ETHICS REVIEWER minutes to arrive, but by that time

Genovese was already dead.

CHAPTER 1
- Only one other woman came out to
WHAT IS ETHICS? testify before the ambulance showed
up an hour later. Then residents from
 In all the world and in all of life there is the whole neighborhood poured out of
nothing more important to determine their apartments. When asked why they
than what is right. hadn’t done anything, they gave
 Whatever the matter which lies before answers ranging from “I don’t know”
us calling for consideration, whatever and “I was tired” to “Frankly, we were
the question asked us or the problem to afraid.”1
be solved, there is some settlement of it
which will meet the situation and is to This tragic event raises many questions about
be sought. our moral responsibility to others.
 Wherever there is a decision to be
1. What should these respectable citizens
made or any deliberation is in point,
have done?
there is a right determination of the
2. Are such acts of omission morally
matter in hand which is to be found and
blameworthy?
adhered to, and other possible
3. Is the Genovese murder an atypical
commitments which would be wrong
situation, or does it represent a
and are to be avoided.
disturbing trend?
- C. I. LEWIS, THE GROUND AND NATURE
OF RIGHT This story also raises important questions about
the general notion of morality.
“We are discussing no small matter, but how
we ought to live.” 1. What is the nature of morality, and why
do we need it?
- SOCRATES, IN PLATO’S REPUBLIC
2. What is the Good, and how will we
THE STORY OF KITTY GENOVESE know it?
3. Is it in our interest to be moral?
- Report from New York City. A young 4. What is the relationship between
woman was brutally stabbed in her own morality and religion?
neighborhood late at night during three 5. What is the relationship between
separate attacks while thirty-eight morality and law?
respectable, law-abiding citizens 6. What is the relationship between
watched or listened. During the thirty- morality and etiquette?
five-minute struggle, her assailant beat
her, stabbed her, left her, and then These are some of the questions that we
returned to attack her two more times explore in this book. We want to understand
until she died. No one lifted a phone to the foundation and structure of morality. We
call the police; no one shouted at the want to know how we should live.
criminal, let alone went to Genovese’s
ETHICS AND ITS SUBDIVISIONS
aid. Finally, a seventy-year-old woman
called the police. It took them just two - Ethics is that branch of philosophy that
deals with how we ought to live, with the
 idea of the Good, and with concepts such arises, where thesis and counter example
as “right” and “wrong.” and counter thesis are considered.
 The study of ethics within philosophy
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
contains its own subdivisions, and
- It is an enterprise that begins with wonder dividing up the territory of ethics is a
at the marvels and mysteries of the world; tricky matter.
that pursues a rational investigation of  A word must be said first about the
those marvels and mysteries, seeking specific terms moral and ethical and
wisdom and truth; and that results in a life the associated notions of morals/ethics
lived in passionate moral and intellectual and morality/ethicality.
integrity.  Often these terms are used
interchangeably—as will be the case in
“the unexamined life is not worth living,” – this book.
SOCRATES  Both terms derive their meaning from
- philosophy leaves no aspect of life the idea of “custom”— that is, normal
untouched by its inquiry. behavior.
- It aims at a clear, critical, comprehensive  Specifically, “moral” comes from the
conception of reality. Latin word mores and “ethical” from
the Greek ethos.
THE MAIN CHARACTERISTIC OF PHILISOPHY
THE KEY DIVISIONS WITHIN THE STUDY OF
- Rational argument. Philosophers clarify ETHICS
concepts and analyze and test propositions
and beliefs, but their major task is to 1.DESCRIPTIVE MORALTY - actual beliefs,
analyze and construct arguments. customs, principles, and practices of people
- propositions and beliefs, but their major and cultures.
task is to analyze and construct arguments. - Sociologists in particular pay special
Philosophical reasoning is closely allied with attention to the concrete moral practices of
scientific reasoning, in that both build social groups around the world, and they
hypotheses and look for evidence to test view them as cultural “facts,” much like
those hypotheses with the hope of coming facts about what people in those countries
closer to the truth. eat or how they dress.
- However, scientific experiments take place
in laboratories and have testing procedures 2. MORAL PHILOSOPHY (ETHICAL THEORY) -
through which to record objective or refers to the systematic effort to understand
empirically verifiable results. moral concepts and justify moral principles and
- The laboratory of the philosopher is the theories.
domain of ideas. It takes place in the mind,
- It analyzes key ethical concepts such as
where imaginative thought experiments
“right,” “wrong,” and “permissible.”
occur.
- It explores possible sources of moral
- It takes place in the study room, where
obligation such as God, human reason, or
ideas are written down and examined. It
the desire to be happy.
also takes place wherever conversation or
- It seeks to establish principles of right
debate about the perennial questions
behavior that may serve as action guides for
individuals and groups.
3. APPLIED ETHICS - deals with controversial important to understand the nature and
moral problems such as abortion, pre-marital scope of moral theory for its own sake.
sex, capital punishment, euthanasia, and civil  We are rational beings who cannot help but
disobedience. want to understand the nature of the good
life and all that it implies.
 The larger study of ethics, then, draws on all
 The study of ethics is sometimes a bit off-
three of these subdivisions, connecting
putting because so many differing theories
them in important ways.
often appear to contradict each other and
 For example, moral philosophy is very much
thus produce confusion rather than
interrelated with applied ethics: Theory
guidance.
without application is sterile and useless,
