Bilingual Grammar School Advanced Level Computer Science

CHAPTER 1: COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE  Function keys, labeled F1-F12, perform specific functions based on the software used. F1 for
example is used in most software to display help.
Introduction  Alphabetical keys
The term computer is derived from the word “compute” which means “to calculate.” This simply  Numerical keys
means that the computer is a calculating machine. Every thousandth of a second or so, a computer  Navigation keys also called direction keys are used to navigate through documents and
performs thousands, millions, or even billions of simple arithmetic operations in order to carry out websites. Examples of navigation keys are the up, down, left and right arrows.
its tasks.  Action keys
Formally, a computer is defined as an electronic device that can accept, store and process data to
produce information. It can also be defined as a machine that can accept instructions and perform The way keys are arranged on a keyboard is known as the layout of the keyboard. There are
computations based on those instructions. different keyboard layouts but the best known are QWERTY mainly used by English speakers and
The term computer organization refers to the physical organization of the components in a AZERTY used by French speakers. Another keyboard layout modified greatly from a standard layout
computer system, and to the characteristics of those components. It includes the high-level aspects is DVORAK, devised to increase typing speed by placing frequently used keys more naturally.
of a computer’s design, such as the memory system, the memory interconnect, and the design of the A keyboard connects to the computer through cable PS/2 cable, USB cable or wireless (cordless).
internal processor or CPU.
1.1.2. Mouse
1. Hardware A mouse is a handheld device which is moved across a flat surface to control the movement of a
Hardware refers to the physical and tangible components of the computer like the keyboard, mouse, cursor or pointer on the computer screen. It is a pointing device. A standard mouse has two buttons,
monitor and internal circuits. Computer hardware components can be grouped into five functionally the right and the left buttons, which are pressed to enter commands into the computer.
independent main units: input, control, arithmetic and logic, memory and output units. Different actions that can be performed with a mouse are:
The input unit accepts coded information from human operators using devices such as keyboards,  Click: Pressing the left mouse button. This action can be used to select objects (files, folders,
or from other computers over digital communication lines. The information received is stored in the commands) or options in a menu.
computer’s memory, either for later use or to be processed immediately by the arithmetic and logic  Double-click: Pressing the left button two times in quick succession. It can be used to open
unit. The processing steps are specified by a program that is also stored in the memory. Finally, the a file, folder or program.
results are sent back to the outside world through the output unit. All of these actions are  Right-click: Pressing the right mouse button. A right-click opens a context menu from
coordinated by the control unit. which options like cut, copy and paste can be selected.
 Drag and drop: Pressing the left mouse button and moving the mouse while holding, is a
Processing Unit drag while releasing the left mouse button after a drag is a drop. Drag and drop can be used
to move files or documents from one place to another, and to select text.
Control Unit
Input Unit Output Unit A mouse connects to a computer through PS/2 cable (PS/2 mouse), USB cable (USB mouse), or
wireless (optical mouse).
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
1.1.3. Scanner
A scanner is a device that is used to input printed images such as photographs or pages of text
Memory Unit directly into the computer. It converts hardcopy information into electronic form (softcopy) for
storage in the computer. A scanner works by shining a light at the image being scanned and
Functional Units of a Computer measuring how much light is reflected back using an optical sensor. The amount of light
that is reflected back tells the computer how light or dark the image is at each point.
Common scanner devices are the flatbed scanner, optical mark reader, optical character reader,
1.1. Input Unit
barcode reader and magnetic ink character reader.
The input unit consists of hardware components that allow the computer user to enter data and
commands into the computer. These components are called input devices. Examples of input
a. Flatbed Scanner
devices are keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, light pen, touchpad, tracker ball and microphone.
A flatbed scanner is a scanner in which the object to be scanned is placed flat against a piece of glass.
When the object is placed, the scanner moves the light and sensor itself and scans the whole
1.1.1. Keyboard
The keyboard is the standard input device attached to computers. It is a device with keys that are image automatically. Most flatbed scanners are A4 size
pressed to enter data and commands into the computer. These keys represent letters, numbers,
symbols and control characters. When a key is pressed, a number (code) representing each b. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
c. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
character, is sent to the computer to tell it which key has been pressed. The keyboard has a
d. Barcode Reader
total of 101-104 keys divided into different groups or keypads.

