probably by Joachim
Tielke in Hamburg; a splendid instrument. Viola da gamba; English,
seventeenth century; with a finely-carved head representing the bust
of a girl. Inside is the inscription: "Richard Meares, without
Bishopsgate, near to Sir Paul Pinder's, London, Fecit 1677." In the
Post Boy of the 9th of July, 1720, we find the following
advertisement: "This is to give notice to all gentlemen and ladies,
lovers of musick, that the most celebrated new opera of
'Radamistus,' composed by Mr. Handell, is now engraving finely upon
copper-plates by Richard Meares, musical instrument maker and
music printer, at the Golden Viol. To make this work more
acceptable, the author has been prevailed upon to correct the
whole." The Golden Viol was the sign of a music-shop in St. Paul's
Churchyard, where Richard Meares, the publisher of Handel's opera,
lived. But, to judge from a notice of this publisher given in Hawkins's
'History of Music' (Vol. V., p. 109), it appears that he was the son of
the maker of the present viola da gamba. At any rate, when Handel
came to England this instrument was no longer a new one; for it was
made before Handel was born. The bow belonging to it is of the old-
fashioned kind known as the Corelli bow. And it may be here
mentioned that with most of the viols before enumerated curious
bows are placed which have long since gone out of use. Viola da
gamba; Italian, about 1600; with a finely-carved head. The finger-
board is inlaid with designs of flowers, etc., in tortoise-shell and
ivory. This fine-toned bass-viol is supposed to have been made by
Gaspar di Salo. At all events, it is a valuable specimen by some early
Italian maker. Viola da gamba; English, about 1700. The instrument
resembles a small violoncello, since its body does not slant towards
the neck. An illustration of this kind of viola da gamba is given in
'The Division-Violist, by Christopher Simpson, London, 1659.' Its
body is remarkably flat, and its quality of sound is consequently very
clear. Like the common viola da gamba, the instrument is six-
stringed, and has catgut frets. A seven-stringed viola da gamba;
probably Italian; towards the end of the seventeenth century. The
addition of a seventh string to the viola da gamba is said to have
been first resorted to by the French virtuoso Maria Marais, towards
the end of the seventeenth century. The string added is the lowest,
and is tuned a minor third lower than the C string on the violoncello.
The innovation evidently did not find much favour with gamba
players in general; and it is seldom that one still meets with a seven-
stringed gamba. A four-stringed viola da gamba; made by John
Baker in Oxford, anno 1688. Four-stringed gambas met with at the
present day are almost invariably altered six-stringed ones, on which
the neck has been narrowed, and the head shortened, so that the
instrument may be used as a small violoncello. This one was
originally made with only four strings, and has evidently never been
tampered with. Viola d'amore; Italian, seventeenth century. A fine
specimen, in a well-preserved condition. Viola d'amore; Italian,
seventeenth century. Old-fashioned shape, having several
incurvations at the sides, and a sound-hole with a rose in the middle
of the belly. Seven catgut-strings, and underneath them seven
sympathetic strings of thin steel-wire. Viola d'amore; German,
eighteenth century. Probably made by Jacob Rauch, in Mannheim,
about 1740. With only five catgut-strings, and with eight
sympathetic wire-strings. An English viola d'amore strung entirely
with wire, seventeenth century; with a curiously-constructed head,
ornamented with a carved female bust. A so-called psaltery (also
known as sultana and cither-viol). Mounted with six wire-strings, and
played with a bow. Irish; eighteenth century. Made by Thomas Perry,
in Dublin, anno 1767. A psaltery, made by Thomas Perry, in Dublin,
second half of eighteenth century. The neck and the tail-piece are of
ivory. Its ten strings are of steel and brass wire, the highest eight
being arranged in four pairs producing four tones, and the others
are single ones producing two tones. Hardangerfelen. A kind of viola
d'amore of the Hardanger peasants in Norway, inlaid with mother-of-
pearl and ivory. The top, carved and gilt, represents a dragon's
head. This fiddle has four catgut-strings, and four thin steel-strings
beneath them. Inside is the inscription "Fabrokert of Knudt Erikson,
Helland, 1872." It was sent to me from Christiania. Violins of unusual
shapes, three curious specimens, made during the eighteenth
century. A violin made of iron. Probably English, beginning of the
present century. If on no other account, this violin is certainly
interesting in an acoustic point of view, since it proves that much
sound is obtainable merely by the vibration of the strings acting
upon the column of air in the violin, without any assisting vibration
of the belly or sound-board. At all events, the substance of which
this violin is made is not likely to contribute to the sonorousness. A
tromba marina or marine trumpet, probably Dutch, seventeenth
century. Besides one string of thick catgut upon the instrument,
there are in the inside forty-one sympathetic strings of thin steel-
wire. A nyckel-harpa, a curious instrument of the Swedish peasantry,
which may be briefly described as a combination of a fiddle and a
hurdy-gurdy. A crwth, an antiquated Welsh instrument of the fiddle
class. The body is cut out of a single block of wood, the belly only
being glued to it. Two specimens of the nail-violin, one of which has
sympathetic strings of thin brass-wire running over the sound-board.