 But an appreciation of the complexity of
but action without a theoretical perspective
ethics is valuable in offsetting our natural
is blind.
tendency toward inflexibility and tribalism
 There will be an enormous difference in the
where we stubbornly adhere to the values
quality of debates about abortion, for
of our specific peer groups.
example, when those discussions are
informed by ethical theory as compared to MORALITY AS COMPARED WITH OTHER
when they are not. NORMATIVE SUBJECTS
 More light and less heat will be the likely
- Moral principles concern standards of
outcome.
behavior; roughly speaking, they involve not
 With the onset of multiculturalism and the
what is but what ought to be.
deep differences in worldviews around the
1. How should I live my life?
globe today, the need to use reason, rather
2. What is the right thing to do in this
than violence, to settle our disputes and
situation?
resolve conflicts of interest has become
3. Is premarital sex morally permissible?
obvious.
4. Ought a woman ever to have an
 Ethical awareness is the necessary condition
abortion?
for human survival and flourishing.
- Morality has a distinct action-guiding, or
 If we are to endure as a free, civilized
normative, aspect, which it shares with
people, we must take ethics more seriously
other practices such as religion, law, and
than we have before.
etiquette.
 Ethical theory may rid us of simplistic
extremism and emotionalism—where
shouting matches replace arguments. MORALITY AND RELIGION
 Ethical theory clarifies relevant concepts,
constructs and evaluates arguments, and - Moral behavior, as defined by a given
guides us on how to live our lives. religion, is usually believed to be essential
 It is important that the educated person be to that religion’s practice. But neither the
able to discuss ethical situations with practices nor principles of morality should
precision and subtlety. be identified with religion.
 The study of ethics is not only of - The practice of morality need not be
instrumental value but also valuable in its motivated by religious considerations, and
own right. moral principles need not be grounded in
 It is satisfying to have knowledge of revelation or divine authority—as religious
important matters for its own sake, and it is teachings invariably are.
- The most important characteristic of ethics - In India, they eat without a fork at all,
is its grounding in reason and human using the fingers of their right hands to
experience. deliver food from their plate to their
mouth.
MORALITY AND LAW
TRAITS OF MORAL PRINCIPLES
- Many laws are instituted in order to
promote well-being, resolve conflicts of - A central feature of morality is the moral
interest and promote social harmony, just principle.
as morality does. - We have already noted that moral
- Ethics may judge that some laws are principles are practical action guides, but
immoral without denying that they have we must say more about the traits of such
legal authority. E.g. laws may permit principles.
slavery, spousal abuse, racial - Although there is no universal agreement
discrimination, or sexual discrimination, on the traits a moral principle must have,
but these are immoral practices. there is a wide consensus about five
features:
Situation:
1. PRESCRIPTIVITY- which is the practical, or
- If you are a trial lawyer, and one day you
action-guiding, nature of morality. Moral
have discovered that your client had
principles are generally put forth as commands
committed a murder some years earlier
or imperatives, such as “Do not kill,” “Do no
for which another man had been wrongly
unnecessary harm,” and “Love your neighbor.”
convicted and would soon be executed.
Will you act to save the innocent man - They are intended for use: to advise people
from execution? and influence action.
- Prescriptivity shares this trait with all
MORALITY AND ETIQUETTE
normative discourse and is used to appraise
- Etiquette concerns form and style rather behavior, assign praise and blame, and
than the essence of social existence; it produce feelings of satisfaction or guilt.
determines what is polite behavior rather
2. UNIVERSABILITY - Moral principles must
than what is a right behavior in a deeper
apply to all people who are in a relevantly
sense.
similar situation. If one judges that act X is right
- It represents society’s decision on how we
for a certain person P, then it is right for anyone
dress, greet one another, eat, celebrate
relevantly similar to P.
festivals, dispose of the dead, express
gratitude or appreciation and to carry out - This trait is exemplified in the Golden Rule,
social transactions. “Do to others what you would want them to
- How we greet each other: handshake, a do to you (if you were in their shoes).” We
bow, a hug, or kiss on the cheek on their also see it in the formal principle of justice:
social system. E.g. Russians wear their It cannot be right for A to treat B in a
wedding rings on the third finger of their manner in which it would be wrong for B to
right hands. treat A, merely on the ground that they are
- Americans wear them on their left hands. two different individuals.
English hold their forks in their left hands - Universalizability applies to all evaluative
whereas in other countries in their right. judgments.
- If I say that X is a good Y, then I am logically may be morally justified in following a
committed to judge that anything relevantly perceived command from God that over
similar to X is a good Y. rides a normal moral rule.
- This trait is an extension of the principle of - John’s pacifist religious beliefs may cause
consistency: One ought to be consistent him to renege on an obligation to fight for
about one’s value judgments, including his country. On face value, religious
one’s moral judgments. morality qualifies as morality and thus has
- Take any act that you are contemplating legitimacy.
doing and ask, “Could I will that everyone
4. PUBLICITY - Religion is a special case: Many
act according to this principle?”
philosophers argue that a religious person may
3. OVERRIDINGNESS - Moral principles have be morally justified in following a perceived
predominant authority and override other kinds command from God that over rides a normal
of principles. moral rule.

