Chapter one

Definition, Characteristics purpose and types of research

Introduction

The basic research is about establishing the fact. Research is objective. Research is scientific and
can prove anything you want. Research can be done in many ways. A review of research will
reveal a great list of types of research. The nature of the problem determines the choice of the
research method. It is imperative that the researcher uses scientific method to be assured of
activity in collecting facts and verifying concepts for alternative economic strategies.

The magnitude of economic problem is growing. Today, for instance, the launching of a new
project may cost millions of Birr. Because of that policy makers are requiring more and more
economic information as a means of reducing uncertainties in decision making process,
Therefore, the essential purpose of business research is to provide information which will
facilitate the identification of opportunity or problem situation and to aid managers, investors or
any other users in arriving at the best possible decision. The definition of economic research
must stress how the data are collected and evaluated. Thus, the researcher’s responsibility lies in
understanding the problem encountered in collecting data and in determining how the research
process results in relevant and reliable data.

Definitions of Research

Research is composed of two words ‘re’ and ‘search’, which means to search again or to search
for new facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge. In common sense, research
refers to search for knowledge. In fact no one can provide a single all inclusive definition to the
concept research, many authors defined it in many ways but none is universal.

The following are some definitions of research

 Research is the manner in which we solve knotty problems in our attempt to push back
the frontiers of human ignorance. Research is ultimately a way of thinking. It is a way of
looking at accumulated fact so that a collection of data speaks to the mind of the
researcher.

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  Research can be defined as any scholarly investigation in search for truths, or for
certainties.

 Research is essentially a systematic inquiry seeking facts through objective verifiable

methods in order to discover the relationship among them and to deduce from it the
broad principles/laws.

 Research refers to a critical and exhaustive examination/investigation of experimentation

having as its aim the revision of accepted conclusions in the light of new discovered
facts.

 Research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the

planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.

o The best research should be reliable, verifiable, and exhaustive.

o Research starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analyzes them critically and
reaches decisions based on the actual evidence.

 Research is the activity of solving problems, which leads to new knowledge using
methods of inquiry, which are currently accepted as adequate by scholars in the field 1.

 Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of

hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

 The terms systematic and controlled in this definition refer to the degree to which the
observations are controlled and alternative explanations of the outcome are ruled out.
 The terms empirical and critical point to the requirements for the researcher to test
subjective beliefs against objective reality and have the findings open to further scrutiny
and testing.

Therefore, a synthesis of the above definitions indicates that research is structured inquiry that
utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new generally
applicable knowledge.

Some people consider research as a movement i.e a movement from the known to the unknown.
The best research should be reliable, verifiable and exhaustive.

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In the above definitions, the words “problem” and “systematic” are very important because

1) To be said a research; any investigation should start with a problem. This means any
research is essentially problem based. After all the very purpose of research is to solve
problems, be it social, economic, natural, business or historical
2) As a systematic approach to problem solving, all researchers follow some common and
basic procedures i,e common frame work. Otherwise, the investigation will not have any
sense of science.

One method of defining a concept is to explain what the term does not mean. In this sense it
should be known that collecting already existing information or data is not research, since it
adds nothing new to what has already been known. Research should never be treated as a
piece of compilation work. Reading a number of books and compiling their material is yet
another book; not research. Research is always expected to be something original that
advances human knowledge

Characteristics of good research

The characteristics of research may include that:

 Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

 It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories that will be

helpful in predicting future occurrences.

 Research is based on observable experience or empirical evidence.

 It involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing
data for new purpose.

 Research requires expertise. The researcher should know what is already known
about the problem and how others have investigated it.

 It strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedure employed, the data collected, and the conclusions reached.

 Research is carefully recorded and reported and is characterized by patient and

unhurried activity.

 It requires courage and time for performance

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 Purposes of research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.

Business research courses are recognition that students preparing to manage business, not-
for-profit and public organizations – in all functional areas – need training in a disciplined
process for conducting an inquiry related to managerial problems. Three factors stimulate an
interest in more scientific decision-making:

1. The managers’ increased need for more and more/better information,

2. The availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need, and

3. The resulting information overload if discipline is not employed in the process.

It is a hard fact that the primary task of managers is to make decisions. The quality of the
decisions made by managers is to a great extent a function of the nature and depth of
information with which the decision maker is provided.

Nevertheless, the business environment (domain) within which organizations operate has
become so wide and complex forcing decision makers to have more and better information
on which to base decisions. Such information can only be obtained through research. Hence
one has to know how to conduct researches.

