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Long Duration Spaceflight Problems

The document discusses the nature and risks of space radiation, including solar and galactic cosmic radiation, and outlines exposure limits and allowable doses for astronauts. It emphasizes the importance of understanding radiation effects on human health, particularly regarding cancer risks and the need for effective shielding during long-duration spaceflights. Additionally, it highlights key research questions related to radiation exposure and its impact on human physiology in space.

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4 views

Long Duration Spaceflight Problems

The document discusses the nature and risks of space radiation, including solar and galactic cosmic radiation, and outlines exposure limits and allowable doses for astronauts. It emphasizes the importance of understanding radiation effects on human health, particularly regarding cancer risks and the need for effective shielding during long-duration spaceflights. Additionally, it highlights key research questions related to radiation exposure and its impact on human physiology in space.

Uploaded by

batowe8556
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Long Duration Spaceflight

Prof. Jeffrey Hoffman


Radiation and Human Spaceflight

Jeffrey A. Hoffman
MIT
Nature of Space Radiation
(outside the Earth’s radiation belts)

•Solar Radiation
•Flares
•Coronal Mass Ejections

•Galactic Cosmic Radiation

•Induced Radiation
(spallation, etc.)

Solar and cosmic proton


energy spectra
[Spillantini, et al., 2000]
Radiation
• Terminology:
– RAD (Radiation Absorbed Dose) = 100 ergs/gm
– GRAY or Gy (SI unit) = 1 joule/kg = 100 rads
– REM (cgs) or SIEVERT (SI) Dose Equivalent Units
Rad or Gray dosage multiplied by a quality factor (QF)
• Quality Factors:
– X-rays, Gamma Rays, 0.1-1.0 MeV electrons : QF = 1
– Thermal Neutrons (<.005 MeV) : QF ~ 2.5
– 1 MeV Neutrons, 0.1-1.0 MeV Protons : QF ~ 10
– Alpha Particles and Heavy Nuclei : QF up to 20
Radiation Exposure Limits

Constraints in REM Bone Skin Eye Testes


(1 Rem = 0.01 Sievert) 5 cm 0.1 mm 3 mm 3 cm

1 yr average daily rate 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.1

30 day max 25 75 37 13

Quarterly max 35 105 52 18

Yearly max 75 225 112 38

Career Limit 400 1200 600 200

(Double the statistical chance of leukemia in 20 years from 1 in 50,000 to 2 in 50,000)


Allowable Radiation Doses
• Legal Limits based on annual exposure
– 5 REM/year in USA with guideline of <10 REM/5 years
– 2 REM/year in Europe (0.02 Si/year)
• Epidemiological studies cannot track risk at <5
REM (acute) or <10 REM (lifetime)
• Sea Level Background Exposure 0.005 rad/year (.05 in brick houses)
• Round Trip Cross-Country Airplane Trip 0.004 rad
• Living in Denver (“Mile-High City”) 0.20 rad/year
• Chest X-ray 0.05 rad
• Dental X-ray 1.0 rad (mainly limited to mouth)
• Typical Shuttle Flight 0.05 rad
• Apollo Moon Landings 0.2-1.1 rad
• Skylab 2,3,4 (1,2,3 months) 2.4, 6.0, 7.4 rad
• Estimated Mars trip (no large solar flares) ~100 REM
Other Radiation Considerations
• Short-term acute radiation (<1 week) is ~2x more dangerous than long-term
radiation
• 100-200 rad (1-2 Gy) produces nausea and vomiting
– The most sensitive cells are rapidly dividing cells such as stomach lining and
intestinal cells (and hair cells).
– The next to go are sperm cells and bone marrow
• >200 rad affects blood cell count and ability to fight infection
• Lethal Doses
– 200 rad can be a fatal dose
– 50% will die at 450 rad in ~6 weeks with no treatment
– 100% will die at 800 rad with no treatment
– Up to 2000 rad have been survived with exceptional treatment and luck
• Long-term
– 4 x 10-4 fatal cancers/REM with long latency
– i.e.1000 REM (10 Si) total body dose gives a ~40% chance of cancer over the “long
term”
– Hardiest tissues are nerve cells and egg cells
Nature of Space Radiation
(outside the Earth’s radiation belts)

•Solar Radiation
•Flares
•Coronal Mass Ejections

•Galactic Cosmic Radiation

•Induced Radiation
(spallation, etc.)

Solar and cosmic proton


energy spectra
[Spillantini, et al., 2000]
Space Radiation
Space Radiation
Carrington Event – 1 September, 1859
Space Radiation
Large stars die in supernova explosions,
spewing cosmic rays throughout the galaxy.
Radiation Doses for Different NASA Missions

= 1 rad/rem
Passive Shielding against Radiation:

§Electrons, photons, low-energy protons (SPEs):


§No nuclear reactions
§Stopped mainly by interactions with electrons
§Maximize number of electrons per unit mass (Pb)

§High-energy protons, neutrons, and cosmic rays:


§Interact with nuclei to create showers
§Maximize ratio of electrons per nucleon
§Hydrogen ratio = 1
§Light elements ratio ~0.5
§Heavy elements ratio <0.5
Lots of uncertainty still exists, requiring experimental data!
Are there biochemical ways to remediate the
cancer-causing effects of radiation?
HIGHEST-PRIORITY RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the carcinogenic risks following irradiation by protons and HZE particles?
2. How do cell killing and induction of chromosomal aberrations vary as a function of the
thickness and composition of shielding?
3. Are there studies that can be conducted to increase the confidence of extrapolation from
rodents to humans of radiation-induced genetic alterations that in turn could enhance
similar extrapolations for cancer?
4. Does exposure to heavy ions at the level that would occur during deep-space missions of
long duration pose a risk to the integrity and function of the central nervous system?
5. How can better error analyses be performed of all factors contributing to estimation of
risk by a particular method, and what are the types and magnitude of uncertainty associated with
method? What alternate methods for calculation of risk can be used to compare with
conventional predictions in order to assess absolute uncertainties? How can these analyses
and calculations be used to better determine how the uncertainties in the methods affect
estimates of human risks and mission costs?
6. How do the selection and design of the space vehicle affect the radiation environment in
which the crew has to exist?
7. Can solar particle events be predicted with sufficient advance warning to allow
crewmembers to return to the safety of a shielded storm shelter?
LOWER-PRIORITY RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the risks of reduced fertility and sterility as a result of exposure to radiation on
missions of long duration in deep space?
2. What are the risks of clinically significant cataracts being induced by exposure to radiation at
the levels that will occur on extended space flights?
3. Can drugs be used to protect against the acute or carcinogenic effects of exposure to
radiation in space?
4. Is there an assay that can provide information on an individual's sensitivity to radiation-
induced mutagenicity and that can be predictive of a predisposition for susceptibility to
cancer?
5. Are there differences in biological response arising from exposure to particles with similar
LET, but with different atomic numbers and energies?
Prof. Jeffrey A. Hoffman
MIT
Lec
Parts of lecture originally developed by:
Spatial Orientation
Photo NASA
Mental Rotation

A well-known
person is not
easily
recognized
when
upside-down
Elvis Presley
Who’s That Girl ?

Distortions in the features of a face are not evident when


the face is upside-down
Madonna (1984)

Distortions in the features of a face are not evident when


the face is upside-down
The Sun as seen from
Earth Mars
Atmospheric Supersonic Propulsive
Heating Parachute Landing

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