- They are not the only principles, but they - John’s pacifist religious beliefs may cause
also take precedence over other him to renege on an obligation to fight for
considerations including aesthetic, his country.
prudential, and legal ones. - On face value, religious morality qualifies as
- The artist Paul Gauguin may have been morality and thus has legitimacy.
aesthetically justified in abandoning his
5. PRACTICABILITY - A moral principle must
family to devote his life to painting beautiful
have practicability, which means that it must be
Pacific Island pictures, but morally he
workable and its rules must not lay a heavy
probably was not justified.
burden on us when we follow them.
- It may be prudent to lie to save my
reputation, but it probably is morally wrong - The philosopher John Rawls speaks of the
to do so—in which case, I should tell the “strains of commitment” that overly
truth. idealistic principles may cause in average
- When the law becomes egregiously moral agents.
immoral, it may be my moral duty to - It might be desirable for morality to require
exercise civil disobedience. more selfless behavior from us, but the
- There is a general moral duty to obey the result of such principles could be moral
law because the law serves an overall moral despair, deep or undue moral guilt, and
purpose, and this overall purpose may give ineffective action.
us moral reasons to obey laws that may not - Accordingly, most ethical systems take
be moral or ideal. human limitations into consideration.
- There may come a time, however, when the - Although moral philosophers disagree
injustice of a bad law is intolerable and somewhat about these five traits, the above
hence calls for illegal but moral defiance. discussion offers at least an idea of the
- A good example would be laws in A good general features of moral principles.
example would be laws in the South prior to
the Civil War requiring citizens to return DOMAIN OF ETHICAL ASSESTMENT
runaway slaves to their owners.
- Religion is a special case: Many
philosophers argue that a religious person
- At this point, it might seem that ethics act of calling the police was clearly a right
concerns itself entirely with rules of conduct action—and an obligatory one at that. But,
that are based solely on evaluating acts. some acts do not seem either obligatory
However, it is more complicated than that. or wrong.
- Most ethical analysis falls into one or more - Whether you take a course in art history
of the following domains: or English literature or whether you write
a letter with a pencil or pen seems morally
1. ACTION
neutral. Either is permissible.
- One way of ethically assessing this situation - Whether you listen to rock music or
is to examine the actions of both the classical music is not usually considered
attacker and the good neighbor: The morally significant.
attacker’s actions were wrong whereas the - Listening to both is allowed, and neither is
neighbor’s actions were right. The term obligatory.
right has two meanings. - Whether you marry or remain single is an
- Sometimes, it means “obligatory” (as in important decision about how to live your
“the right act”), but it also can mean life.
“permissible” One way of ethically assessing - The decision you reach, however, is
this situation is to examine the actions of usually considered morally neutral or
both the attacker and the good neighbor: optional.
The attacker’s actions were wrong whereas - Under most circumstances, to marry (or
the neighbor’s actions were right. The term not to marry) is considered neither
right has two meanings. obligatory nor wrong but permissible.
- Sometimes, it means “obligatory” (as in
SUPEREROGATORY ACTS OR HIGHLY ALTUISTIC
“the right act”), but it also can mean
ACTS
“permissible”
- These acts are neither required nor
1. A right act is an act that is permissible for you
obligatory, but they exceed what morality
to do. It may be either (a) obligatory or (b)
requires, going “beyond the call of duty.”
optional.
- For example, suppose the responsible
a. OBLIGATORY ACT - Is one that neighbor ran outside to actually confront
morality requires you to do; it is not permissible the attacker rather than simply shout at
for you to refrain from doing it. him from the window.
- Thus, the neighbor would assume an extra
b. OPTIONAL ACT - is one that is neither risk that would not be morally required.
obligatory nor wrong to do. It is not your duty Similarly, while you may be obligated to
to do it, nor is it your duty not to do it. Neither give a donation to help people in dire
doing it nor not doing it would be wrong. need, you would not be obligated to sell
2. WRONG ACT – is one you have an obligation, your car, let alone become impoverished
or a duty, to refrain from doing: It is an act you yourself, to help them.