Accordingly, the following are few of the reasons why we study research methods,

 Research methods enable us to solve problems and meet challenges of a fast-paced

decision making environment,
 To capture valuable information
 To improve current techniques and increase the overall benefit of the organization
 To evaluate research works (as an expert)

Objectives of research

Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into the following broad categories:

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  To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Such
studies are termed as explanatory or formative research studies)
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (Such studies are known as descriptive studies)
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (such studies ark non as diagnostic research studies)
 To test hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Such studies are known
as hypothesis testing studies)

Motivation in research

What makes people to undertake research? This is the question of fundamental

importance. The possible motive for doing research may be either one or more of the
following

- Desire to get degree along with its consequential benefits

- Desire to face the challenges in solving the unsolved problems, i,e concern over
practical problems initiates research
- Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
- Desire to provide social services
- Desire to get respect, reputation or goodwill
- Due to curiosity about new things
- Desire to understand causal relationship among variables
- Due to the order of the management or the government

Types of research

The basic research types are the following

1. Reporting Study: At the most elementary level, an inquiry may be made only to provide an
account or summation of some data, perhaps the generation of some statistics. The task may
be quite simple and the data readily available. At other times, the information may be
difficult to find. A reporting study calls for knowledge and skill with information sources
and gatekeepers of information sources. Such a study usually requires little inference or
conclusion drawing.

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2. Descriptive Vs. Analytical: Descriptive study includes survey and fact finding inquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present Descriptive studies try to discover answers to the questions of who,
what, when, where, and sometimes how. The researcher attempts to describe or define a
subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people, or events. Such studies
may involve the collection of data and the creation of distribution of the number of times the
researcher observes a single event or characteristic, or they may involve relating the
interaction of two or more variables. Descriptive studies may or may not have the potential
for drawing powerful inferences. A descriptive study, however, does not explain why an
event occurred or why the variables interact the way they do. The descriptive study is
popular in business research because of its versatility across disciplines.

In social science and business research we use the term ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he/she can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most Ex
post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preference of people, or similar
data.

Such studies may involve the collection of data and the creation of the distribution of the
number of times the researcher observes a single event or characteristic or they may involve
relating the interaction of two or more variables.

On the other hand, in analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material

3. Explanatory vs. Formalized research: An explanatory study goes beyond description and
attempts to explain the reason for the phenomenon that the descriptive study only observed.
The researcher uses theories or at least hypotheses to account for forces that caused a certain
phenomenon to occur. The objective of explanatory research is the development of
hypothesis rather than testing. On the other hand formalized research studies involve with
specific hypothesis to be tested

4. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied, action, or field research or
fundamental, basic or pure research. Applied research aimed at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society, industry or business organization whereas fundamental

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 research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of theory.
“Gathering knowledge’s sake is termed as ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research”. It is usually
conducted to develop theories, principles, and laws that are found in different subjects
(areas) and helps to extend the frontiers of knowledge. Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
Similarly, research studies concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behavior are also fundamental research but research aimed at
certain conclusions or solution facing a concrete social, economic or business problem is
applied research

Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
application and adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge

5. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of data

number or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. E.g when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior i.e why people think or do certain things, it is
qualitative research. Attitude or opinion research i.e research designed to find how people
feel or what they think about a particular subject or situation is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in behavioral sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behavior.
6. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing one. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone with out due regard for system and theory. It is data based research coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experience. We
can also call it as experimental type of research. Such research h is characterized by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his/her deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects. Empirical study is appropriate when poof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidences gathered through experiments
or studies are considered as the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

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Other researches types such as causal researches are conducted to identify cause and effect
relationship among variables. The main goal or causal relation is to identify cause and effect
relationships among variables. Causal research attempts to establish that when we do one thing,
another thing will follow. A typical causal study is that when a researcher changes one variable
e.g training, and observes the effect on variable e.g productivity.

Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision oriented. In conclusion-

oriented research, a researcher is free to identify problems, design, and redesign questionnaires
that he/she likes and prepared to arrive at the conclusion he/she wishes. Decision – oriented
research is always done for the needs of the decision maker. In this case, the researcher is not
free to design a research according to his/her own interest

7. Predictive Study: This type of study often calls for a high order of inference making. It also
would contribute to the development of better theory of the phenomenon. In business
research, prediction is found in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action or to
forecast current and future values.

Qualities of Good Research

Good research differs from poor research that is carelessly planned and conducted, resulting in
data that a manager can’t use to reduce his or her decision-making risks. Good research follows
the standards of the scientific method. The following are the defining characteristics of the
scientific method.

1. Purpose Clearly Defined: The purpose of the research – the problem involved or the decision
to be made – should be clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms as unambiguous as
possible. Getting this in writing is valuable even in instances where the decision maker and
researcher is the same person. The statement of the research problem should include its scope,
limitations, and precise specifications of the meanings of all words significant to the research.

2. Research Process Detailed: The research procedures used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research. Research reports should reveal the
sources of data and the means by which they were obtained. Omission of significant procedural
details makes it difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and reliability of the data and
justifiably weakens the confidence of the reader in the research and any recommendations based
on the research.