These two curious instruments were probably made in France or
Germany about the year 1800. The invention of the nail-violin is
attributed to a German of the name of Wilde, who lived in St.
Petersburg about the middle of the eighteenth century. A hurdy-
gurdy (French, vielle), made by Pagot at Jenzat, a small town near
Orleans, about the year 1840. Carved head. Six tuning-pegs at the
top, and one at the tail-piece. This hurdy-gurdy is of the kind which
the French call vielle en luth, because its body is shaped like that of
the lute. The other kind, which has indentations at the sides
resembling those of the guitar, is called vielle en guitare. Organ
hurdy-gurdy, or vielle organisée, made by a Frenchman residing in
London during the middle of the eighteenth century. This curious
instrument, which was formerly also known in England, where it was
called flute-cymbal, consists of a hurdy-gurdy combined with a small
organ of two stops, and it is so contrived as to allow the hurdy-
gurdy or the organ to be used each separately, or both combined, at
the pleasure of the performer. Some portions of it have been
restored in the present century. Clavichord, generally called in
German Clavier. Made in Einbeck, near Hanover, about the year
1800. Clavichord, made in Thuringia. Clavichord, made by the
celebrated manufacturer, Barthold Fritz, in Brunswick, in the year
1751; ornamented with painting and engraving. Harpsichord,
inscribed "Jacobus Kirkman, Londini, fecit 1772." The case is of
walnut, inlaid with tulip-wood. Carved legs representing eagle's
claws grasping a ball. With two keyboards, constituting a "double
harpsichord," as it used to be called in England. The woodwork
about the keyboards is ornamented with designs in marquetry of
various coloured woods. This harpsichord has six stops and two
pedals, and is provided with a Venetian swell. Jacobus Kirkman,
having obtained an order from King George III. to produce a fine
harpsichord intended as a present for Queen Charlotte, made—as
manufacturers under such circumstances not unfrequently do—two
harpsichords exactly alike, viz., one for Queen Charlotte, and the
present one, which was bought by John Bacon, the famous sculptor,
after whose death it came into the possession of Dr. Sclatter, priest-
vicar of Exeter Cathedral, who had it for nearly half-a-century, and
after whose death it was sold at a sale of his effects. Harpsichord
with two keyboards, six stops, and two pedals. Inscribed "Jacobus et
Abraham Kirkman, fecerunt 1773." The case is of mahogany; the
wood near the keyboards is walnut, inlaid with tulip-wood and a
tesselated border of various coloured woods. Only the lute-stop has
jacks with crow-quills; the jacks of the other stops are provided with
small pieces of prepared leather instead of quills. The variety in the
colour of sound thereby obtained is very effective. This instrument
probably exhibits the highest degree of perfection which was ever
attained in the construction of the harpsichord, in so far as quality
and power of sound are concerned. As regards outward appearance,
the beauty of some of the Dutch harpsichords, or clavicembali,
ornamented with paintings by celebrated artists, is unsurpassed.