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Bilingual Grammar School Advanced Level Computer Science

e. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

1.3. The Processing Unit
1.2. Output Unit The processing unit, also called central processing unit (CPU), is an integrated circuit or “chip”
The output unit consists of devices that allow the user to retrieve information from the computer. which processes instructions and data. It is the part of the computer that interprets and executes
Output devices provide the results of computations to the person using the computer, in a way they program instructions. It also controls the other components of the system. The CPU is made up of
can understand. Examples are monitor, printer, speaker and projector. three main components: the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), the control unit (CU) and registers.
Examples of CPUs are Intel Pentium II, III, IV, Pentium Celeron, and AMD Athlon.
1.2.1. Monitor
Also referred to as VDU (Visual Display Unit), the monitor is the most popular output device. It 1.3.1. Control Unit
displays information generated by a computer on a screen. Such output is known as softcopy output. The control unit acts like supervisor seeing that things are done as they ought to. It locates and
Monitors are characterized by the technology they use, their resolution and their size. retrieves program instructions from memory, interprets them and ensures that they are executed in
proper sequence. It also ensures that data is selected from memory as necessary and information is
 By the technology used, monitors are of two main types: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
stored correctly as well.
monitors and Flat Panel Display.
o CRT monitors are similar to a television set.
1.3.2. Arithmetic-Logic Unit
o Flat panel display monitors are of different types: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic operations. It contains arithmetic
Electroluminescent Display (ELD), Gas Plasma (GP) and Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
circuits that perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
monitors.
and logic circuits that perform comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, greater than or
equal to and less than or equal to.
Question: What are the advantages of flat panel monitors over CRT?
1.3.3. Registers
 Monitor resolution refers to the number of dots (pixels – picture elements) on the screen.
Registers are special storage locations within the CPU that offer an advantage of speed. They work
It is expressed as a pair of numbers that give the number of dots on a row and the
under the direction of the control unit to accept and hold data that is being processed. Since the CPU
number of rows. A variety of different resolutions are available. For example, VGA is 640
uses registers for the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size of each
x 480. This means that there are 640 pixels in each row across the screen and 480 pixels
register affect the power and speed of the CPU.
in each column up and down the screen. SVGA is 800x600.
Registers are grouped into two: special purpose registers and general purpose registers.
640 pixels
 Special purpose registers are dedicated to specific tasks like:
640 VGA o the accumulator which collects the result of computations,
pixels Screen o the memory address register (MAR) which keeps track of where a given instruction or
piece of data is stored in memory
o the memory data register (MDR)which holds data values.
The size of a pixel is known as dot pitch. The smaller the dot pitch, the higher the number of dots
o the program counter (PC) which holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.
the screen has. Displays with lots of pixels are called high resolution while those with fewer
o The current instruction register (CIR) which holds the instruction being executed.
pixels are called low resolution. The higher the resolution, the clearer and sharper the image will
appear on the monitor. Most monitors come with a .28 dot pitch.
 General purpose registers on the other hand have no specific function; they are used
according to the need of the program being executed.
 The size of a monitor refers to how big the monitor is. It is measured in inches along the
diagonal from the bottom left hand corner to the top right hand corner of the screen.
Question: How would you define processing?
Typical sizes are 10" or 12" for LCDs and 14", 15" or 21" for desktop monitors.
1.3.4. The Instruction Cycle
1.2.2. Printer
The instruction cycle describes how program instructions are repeatedly fetched, decoded and
A printer is a device that produces computer-generated information on paper. Such output is
executed, one instruction at a time, until an instruction to HALT is encountered. Before an
referred to as printout or hardcopy. Based on the technology used, printers can be classified into
instruction can be fetched, it must be placed into memory as well as related data, from an input or
impact and non-impact printers.
secondary storage device. Once the necessary data and instructions are in memory, the central
 Impact printers have mechanical contact between paper and printing head (e.g. daisy wheel,
processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction:
dot matrix and line printers).
1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from memory.
 Non-impact printers have no mechanical contact between paper and printing head (e.g. ink-
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e. determines what they mean, and directs that the
jet, desk- jet, laser printers).
necessary data be moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.