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 3. Research Design Thoroughly Planned: The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.

 When a sampling of the population is involved, the report should include evidence concerning
the degree of representativeness of the sample.

 A questionnaire ought not to be used when more reliable evidence is available from
documentary sources by direct observation.

 Bibliographic searches must be as thorough and complete as possible.

 Experiments should have satisfactory controls.

 Direct observations should be recorded in writing as soon as possible after the event.

 Efforts should be made to minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording
data.

4. High Ethical Standards Applied: Researchers often work independently and have
significant latitude in designed and executing research projects. A research design that includes
safeguards against causing mental or physical harm to participants, and makes data integrity a
first priority, should be highly valued. Ethical issues in research reflect important moral concerns
about the practice of responsible behavior in society. Careful consideration must be given to
research situations when there is a possibility for physical or psychological harm, exploitation,
invasion or privacy, and loss of dignity. The research need must be weighed against the potential
for adverse effects.

5. Limitations Frankly Revealed: The researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws
in procedural design and estimate their effect on the findings. Some of the imperfections may
have little effect upon the validity and reliability of the data; others may invalidate them entirely.
Thus, a competent researcher should be sensitive to the effects of imperfect design, and his/her
experience in analyzing the data should provide a basis for estimating their influence.

6. Adequate Analysis for Decision Maker’s Needs: Analysis of the data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The
validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully. When statistical methods are used,
the probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of statistical significance applied.

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 7. Findings Presented Unambiguously: Presentation of data should be comprehensive, easily
understood by the decision maker, and organized so that the decision maker can readily locate
critical findings.

8. Conclusions Justified: Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

 Widening (broadening) the basis of inductions by including personal experiences not subject to
the controls under which the research data were gathered, tends to decrease the objectivity of the
research and weakens confidence in the findings.

 Drawing conclusions from a study of a limited population and applying them universally is
undesirable.

 Good researchers always specify the conditions under which their conclusions seem to be valid.

9. Researcher’s Experience Reflected: Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the

researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity. That is
why the research report usually contains information about the qualifications of the researcher.

These nine criteria provide an excellent summary of what is desirable in scholarly research.
They should also be applied in business research, but circumstances require adjustments.

• Criterion 1 calls for specifying what will be done, but in many scholarly studies, it is not

possible to be that precise. It is important, however, to state the nature of the research
problem clearly and unambiguously.

• Criterion 2 calls for complete disclosure of methods and procedures used in the research

study. It enables others to test the findings through replication.

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 Chapter Two

Research process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carryout

research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following are steps to be followed in
research process.

i) Define research problem

ii) Review the literature
a. Review concepts and theories
b. Review previous research findings
iii) Formulate hypothesis
iv) Design research ( including sample design)
v) Collect data
vi) Analyse data ( Test hypothesis if any)
vii) Interpret and report data

1. Formulating the research problem: Identification of a research problem is, really speaking,
the first step in scientific inquiry. There are two types of research problems; those which relate
to states of nature and those which relate to relationship between variables. In the first place, the
researcher must identify the problem he/she wants to study i.e, he/she must decide the general
area of interest or aspect of the subject matter that he/she would like to inquire into.

A problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or

practical situation. Solving this difficulty is the task of research. One of the most difficult phases
of any research project is the choice of a suitable problem. The beginner is likely to take a very
long time in making his/her choice. The identification of a good research problem should be
considered a discovery in itself.

The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms. Thus, without a problem, research
cannot proceed because there is nothing to proceed from and proceed toward. In social sciences,
quite a number of researchers may be faced with this problem, i.e., the problem of not being able
to see a problem.

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How to Identify a Problem for Research

i) Research Consumer: - There must be an individual or group, which has some difficulty. The
individual may be the researcher, the manager, or any other.

ii) Research - Consumers Objectives: - The research consumer must have something he/she
wants to get at or some ends he/she desires.

iii) Alternative Means to Meet the Objective: - Means are courses of action and may involve the
use of objects (instruments). It should be remembered that there must be at least two means
available to the research-consumer. If he/she has no choice of means, she/he can't have a
problem.

iv) Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives: - The existence of alternative courses of action
is not enough. To experience a problem, the research consumer must have some doubt as to
which alternative to select. Without such a doubt, there can be no problem. Necessarily, the
research consumer must have a question concerning the relative efficiency of the alternative
means and he/she must want to answer it.

V) Environment to Which the Problem Pertains: - A change in environment may produce or

remove a problem. A research-consumer may have doubts as to which will be the most efficient
means in one environment but may entertain no such doubt in another. The range of
environments over which a problem may be said to exist may vary from one to many. Some
problems are specific to only one environment while others are quite general.

"It is a familiar and significant saying that a problem well put is half-solved" (John Dewey). To
find out what the problems are, which problematic situations arc present, is to be well along in
inquiry. To mistake the problem involved is to cause subsequent inquiry to be irrelevant.
Without a problem there is blind grouping in the dark.