It now remains to draw attention to the fact that many of the
Museums of Antiquities in different countries instituted by
Government contain some curiosities of the kind in question which
cannot fail to interest the musical antiquarian. This is the case even
in America, where in the museums of Mexico, Lima, and other
towns, may be found among the examples of workmanship and arts
of the Aztecs and the Inca Peruvians various contrivances relating to
music. That royal personages in their cabinets of curiosities obtained
from distant lands should not unfrequently have scarce, or
handsome, or grotesque-looking musical instruments is only what
might be expected. There are, for instance, about forty acquisitions
of this kind in Windsor Castle, which consist chiefly of Asiatic and
African drums, pipes, and stringed instruments. Several of them,
however, are spoiled by having been "improved," or Europeanized.
Some have descriptive labels attached to them, as, for instance, an
Ashanti war-trumpet made of a human bone, and ornamented with
human jawbones; and an Ashanti war-drum, carved from the trunk
of a tree, and likewise ornamented with human jawbones; which two
curiosities, the labels inform us, belonged to the King of Ashanti,
from whom they were taken "in the action in which he was defeated
by Colonel Purden. Sent by Sir Herbert Taylor in 1827. Brought to
England by Major-General Sir Neil Campbell, commanding on the
Western Coast of Africa." There is also in this assemblage a fanciful
contrivance, which is intended for a sort of guitar, and of which a
label affixed informs us: "This instrument was made from the head
of the Duke of Schomberg's horse, killed at the battle of the Boyne,
1690."
Of the special exhibition of ancient musical instruments held in the
South Kensington Museum in the year 1872, an account has been
given in the Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments in the
South Kensington Museum, London, 1874. The present survey
would, however, be imperfect if that remarkable exhibition were left
entirely unnoticed, although the collection which it comprised had an
existence of four months only. Suffice it here to record that it
contained upwards of five hundred instruments, including a large
number of violins, violas, and violoncellos of the celebrated Cremona
makers. Should a similar exhibition be attempted, an equally
successful result is not likely to be achieved for years, if ever. Old
and scarce musical instruments have become of much more
antiquarian interest than formerly was the case. The specimens still
obtainable by purchase gradually find their way into public
museums, not only in European countries, but also in America, and
in the English colonies. Whenever they have been secured for a
museum they generally are no longer obtainable on loan for other
exhibitions. Private persons possessing such treasures set upon
them a higher value than formerly, and are therefore less inclined to
expose them to the risk of being injured. For these reasons it
appears all the more desirable that there should be some record of
the collections known to be still in existence.
 MUSICAL MYTHS AND FOLK-LORE.

Music is so delightfully innocent and charming an art that we cannot

wonder at finding it almost universally regarded as of divine origin.
Pagan nations generally ascribe the invention of their musical
instruments to their gods or to certain superhuman beings of a
godlike nature. The Hebrews attributed it to man; but as Jubal is
mentioned as "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ"
only, and as instruments of percussion are almost invariably in use
long before people are led to construct stringed and wind
instruments, we may suppose that, in the biblical records, Jubal is
not intended to be represented as the original inventor of all the
Hebrew instruments, but rather as a great promoter of the art of
music.
However this may be, thus much is certain: there are among
Christians at the present day not a few sincere upholders of the
literal meaning of those records who maintain that instrumental
music was already practised in Heaven before the creation of the
world. Elaborate treatises have been written on the nature and effect
of that heavenly music, and passages from the Bible have been cited
by the learned authors which are supposed by them to confirm
indisputably the opinions advanced in their treatises.
It may, at a first glance, appear singular that nations have not
generally such traditional records respecting the originators of their
vocal music as they have respecting the invention of their musical
instruments. The cause is however explicable; to sing is as natural to
man as to speak, and uncivilised nations are not likely to speculate
whether singing has ever been invented.
There is no need to recount here the well-known mythological
traditions of the ancient Greeks and Romans referring to the origin
of their favourite musical instruments. Suffice it to remind the reader
that Mercury and Apollo were believed to be the inventors of the lyra
and the kithara; that the invention of the flute was attributed to
Minerva; and that Pan is said to have invented the syrinx. More
worthy of our attention are some similar records of the Hindus,
because they have hitherto scarcely been noticed in any work on
music.