Question: What are the advantages and disadvantages of impact and non-impact printers?
© 2014- BGS Molyko 2
Bilingual Grammar School Advanced Level Computer Science

3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on the data. That is, the ALU is given meaning that everything held in it is lost when power is switched off. Two types of RAM exist: Static
control and performs the actual operation on the data. RAM and dynamic RAM.
4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) consists of capacitors that slowly leak their charge over time. Thus,
they must be refreshed every few milliseconds to prevent data loss. DRAM is cheap memory
owing to its simple design.

 Static RAM (SRAM) consists of circuits that retain their charge over time. SRAM is faster and
more expensive than dynamic RAM, and does not need to be refreshed as DRAM does. Due to
The Instruction Cycle its cost it is not used as main memory but rather to build cache memory.

Steps 1 and 2 together are called instruction time or I-time and steps 3 and 4 together are called b. Read Only Memory
execution time or E-time. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine or instruction Read only memory (ROM) is a kind of memory whose contents can only be read by the computer.
cycle or the fetch-decode-execute cycle. The length of time taken to fetch, decode and execute an Data found in ROM is written by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the user. ROM is
instruction is measured in clock cycles. useful for holding data that never changes like the “boot” or start-up program which is run when the
computer is switched on.ROM is non-volatile meaning that its content is preserved even without
1.3.5. System Clock power. There are four types of ROM:
The CPU has a small quartz crystal circuit called the system clock that controls the timing of all
computer operations. The system clock generates regular electronic pulses, or ticks, that set the  Masked ROM is ROM programmed with its data when the chip is fabricated.
operating pace of components of the system unit. Each tick is known as clock cycle and the pace of  Programmable ROM (PROM) is ROM that can be programmed once but not reprogrammed.
the system clock is called clock speed. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (Mhz) or gigahertz  Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) is ROM that can be erased by strong ultraviolet light
(Ghz) and refers to the number of clock cycles per second that the CPU runs at. Mega and giga stand and new data burnt into it. To do this the chip has to be removed from the machine and put
for million and billion respectively while hertz means cycles per second. Thus, 1Ghz means one back after the changes have been made.
billion cycles per second. A computer that operates at 3 Ghz has 3 billion (giga) clock cycles in one  Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) is ROM whose content can be erased
second (hertz). electrically. In this case, the chip need not be removed from the machine. The programming is
The faster the clock speed, the more instructions the processor can execute per second. The speed done using special software.
of the system clock has no effect on devices such as a printer or disk drive. The speed of the system
clock is just one factor that influences a computer’s performance. Other factors, such as the type of c. Cache Memory
processor chip, amount of cache, memory access time, bus width, and bus clock speed. Cache memory is a smaller and faster memory between the CPU and main memory, which stores
copies of data from the most frequently accessed memory locations. The purpose of cache memory
1.4. Memory Unit is to speed up accesses by storing recently used data closer to the CPU, instead of storing it in main
The memory unit, also called storage unit, consists of computer components that hold programs and memory. Cache is static RAM and is usually organized in levels:
data for use in the computer. Memory or storage devices hold programs and data that can be made  Level 1 (L1) cache, Level 2 and Level 3 cache.
available for initial or additional processing when required. A storage device is made of two parts:  Level 1 cache is closest to the CPU or within it.
the storage medium and the device.  L2 and L3 caches are outside it.
 The medium is the surface or substrate that holds actual data
 The device reads information from or stores information onto the medium When the CPU needs to access memory, cache memory is examined first. If the data is found in
cache, it is read from it. Otherwise, main memory is accessed. When the CPU refers to memory and
Computer storage can be classified basically into two: primary storage and secondary storage. finds the data in cache, it is said to be a HIT. Otherwise, it is a MISS.

1.4.1. Primary Memory 1.4.2. Secondary Memory

Primary memory/storage is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds programs and data that the CPU Secondary memory is not directly accessible to the CPU. It is used to store programs and data for
is currently working with. Primary memory is also called internal memory, immediate access backup purposes (future use). It could be placed within the computer or connected externally.
memory or primary storage. Primary memory consists of random access memory, read only Programs and data from secondary memory must be transferred to main memory for processing.
memory and cache memory. Secondary memory is also called secondary storage, mass storage, backing storage or external
storage. It can be divided into magnetic storage, optical storage and solid state storage.
a. Random Access Memory
Random access memory (RAM) also called “main memory” is the temporary storage space into a. Magnetic Storage
which a computer loads programs and user data when it is running. It is the computer’s working Magnetic storage devices store data as electromagnetic charges on the magnetic surfaces of the
space. It is read/write meaning that data can be read from and written onto it. RAM is also volatile storage units. Examples are floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic tape.