ought not to do; it is not permissible to do it. The complete scheme of acts, then, is this:
- In our example, the attacker’s assault on 1. Right act (permissible)
the woman was clearly a wrong action
(prohibited); by contrast, the neighbor’s a. Obligatory act
 b. Optional act - The most famous of these theories is
utilitarianism, set forth by Jeremy Bentham
(1) Neutral act
(1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–
(2) Supererogatory act 1873), which requires us to do what is
likeliest to have the best consequences.
2. Wrong act (not permissible) - In Mill’s words, “Actions are right in
- One important kind of ethical theory that proportion as they tend to promote
emphasizes the nature of the act is called happiness; wrong as they tend to produce
deontological (from the Greek word deon, the reverse of happiness.”
meaning “duty”). Example:
- These theories hold that something is
inherently right or good about such acts as - take the consequences of the attacker’s
truth telling and promise keeping and actions. At minimum he physically harms
inherently wrong or bad about such acts as the woman and psychologically traumatizes
lying and promise breaking. both her and her neighbors; if he succeeds
- Classical deontological ethical principles in killing her, then he emotionally
include the Ten Commandments and the devastates her family and friends, perhaps
Golden Rule. for life. And what does he gain from this?
- Perhaps the leading proponent of Just a temporary experience of sadistic
deontological ethics in recent centuries is pleasure. On balance, his action has
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who defended overwhelmingly negative consequences and
a principle of moral duty that he calls the thus is wrong.
categorical imperative: “Act only on that
CHARACTER
maxim whereby you can at the same time
will that it would become a universal law.” - Whereas some ethical theories emphasize
- Examples for Kant are “Never break your the nature of actions in themselves and
promise” and “Never commit suicide.” some emphasize principles involving the
What all of these deontological theories and consequences of actions, other theories
principles have in common is the view that emphasize character, or virtue.
we have an inherent duty to perform right
Example:
actions and avoid bad actions.
- the attacker has an especially bad character
CONSEQUENCES
trait—namely, malevolence—which taints
- Another way of ethically assessing his entire outlook on life and predisposes
situations is to examine the consequences him to act in harmful ways. The attacker is a
of an action: If the consequences are on bad person principally for having this bad
balance positive, then the action is right; if character trait of malevolence. The
negative, then wrong. responsible neighbor, on the other hand,
- Ethical theories that focus primarily on has a good character trait, which directs his
consequences in determining moral outlook on life—namely, benevolence,
rightness and wrongness are called which is the tendency to treat people with
teleological ethics (from the Greek telos, kindness and assist those in need.
meaning “goal directed”). Accordingly, the neighbor is a good person
largely for possessing this good trait.
MORAL PHILOSOPHER GOOD TRAITS thing, whereas in (B) he did the right thing.
A full moral description of any act will take
- VIRTUES
motive into account as a relevant factor.
MORAL PHILOSOPHER BAD TRAITS

- VICES
 Entire theories of morality have been
developed from these notions and
 are called virtue theories.
 The classic proponent of virtue theory was
Aristotle (384–322 BCE), who maintained
that the development of virtuous character
traits is needed to ensure that we habitually
act rightly.
 Although it may be helpful to have action-
guiding rules, it is vital to empower our
character with the tendency to do good.
Many people know that cheating, gossiping,
or overindulging in food or alcohol is wrong,
but they are incapable of doing what is
right.
 Virtuous people spontaneously do the right
thing and may not even consciously follow
moral rules when doing so.

MOTIVE

 examining the motive of the people

involved.
 The attacker intended to brutalize and kill
the woman; the neighbor intended to
thwart the attacker and thereby help the
woman.
 Virtually all ethical systems recognize the
importance of motives. For a full
assessment of any action, it is important to
take the agent’s motive into account.
 Two acts may appear identical on the
surface, but one may be judged morally
blameworthy and the other excusable.
Consider John’s pushing Mary off a ledge,
causing her to break her leg.
- In situation (A), he is angry and intends to
harm her, but in situation (B) he sees a knife
flying in her direction and intends to save
her life. In (A) he clearly did the wrong