Three Principal Components in the Formulation of a Problem

 The originating questions (What Ones to know?)

 The rationale-theoretical or practical (why one wants to have the questions answered?)
 The specifying questions (possible answers to the originating questions in terms of that
satisfy the rationales).

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The Originating Questions
 Represent the beginning of certain difficulties or challenges.
 Are formulated in such specific terms to indicate where exactly the answers to them can
be searched.
 Constitute the initial phase in the process of problem-formulation.
 May be formulated in terms of broadly delimited categories of social variable but do not
indicate specifically which particular variables in each class might be germane to the
issues.
 Usually derive from a general theoretical orientation rather than a definite theory.
Rationale of Questions
 Is the statement of reasons why a particular question is worth putting across?
 States what will happen to other parts of knowledge or practice if the question posed is
answered, i.e., how the answer to the question will contribute to theory and/or practice.
 Helps to effect discrimination between scientifically good and scientifically trivial
questions.
Specifying Questions
 Culminate the process of formulating a research problem
 Involve the breaking down of originating question into several specifying questions
related to particular aspects and their consequences.
These simple, pointed, limited, and empirically verifiable questions are the final resultant of the
process designated in the formulation of a research problem. It is only such specific questions
that provide answers that when synthesized afford the solution to a problem.
Necessary Conditions for Formulation of Research Problem

1. Systematic Immersion in the subject matter through first hand observation:

The researcher must immerse him/herself in the subject-matter or area within which she/he
wishes to pose specific problem. This exercise helps a great deal in suggesting to the researcher
the specific questions that may be posed for the study to answer. This process is known as pilot
survey, preliminary survey or exploratory study.

2. Study of Relevant Literature on the Subject: This would help the researcher to know if
there are certain gaps in the theories (his/her research will then be to bridge these gaps) or
whether the prevailing theories applicable to the problem are inconsistent with theoretical
expectations and so on. This is also an aspect of exploration.

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3. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the field of study.

This is often known as 'an experience’ survey, which again is an exercise at exploration. These
people help in sharpening the focus of attention on specific aspects within the field.

Potential Sources of a Research Problem

Theory of one's own interest: · in such situations the researcher must have thorough knowledge
of that theory and should be sufficiently inquisitive to explore some unexplained aspects or
assumptions of that theory.

Daily problems: Everyday problems constantly present something new & worthy of
investigation & it depends on the sharpness of the researcher's intellect knit his/her daily
experiences into a research problem,

Technological changes: What is the impact of a changed technology on the existing socio
economic setup always interests the researcher and tempts him/her to undertake studies.

Unexplored areas: Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. These may
also be selected from those areas, which have not been explored so far (theoretical or empirical).

Discussions with some people: This discussion may lead the researcher to a problem that can
be researched. In some ways reading assignments in text books, special assignments, research
reports and term papers may also suggest problems for further investigation. Many research
articles suggest problems for further investigation.

Criteria for Selecting Good Research Problem

Factors to be taken into account in the choice of a research problem are both external and
personal. External criteria involve such things as newness and significance for the area,
availability of data and method, and administrative and institutional cooperation. Personal
criteria include such considerations as interest, training, cost, and time. The following are a more
detailed list of criteria for the choice of research problem.

Novelty: - It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable duplication.
Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to spend time a problem already investigated. The
study should also employ the most recent data. Although originality is an important
consideration, there is also a constant need for verification of the findings of the previous

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investigations, using newer and better devices and procedures. There is also a need for the
testing of former findings under changed conditions.

Interesting: - The problem should be interesting for the investigator him/herself. If she/he is not
interested in it, she/he will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at every
step in research. His/her interest should be purely intellectual and should not be there only for a
reward, material benefit, advancement in position, increased authority, etc.

Importance: - If it is not worthwhile, it adds to neither knowledge nor lead to any

improvements in the current practices, it would be in vain. It should add to the development of
social set-up as a discipline and to previous research findings in any way.

Immediate Application: - The investigator should ask himself/herself question "will my

research help in solving an urgent problem?

Feasibility of the research problem: - The suitability of the problem for a particular research
worker is the matter of its feasibility. The investigator should be able to carry it to a successful
conclusion. She/he should possess the required competence, knowledge and understanding.
She/he should be skillful enough to develop, administer, and interpret the necessary date -
gathering devices and procedures, etc. The following are some of the issues that determine the
feasibility of the research.

Availability of Data The researcher should ensure the availability of data and of valid and
reliable data gathering devices and procedures.

Availability of cooperation Because the study may need administration of tests, interviewing,
observation, going through records, conducting experiments, etc, there should be cooperation.

Availability of Guidance Every research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the
approval and sanction of a competent authority.