In the mythology of the Hindus the god Nareda is the inventor of the
vina, the principal national musical instrument of Hindustan.
Saraswati, the consort of Brahma, may be considered as the Minerva
of the Hindus. She is the goddess of music as well as of speech. To
her is attributed the invention of the systematic arrangement of the
sounds into a musical scale. She is represented seated on a peacock
and playing on a stringed instrument of the guitar kind. Brahma
himself we find depicted as a vigorous man with four handsome
heads, beating with his hands upon a small drum. And Vishnu, in his
incarnation as Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth playing
upon a flute. The Hindus still possess a peculiar kind of flute which
they consider as the favourite instrument of Krishna. Furthermore,
they have the divinity of Genēsa, the god of wisdom, who is
represented as a man with the head of an elephant holding in his
hands a tamboura—a kind of lute with a long neck.
Among the Chinese we meet with a tradition according to which they
obtained their musical scale from a miraculous bird called Foung-
hoang, which appears to have been a sort of Phœnix. As regards the
invention of musical instruments, the Chinese have various
traditions. In one of these we are told that the origin of some of
their most popular instruments dates from the period when China
was under the dominion of heavenly spirits called Ki. Another
assigns the invention of several of their stringed instruments to the
great Fohi, called "the Son of Heaven," who was, it is said, the
founder of the Chinese empire, and who is stated to have lived
about b.c. 3000, which was long after the dominion of the Ki, or
spirits. Again, another tradition holds that the most important
Chinese musical instruments, and the systematic arrangement of the
tones, are an invention of Niuva, a supernatural female, who lived at
the time of Fohi, and who was a virgin-mother. When Confucius, the
great Chinese philosopher, happened to hear on a certain occasion
some divine music, he became so greatly enraptured that he could
not take any food for three months afterwards. The music which
produced this miraculous effect was that of Kouei, the Orpheus of
the Chinese, whose performance on the king, a kind of harmonicon
constructed of slabs of sonorous stone, would draw wild animals
around him and make them subservient to his will.
The Japanese have a beautiful tradition according to which the Sun-
goddess, in resentment of the violence of an evil-disposed brother,
retired into a cave, leaving the universe in darkness and in anarchy;
when the beneficent gods, in their concern for the welfare of
mankind, devised music to lure her forth from the retreat, and their
efforts soon proved successful.[7]
The Kalmuks, in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, adore a beneficent
divinity, called Maidari, who is represented as a rather jovial-looking
man, with a moustache and an imperial, playing upon an instrument
with three strings, somewhat resembling the Russian balalaika.
Almost all these ancient conceptions we meet with also among
European nations, though more or less modified.
Odin, the principal deity of the ancient Scandinavians, was the
inventor of magic songs and Runic writings.
In the Finnish mythology the divine Vainamoinen is said to have
constructed the five-stringed harp, called kantele, the old national
instrument of the Finns. The frame he made out of the bones of the
pike, and the teeth of the pike he used for the tuning-pegs. The
strings he made of hair from the tail of a spirited horse. When the
harp fell into the sea, and was lost, he made another, the frame of
which was of birchwood, with pegs made out of the branch of an
oak-tree. As strings for this harp he used the silky hair of a young
girl. Vainamoinen took his harp, and sat down on a hill near a silvery
brook. There he played with so irresistible an effect that he
entranced whatever came within hearing of his music. Men and
animals listened enraptured; the wildest beasts of the forest lost
their ferocity; the birds of the air were drawn towards him; the
fishes rose to the surface of the water, and remained immovable; the
trees ceased to wave their branches; the brook retarded its course,
and the wind its haste; even the mocking echo approached
stealthily, and listened with the utmost attention to the heavenly
sounds. Soon the women began to cry; then the old men and the
children also began to cry; and the girls, and the young men—all
cried for delight. At last Vainamoinen himself wept; and his big tears
ran over his beard, and rolled into the water, and became beautiful
pearls at the bottom of the sea.
Several other musical gods or godlike musicians could be cited, and,
moreover, innumerable minor spirits, all bearing evidence that music
is of divine origin.