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Bilingual Grammar School Advanced Level Computer Science

 Floppy Disk o CD-R stands for compact disc recordable. It is a type of CD that can be recorded by the
A floppy disk consists of a round flexible plastic disk coated with a magnetic substance and user. Once the user records on the CD, the content is set and cannot be changed. CD-R can
protected by a plastic cover lined with a soft material that wipes the disk clean as it spins. The disk be read by CD-ROM drives but to write on them, you need a CD-R drive.
is made of two recordable surfaces which are divided into a number of circular paths called tracks. o CD-RW stands for compact disc rewritable. It is a type of CD that can be recorded, erased
The number of tracks per surface varies with the particular type of disk. Each track is in turn and reused by the user. CD-RW cannot be read by a CD-ROM and CD-R drives. CD-RW
divided into a number of smaller units called sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage on the disk drives are required to read and write on them.
and has a capacity of 512 bytes.
 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
 Hard Disk A DVD is similar to a CD in size and thickness but has a higher storage capacity than the CD. DVDs
A hard disk consists of several metallic platters which store data. Each platter has two sides and is use a laser beam of wavelength shorter than used by CDs. This allows for smaller indentations and
divided into a number of rings called tracks. Tracks on a platter are numbered 0 from the outside increased storage capacity. Just like the CD, different ions of the DVD exist: DVD-ROM, DVD-R and
and usually go up to 1023. Each track is divided into sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage on DVD-RW. A DVD can store up to 17GB of data. Common DVD storage capacities are:
the disk and has a capacity of 512 bytes. Sectors are grouped together to form clusters. A cluster is
the smallest logical amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file. A cylinder is a sum set Types Characteristics Capacity
of all the tracks on all the platters that have the same track value. DVD-5 Single-sided, Single-layer 4.7GB
Factors that determine the performance of hard disks are, seek time and drive rotational speed. DVD-9 Single-side, Dual-layer 8.5GB
o Seek time is the time taken to move the read/write head over the right track and sector. DVD-10 Double-side, Single-layer 9.4GB
o Drive rotational speed is the total number of revolutions the disk platters make per DVD-18 Double-side, Dual-layer 17.1GB
minute. Higher rotational speed leads to higher transfer rate.
 Blu-Ray Disc
A Blu-ray disc is an optical disc similar to a DVD and of same size, but read and written with a blue
or violet laser, whose shorter wavelength makes a higher data density possible. Blu-ray discs can
hold 25 GB for single layer or 50 GB for double layer.

c. Solid State Storage

The term solid-state essentially means no moving parts. Solid-state storage devices are based on
electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels, no spinning disks). They store data using a special
type of memory called flash memory. Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that can only be erased in
blocks; it cannot be erased one byte at a time. In this regard it resembles a disk that is divided into
sectors. Flash memory is usually used for storing larger amounts of data while EEPROM is used for
 Magnetic Tape small amounts of data, such as machine configuration. Examples of solid state devices are USB
A magnetic tape consists of a magnetically coated stripe on which data is stored. Data is stored on memory sticks, memory cards and secure digital cards.
the magnetic tape in chronological order or sequentially. This means that any piece of data is always
stored in the next available space on the tape. To access data, the tape drive has to move through all  USB Flash Drive
the preceding data before it can access the desired data. This mode of access is known as sequential A flash drive is a small, keychain-sized flash memory device with a USB interface, treated by the
access. Less susceptible to environment, they are suitable for long-term storage and backup. computer as if it were a disk drive. A flash drive is also called thumb drive, jump drive or memory
stick.USB flash drives have practically replaced diskettes as a handy way to transport data. They can
b. Optical Storage be carried in one’s pocket and plugged into any computer for immediate access.
Optical storage devices store data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disk surface. Examples
are Compact discs, digital versatile discs and Blu-ray discs. They are less susceptible to  Secure Digital Cards
environmental damage. A secure digital (SD) card is a type of flash-memory card that incorporates a cryptographic security
system to prevent copyright violations, often used in digital music players and digital cameras.
 Compact Disc (CD)
A CD is a round disk coated with a metallic surface on which data can be stored and accessed via 1.4.3. Characteristics of Storage Devices
laser technology. To store or access data on a CD, the CD drive focuses a laser beam on the disc Five important characteristics of storage devices are capacity, access time, access method, volatility
surface. Different variations of CD exist: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW. A CD can store 650MB to and mutability.
700MB of data.
o CD-ROM stands for compact disc read only memory. CD-ROMs can only be read but not a. Capacity
recorded on by the user’s computer. Their content is set during manufacture.