Availability of Other Facilities The smooth running of research work presupposes the
availability of necessary facilities and adequate fund. There should also be enough time to
complete the project. This is so because selecting a problem, library study, preparing the data-
gathering devices, collecting and analyzing the data, writing the research report, etc are all time
consuming processes.

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Experience and creativity Lack of familiarity with the subject is almost sure to result in a poor
choice. Through familiarity with a given field is conducive to original thinking and creativity.

Courage and confidence The researcher should be sure of himself/herself that he/she has the
courage and confidence to pursue the study despite the difficulties and social hazards that may
be involved. He/she should also have courage to work aggressively even when data are difficult
to gather and when are reluctant to cooperate.

Formulating and Stating the Problem

After the problem has been selected, it must be definitely formulated & stated in precise terms.
The type of a statement to be employed depends on the preference of the researcher and the
nature of the problem. There are two different ways of stating a problem.

-Posing question(s) – Basic/Fundamental questions)

- Making declaration statement(s) - Hypothesis.

One may choose any of these ways remembering that the question form has an advantage in
sharpening and focusing the issue, but the declarative form is perhaps more common, and both
of the ways may be combined easily as an initial statement.

Justification of the Problem

This step would prevent wastage of research efforts on unimportant or insignificant problems.
Problem should be broad enough to provide an investigation of real significance and should also
be narrow enough to be manageable. The researcher should assess the extent to which the
solution of the problem would contribute to the furtherance of human knowledge. The list of the
objectives of the study magnifies further its utility and importance.

Common Errors in Formulating Research Problems

Naming a broad field: - To choose the broad area of study instead of specific problem makes
no justification

Narrowing of localizing a topic: - The problem should not be narrowed to such an extent that it
becomes too small and insignificant from research point of view

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Lack of precisions in the instruments: - If the tools, tests, or devices, which are proposed to be
used in data collection and analysis, are not precise enough, they may result in another constant
error.

2. Extensive Literature Survey

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. At this point, the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published and unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go. Referring academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc. is very important depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies which are similar to the
study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a
guide investigation of other facts and theories that yet unknown. It is a tentative supposition or
provisional guess, which seems to explain the situation under consideration.

Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to a piece of research in hand because it has to be
tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimitating the area of research
and to keep him/her on the right track. It also indicates the type of data required and the methods
data analysis to be used.

Approaches To Develop a Working Hypothesis

The main approaches to develop a working hypothesis include:

 Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in
seeking a solution
 Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and clues.
 Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems, and
 Exploratory personal investigation, which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with, interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the

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 practical aspects of the problem. This would enable the researcher to obtain a greater
knowledge about the practical aspect of the problem,

Reasons for testing hypothesis

Hypothesis is a proposed statement that might be accepted or rejected through the

experiment or evidence. We perform a test of hypothesis only when we are making a
decision about a population parameter based on the value of a sample. If we are taking the
whole population, we do not need to make a test of hypothesis. We need to make a test of
hypothesis to: a) Find out how large the difference is between the stated hypothesis and the
actual sample study result. b) To investigate whether or not the difference has occurred as a
result of chance alone

A null hypothesis: is a claim or statement about a population parameter that is usually

assumed to be true from the beginning until it is declared false. It is denoted by Ho;

Alternative hypothesis: is a claim about a population parameter that will be true if the null
hypothesis is false. It is denoted by Ha;

E.g Consider a person who has been suspected for committing a crime. Based on the
available evidence, the judge will make on of the two possible decisions: the person is
innocent or guilty. In the beginning the person is presumed not guilty. The persecutor’s
effort is to prove that the person has committed the crime and hence is guilty. In this case the
person is not guilty is called null hypothesis and the person is guilty is called the
alternative hypothesis. The two possibilities:

Null hypothesis: Ho, the person is innocent

Alternative hypothesis: Ha, the person is guilty

Importance of Hypothesis

 It provides direction to research

 It is a guide to thinking process and the process of discovery.
 It focuses research and without it, research would be like a random and aimless
wandering.
 It places clear and specific goals before the researcher

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  It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his/her problems and its
ramifications and data, which beat on it.
 It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.
 It enables a researcher to clarify the procedures and methods to be used in solving the
problem and to rule out methods, which are incapable of providing the necessary date.

Characteristics of a Usable Hypothesis

 A hypothesis should be empirically testable.

 A good hypothesis is in agreement with observed facts.
 A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature, which is known to be true.
 It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to the original problem,
which forms primary purpose, the investigation.
 The hypothesis must be specific.
 Advisably, the hypothesis should he related to a body of theory or some theoretical
orientation.

It should may remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need
working hypothesis, especially in the case of explanatory or formative researches which do not
aim at testing the hypothesis.

4. Preparing the research design: At this stage, the researcher will be required to prepare
research design i.e the researcher will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximum information. In other words the function of research
design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimum expenditure of effort,
time and money.