True, people who think themselves more enlightened than their
forefathers smile at these old traditions, and say that the original
home of music is the human heart. Be it so. But do not the purest
and most beautiful conceptions of man partake of a divine
character? Is not the art of music generally acknowledged to be one
of these? And is it not, therefore, even independently of myths and
mysteries, entitled to be called the divine art?

CURIOUS COINCIDENCES.
It is a suggestive fact that several nations in different parts of the
world possess an ancient tradition, according to which some harp-
like instrument was originally derived from the water.
The Scandinavian god Odin, the originator of magic songs, is
mentioned as the ruler of the sea; and as such he had the name of
Nikarr. In the depth of the sea he played the harp with his
subordinate spirits, who occasionally came up to the surface of the
water to teach some favoured human being their wonderful
instrument.
Vainamoinen, the divine player on the Finnish kantele, according to
the Kalewala, the old national æpos of the Finns, constructed the
first instrument of this kind of fish-bones.
Hermes, it will be remembered, made his lyre, the chelys, of a
tortoise-shell.
In Hindu mythology the god Nareda invented the vina, a five-
stringed instrument, considered as the principal national instrument
of the Hindus, which has also the name kach'-hapi, signifying a
tortoise. Moreover nara denotes in Sanskrit "water," and Narada or
Nareda "the Giver of Water."
Like Nareda, so Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereides,
mentioned in Greek mythology, were renowned for their musical
accomplishments.
Again, there is an old tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scottish
national ballads, of a skilful harper who constructs his instrument out
of the bones of a young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her
fingers he uses for the tuning screws, and her golden hair for the
strings. The harper plays, and his music kills the murderess.[8] A
similar story is told in the old Icelandic national songs, and the same
tradition has been found still preserved in the Faroe Islands, as well
as in Norway and Denmark.[9]
May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical flow
of the waves and the soothing murmur of running water have led
various nations, independently of each other, to the widespread
conception that they obtained their favourite instrument of music
originally from the water? Or is this notion traceable to a common
source, dating from a pre-historic age—perhaps from the early
period when the Aryan race is surmised to have diffused its lore
through various countries? Or did it originate in the old belief of the
world with all its charms and delights having arisen from a chaos in
which water constituted the predominant element?
Howbeit, Nareda, the Giver of Water, was evidently also the ruler of
the clouds; and Odin had his throne in the skies. Indeed, many of
the musical water-spirits appear to have been originally considered
as rain-deities. Their music may, therefore, be regarded as derived
from the clouds rather than from the sea. In short, the traditions
respecting spirits and water are not in contradiction to, but rather
confirmatory of the belief that music is of heavenly origin.

HINDU TRADITIONS.
Mia Tonsine, a wonderful musician in the time of the Emperor Akber,
sang one of the night-rags at mid-day. The power of the music was
such that it instantly became night, and the darkness extended in a
circle round the palace as far as the sound of the voice could be
heard. Rags are characteristic songs composed in certain modes or
scales; and each Rag is appropriated to a distinct season, in which
alone it must be sung or played at prescribed hours of the day or
night; for, over each of the six Rags, or kinds of compositions,
presides a certain god, who presides likewise over the six seasons.
The six seasons are: Seesar, the dewy season; Heemat, the cold
season; Vasant, the mild season, or spring; Greesshma, the hot
season; Varsa, the rainy season; and Sarat, the breaking-up, or end
of the rains.[10]
Whoever shall attempt to sing the Rag Dheepuck (or "Cupid the
Inflamer") is to be destroyed by fire. The Emperor Akber ordered
Naik Gopaul, a celebrated musician, to sing that Rag. Naik Gopaul
endeavoured to excuse himself, but in vain; the Emperor insisted on
obedience. The unhappy musician therefore requested permission to
go home, and to bid farewell to his family and friends. It was winter
when he returned, after an absence of six months. Before he began
to sing he placed himself in the waters of the Jumna till they
reached his neck. As soon as he had performed a strain or two the
river gradually became hot; at length it began to boil, and the
agonies of the unhappy musician were nearly insupportable.