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Bilingual Grammar School Advanced Level Computer Science

The capacity of a storage device is the maximum amount of data that can be stored on the device’s Examples are RAM, Flash memory, CD-RW, DVD-RW. Those that can be accessed only for reading
medium. It is expressed in terms of the number of data bytes the device can hold. This simply means are immutable (read only). Examples are ROM, CD and DVD.
the unit of measurement of storage capacity is byte. Units of storage are summarized as follows:
1.4.4. Memory Hierarchy
1 bit = 0 or 1 Modern computers manage memory by organizing memory into a hierarchy in which large and
4 bits = 1 nibble slower memories feed data into smaller but faster memories for faster processing of data. This
8 bits = 1 byte 1 character organization of computer memory is known as memory hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy are
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB) approx. 1/2 page the CPU registers followed by cache memory. The next level in the hierarchy is made up of main
1024 KB = 1 megabyte (MB) approx. 500,000 pages memory, which is followed by magnetic disk.
1024 MB = 1 gigabyte (GB) approx. 5 million pages
1024 GB = 1 terabyte (TB) approx. 5 billion pages Registers

Cache Memory
b. Access time
Access time is the average time taken for a storage device to search and read required data on its Faster and Main Memory
Slower and
medium. In other words, it is how fast data can be read from or written to a memory device’s smaller in size
Magnetic Disk larger in size
medium. It is measured in seconds. Units of time are summarized as follows:
Millisecond (ms) = Optical Disc/Solid State Devices
Microsecond (µs) =
Magnetic Tape
Nanosecond (ns) =
Picoseconds (ps) =
Femtoseconds (fs) = Memory hierarchy

c. Access Method
An access method is the technique used to retrieve information from or store information to a 1.5. The Motherboard
medium. Storage media can be accessed in two ways: sequentially or randomly. The motherboard is the main printed circuit board in the computer which holds the chipset and
other electronic components that give function to the computer. The motherboard is indispensable
 Sequential Access to the computer and provides the main computing capability.
The medium is accessed by proceeding from the beginning of the medium until the designated area
is reached. Any new data is stored in the next available space on the medium. To read any data 1.5.1. Motherboard Form Factor
stored on the medium, the device has to start from the beginning going through each data until the Motherboard types are better described by what we call the motherboard form factor. The form
required data is found. An example of sequential access medium is magnetic tape. factor of a motherboard determines the specifications for its general shape and size. It also specifies
what type of case and power supply will be supported, the placement of mounting holes, and the
 Random Access physical layout and organization of the board. The most common form factors found in modern PCs
Random access means that any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately are:
the same amount of time. Data is accessed in any order, regardless of its location on the medium. To  Advanced Technology (AT)
read any data stored on the medium, the device does not need to go through all preceding data. It is  Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
also called direct access. Examples of direct access devices are RAM, ROM, CDs, DVDs and magnetic  Low Profile Extension (LPX)
disks.  New Low profile Extended (NLPX)

d. Volatility 1.5.2. The System Bus

Volatility refers to the behavior of the device without power. A device can be volatile or non-volatile. A computer bus is a set of parallel lines that interconnects various components inside the computer,
Volatile means that the device loses its content when power is switched off. Examples of volatile allowing the exchange of data between them. It is the pathway between these components, enabling
devices are Cache and RAM. data to be transferred from one component to another. The width or size of a bus is determined by
Non-volatile means that the device preserves its content even without power. Examples of non- the number of lines it has. The system bus is made up of three different busses: the data bus, the
volatile devices are ROM, magnetic disks, optical discs and solid state devices. address bus and the control bus.

e. Mutability a. The Data Bus

Mutability simple refers to the ability for the device to be accessed for reading and/or writing. The data bus carries data between the CPU and main memory or peripherals. During a write
Storage devices to which data can be written and read from are said to be mutable (read/write). operation, data is carried from the CPU and during a read operation, data is carried into the CPU.

© 2014- BGS Molyko 5

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