5. Determining sample design: In research, a population includes all the objects of interest,
whether they are people, household, machines, or whatever. Census is a study that includes
every member of the target population. In such an inquiry, when all items are covered and no
element of chance is left, highest accuracy is obtained. However, it is impossible to obtain
information about all members of the population; it is rather becomes too costly and time
consuming to ask all of them. For this reason a sample design is necessary.

Sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are collected for obtaining sample
from a given population. A sample is limited items that describes or represent the characteristic

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of the population. A representative sample is a sample that matches the characteristics of the
population as closely as possible. It helps to make decision about the corresponding population.
An element is a member of a sample or population. It is specific subject or object about which
the information is collected e.g. a person, a firm, item, or country.

6. Collecting data: Data are the raw materials that are not useful in themselves. They are simply
facts, figures, or numbers. Data represent the actual first hand responses that are obtained about
the subject of investigation by either asking questions or observing the subject’s actions. There
are several ways of collecting data which differs in terms money costs, time and other resources
covered by the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he/she observes some quantitative measures.
But, in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more the following ways:

 Observation
 Through personal interview
 Through telephone interviews
 Thorough group discussion
 Through document review etc
7. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the next task of the researcher is to
analyze them. The analysis of data requires the related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation, and
finally drawing statistical inferences. Coding operation is the stage though which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing
is the procedure that improves the quality of data for coding. Tabulation is the technical
processes of classifying data in the form of tables. The result of data analysis is information.
Information consisted of digested data, knowledge and conclusions derived after the
analysis of data. It is easier to draw conclusions from summary tables and diagrams than
from the original form of data. So we reduce data to manageable size by constructing tables,
drawings, graphs, or by calculating summary measures such as averages.
8. Preparation of the report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done. (we discuss the detail later)

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 Chapter three

Writing the research proposal

A proposal is an individual’s or company’s offer to produce a product, render a service to a

potential buyer or sponsor. The purpose of the research proposal is:

 To present the problem to be researched and its importance

 To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related problems
 To collect necessary data for solving the problem
 To suggest how the data will be gathered

Many students and new researchers consider a proposal as unnecessary work. But the more
inexperienced the researcher is, the more important it is to have a well-planned and documented
proposal. A research proposal is a road map indicating the location from which a journey begins,
the destination to be reached and the method of getting there. Several activities are performed for
the development of proposal

First, the problem must be analyzed in detail. This includes a review of related literature and
research

Second, the possible solutions are examined and an approach is chosen

Finally, cost and time schedule estimates are prepared.

A proposal is as essential to successful research as an architect's drawing is to the construction of

a building. No one would start building a structure by rushing out to dig a hole in the ground for
the foundation without knowing in detail what the house will like when finished. Similarly, a
researcher should not start research undertaking without having a research proposal.

Whether you seek funding a project from a grant foundation or whether you seek to show your
instructor that you have the ability to plan and carry out an investigation independently, a clear
written proposal is indispensable. Other names for a proposal are prospectus, plan, outline,
statement, and draft. If you are asked to present any of these, you are asked to present a
research proposal. In this case:

 It is a plan that specifies the objectives of and the hypothesis to be tested

 It is the outline that specifies the research and types of intention

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  It is the blue print specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analyzing data
 It is a scheme which can be generalized to a large population or to different situations
 It answers the research questions

Characteristics of a Proposal
More than any other factor, research demands that those who undertake it be able to think
without confusion clearly. The proposal will demonstrate whether you possess that quality. Your
reputation as a researcher more often than not rests squarely upon the quality of the proposal you
submit. It is well, therefore, to appreciate exactly what characteristics a proposal should have.
I. A proposal is a straightforward document. Whatever does not contribute directly to the
delineation of the problem and its solution must be eliminated. Remember the architect's
drawing: clean, clear, and economical. It contains all that is necessary; not one details more.
2. A proposal is not a literally production. An architect's drawing is no a work of art; a
proposal is not a "literally" production. The mission of neither is to be artistic; the purpose of
both is to communicate clearly. It provides no opportunity for fine writing, for literally
composition, for verbal extravagance. The language must be clear, precise, and sharp. A
proposal provides a chance to show with what ultimate clarity and precision the researcher can
state a problem, delineate the treatment of the data, and establish the logical validity of a
conclusion.
3. A proposal is clearly organized. Organization and outline are absolutely essential. They hint
at an orderly and disciplined mind - one of the highest tributes to a researcher's qualification.
Content and Organization of A Proposal

Proposal follows a simple logical form of presentation. Although there are many ways to arrange
the items within the proposal, the following is the outline of the proposal that students shall
follow. The following serves as a checklist of items in your writing of a proposal.