Suspending for a moment the melody thus cruelly extorted, he sued
for mercy from the monarch, but sued in vain. Akber wished to
prove more strongly the powers of the Rag Dheepuck. Naik Gopaul
renewed the fatal song: flames burst with violence from his body,
which, though immersed in the waters of the Jumna, was consumed
to ashes.
The effect produced by the Rag called Maig Mullaar is immediate
rain. It is told that a singing girl once, by exerting the powers of her
voice in this Rag, drew from the clouds timely and refreshing
showers on the parched rice-crops of Bengal, and thereby averted
the horrors of famine from the "Paradise of Regions," as the
province of Bengal is sometimes called.
Sir William Ouseley, who obtained these traditions, it would appear,
from oral communication, states that they are related by many of
the Hindus, and implicitly believed by some. However, on inquiring of
the people whether there are still musical performers among them
who can produce effects similar to those recorded, one is gravely
told that the art is now almost lost, but that there are still musicians
possessed of miraculous powers in the west of Hindustan; and if one
inquires in the west, they say that should any such musicians
remain, they must be found in Bengal.[11]
A reliable collection of Hindu traditions relating to music might,
probably, be suggestive and valuable to the musical historian,
especially if he examined them with reference to the myths of the
ancient Egyptians and Greeks.

CELESTIAL QUARRELS.
There appears to be a notion universally prevailing among uncivilised
people that, during an eclipse of the sun or moon, the two
luminaries are quarrelling with each other, or that their conjugal
happiness is being disturbed by some intruding monster.
The natives of the Polynesian Islands have an old tradition,
according to which the moon (called marama) is the wife of the sun
(called ra), and, during an eclipse, the moon is supposed to be
bitten or pinched by some angry spirit.[12]
The Javanese, and the natives of the Indian Archipelago in general,
when an eclipse takes place, shout and beat gongs to prevent the
sun or moon from being devoured by the great dragon (called
nága), which they suppose to be attacking the luminary.[13] This
notion appears to have been adopted by the Malays from the
Hindus, in whose mythology a god called Rahu—who is recorded to
have been originally a giant, and who is painted black—at the time
of an eclipse swallows up the sun and moon, and vomits them up
again.
Of the Chinese we are told: "As soon as they perceive that the sun
or moon begins to be darkened, they throw themselves on their
knees and knock their foreheads against the earth. A noise of drums
and cymbals is immediately heard throughout the whole city. This is
the remains of an ancient opinion entertained in China, that by such
a horrid din they assist the suffering luminary, and prevent it from
being devoured by the celestial dragon."[14]
The Greenlanders have, according to Crantz, a somewhat similar
tradition; but, instead of musical instruments, the men carry kettles
and boxes to the top of the house, and rattle and beat them, and
the women pinch the dogs by the ears, to frighten away the moon,
who, they suppose, is insulting his wife, the sun.[15] In Greenland,
the moon is the man, and the sun is the wife, as in Germany.
Again, the Negroes in Western Africa appear to have much the same
notion. The traveller Lander, during his stay at Boussa in Soudan,
witnessed the wild behaviour of the Negroes at the occurrence of an
eclipse of the moon. Their principal exertions to avert the supposed
impending calamity consisted in blowing trumpets, beating drums,
singing and shouting.[16]
The Japanese legend of the sun-goddess, who, after having hidden
herself in a cavern, is enticed from her dark abode by the power of
music, is apparently likewise a poetical conception of an eclipse.
Titsingh, in reciting the same tradition, says that Fensio-Daysin, the
sun-goddess, fled to the cavern in consequence of a dispute she had
with her brother, Sasanno-Ono-Mikotto, the god of the moon.[17]
From these examples it seems that musical performances, or, at
least, the sounds of loud instruments, are considered the most
effective agent for appeasing the anger of the quarrelling celestial
bodies. But there is no reason to assume that this peculiar notion
originally emanated from one people. Like several other popular
traditions, it most likely owes its origin to impressions produced on
the mind by a certain natural phenomenon; and it may, therefore,
have suggested itself to different nations quite independently,
instead of having been transmitted from one nation to another.

AL-FARABI.
Most of the popular legends and fairy tales which have been
traditionally preserved are of high origin. Many of those which
appear to have originated during the Christian era are only
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