A. The Preliminaries

B. The Body

C. The Supplemental

A. The Preliminaries

I. Title or Cover page

II. Table of content

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 III. Abstract

B. The Body

1. The problem and its Approach

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.4 Significance of the Study

1.5 Delimitation of the Study

1.6 Definition of Used Terms

1.7 Research Methodology

1.8 Organization of the Study

2. Review of the Related Literature

C. The Supplemental

I. Budget and Schedule

II. Bibliography

Components of Research Design and Proposal

1. Title

The title is the most widely read part of your proposal. Many people who may not necessarily
read the proposal itself or even its abstract will read the title. It should be long enough to be
explicit but not too long so that it is not too tedious-usually between 15 and 25 words. It should
contain the key words-the important words that indicate the subject.

Titles may sometimes be too short to be clear. For instance, the title 'Credit and Poverty' may
suffice as a textbook title but it needs to be explicit and say more if it is to serve usefully as a
research title. On the other hand, titles may be too long to be readily and easily compressible.

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Excessive length in titles is often attributable to 'waste' or 'fat words such as 'an investigation
on ... · or 'studies to examine.... and the use of the words that should appear in the main text.

Kinds of Title

A) Indicative Title: - This type of title states the subject of the research (proposal) rather than
the expected outcome. E.g., 'The Role of Agricultural Credit in Alleviating Poverty in Low
Potential Areas of Ethiopia'

B) Hanging Title: - The hanging title has two parts: a general first part followed by a more
specific second part. It is useful in rewording an otherwise long, clumsy and complicated
indicative title. E.g., 'Alleviation of Poverty in Low Potential Areas of Ethiopia: The Impact of
Agricultural Credit'

C) Question Title: - Question title .is used less than indicative and hanging titles. It is, however,
acceptable where it is possible to use few words - say less than 15 words. E.g., 'Does
Agricultural Credit Alleviate Poverty in Low Potential Areas of Ethiopia?'

2. Abstract

An abstract is known by different names like executive summary, Synopsis, Epitome, and so on.
It gives executives the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal without having to read the
details. It should also include a brief statement of the problem, the research objectives, research
question(s), and the benefits of your approach.

An effective abstract should present highlight, of the main aspects of the proposal concisely and
clearly. A good informative abstract starts by stating the problem to be solved through the
purpose, expected outcomes, and beneficiaries, expected impact of the work being proposed and
the methods to be used.

 The abstract should be brief and explain the objectives, methodology, period of study etc
 The abstract should summarize the complete content of research
 It must satisfy the readers’ needs
 It must explain the problem and the method adopted to solve it

3. Introduction
The introduction should start with a clearly articulated statement to make the reviewer or
sponsor interested in supporting the problem. The study should show how it fits into a larger

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field or wider problem. The impact of the research will not be seen unless a clearly visible
problem exists and is clearly articulated.
It is also important to state who the target beneficiaries are and how they will benefit from the
proposed project. It should highlight how the study will contribute to solving a particular
problem or minimizing its effect.
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the project: the
problem statement, research objectives, and background material. In most projects, the
introduction can be taken from the research with minor editing.
4. Statement of the Problem
The problem statement contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually
represented by a management question or originating question. It is followed by a more detailed
set of objectives.
In this part of your work, you have to explain what the problem is all about. Problem statement
must do better than produce merely a splutter of wordy and meaningless fragments. Thus, if you
know the problem, state it clearly. Each word of the problem should be expressive, sharp,
indispensable, and definitive. Always state the problem in a complete grammatical sentence.
Your problems should be stated so well, in fact, that anyone, (who understands English) could
read it, understand it, and react to it without benefit of your presence. If, for any reason, your
problem is not stated with such clarity, then you are merely deceiving yourself that you, yourself
know what the problem is. Such deception will merely cause you trouble later on.
The selection of the research problem doesn’t put the researcher in a position of what data to
collect, how to collect, and analyze. There is a need to state a specific problem, which is
investigated by scientific research. The purpose of the study should be exposed clearly and
briefly to depend on theoretical framework. The research problem must be researchable and it
must lend itself to empirical testing. There should not be any room for ambiguity in statement of
the problem. Clarity in statement of the problem is important for the following three basic
reasons.
I. It is the foundation for the development of research problems, which are necessary for
securing funds.
ii. It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically, to think about its importance, its
priority and to point out all the necessary points.
iii. It provides the researcher with the basis for the discussion with people in the community, the
relevant government agency, and/or the potential funding agency.
Consider the following example:

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Title - Determinants of Dividend Payout policies: The case of private Banks in Ethiopia.

Many of the corporate institutions in Ethiopia seem not to have adequate sources of finance. This
leads them to depend on the retained earnings for expansion of their businesses. This in turn
affects their dividend policies. The purpose of this mini research is to see what dividend policies
are prevalent in some selected private banks in Ethiopia namely AIB and DB and to see how
they are determined. In doing so, the entire effort of the paper revolves around seeking answers
for the following basic questions.
1. Do the firms have predetermined dividend policies.
2. What state statutes and court decisions are governing the dividend policies in Ethiopia?
3. What is the relationship between tax and dividends in Ethiopia and what measures do these
banks take to gain tax advantage?
4. What forces do creditors and stockholders exert on the Banks' dividend payout policies?
These questions can also be put in the form of hypothesis provide that the
Researcher has enough background information.
As can be clearly seen, this section shows the objective of the research. The objective is to
answer these basic questions.
5· Objective of the Study
The objective section of a proposal is typically very brief, usually half a paper at most. This is
because the rationale for each objective has already been established in the previous section,
while the way of achieving the objectives should be explained in the methodology section.
It should consist of both the general and specific objectives. The general objective provides a
short statement of the scientific goal being pursued by the research. The specific objectives, on
the other hand, are operational in nature. They may indicate specific types of knowledge to be
produced, certain audiences to be reached, etc. These are, therefore, the objectives against which
the success of the research will be judged. It is also important to distinguish the specific
objectives from the means of achieving them, such as pursuing fieldwork, organizing a
workshop, or publishing a book.
An objective for a research proposal should be SMART; i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic, and Time bound. It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose, problem
statement and justification already stated. Consider the following example:
The general objective of the study is to investigate whether AIB and DB have dividend policies
and to identify factors that influence their dividend policies.
The specific objectives are:

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  To explore what dividend policies, if any, these banks have and how they were
developed.
 To see whether they consider factors theoretically known in developing their dividend
policies.
 To suggest the banks to consider different factors that they may have overlooked while
determining their dividend policies etc
6. Significance of the Study
In this section, the researcher indicates the importance of the research and there by convinces the
reader. The researcher is, thus, required to indicate what his/her research will contribute; whether
the research is to provide solution or to shed light on the nature of the problem or both. Some
researches extend the frontiers of knowledge.
This section, therefore, enables the researcher questions like:
“What is the usefulness of this study?
“What does this study contribute?
The significance of the study is usually stated as follows. The purpose of the research is
 To shed light on the nature of the problem
 To give solutions to the problem
 To extend the frontiers of knowledge
 To enrich the literature
Example:
In addition to showing how the organizations under study may be able to create a means under
which they could develop sound dividend policy to achieve organizational goals, the student
researcher believes the result to this research work:
 Enriches the knowledge of the reader on the dividend policies of the banks.
 Would enable potential investors to evaluate the dividend policies of these organizations
before they decide to invest.
 Would enable the would be managers to be aware of what is expected of them in
managing the dividend policy of similar firms.
 Gives way for other researcher’s s that how to make further investigation in the area and
to conduct detailed researches on the problem.
 May add to the existing literature and may serve as an additional source of reference.
 Would enable the current and potential Creditors how the dividend policies of these
organizations may affect the repayment of the loans.
 Would enable the readers to see the similarities and differences in the dividend policies

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 between the two banks and between Ethiopia and other countries to develop some
generations. etc....
7. Delimitation of the Study
In this section, the researcher indicates the boundary of the study. The problem should be
reduced to a manageable size. The rule is "Don't bite more than what you can chew." The motto
of the researcher is "This one thing I do, this one area I investigate, this one question I attempt
to answer, this one problem I aim to solve.' Delimitation is done to solve the problem using the
available financial, labor and time resources. This does not, however, mean that we should
delimit the research topic to a particular issue and/or organization or place because it is less
costly and take less time. Delimiting is done not to necessarily reduce the scope of the study for
the sake of minimizing the effort to be exerted. This means that we should not sniff the life of
the topic in the name of making it manageable. Thus, there should be balance between
manageability and representative ness of the universe being studied.
See the following example.
The findings of the research would be more fruitful if it were conducted widely by including
other similar firms. But, due to time, labor, and money constraints it would be too tedious and
out of the reach of the (student) researcher to include all firms. Thus, the study is delimited to
treat the problem in two Banks. Namely AIB and DB The scope of the study is also delimited to
identifying factors influencing dividend policies of the banks. The time is also delimited in terms
of time coverage to post-social to clearly deal with the current problem.
8. Limitations of the Study
Limitations are difficulties the researcher faced during doing the research. Even though the
researcher designs and plans his/her study carefully, there could still be certain constraints that
might hinder the researcher from doing the research as it should be. The sources of limitations
could be weakness of methodology, availability of financial resources; time constraints; lack of
books, journals, and lack of literatures; lack of cooperation; etc. Any problem encountered and
interfered with carrying out the research should be indicated frankly.
This is usually written after the work is completed because it is known only then. Thus, it is not
usually indicated in the proposal. However, it is possible to indicate limitations expected and
solutions envisaged.
9·Definition of used Terminologies (Terms)
Many research works include some technical words. Thus, terms must be defined so that it is
possible to know what precisely the terms used in the phrasing of the problem and used in the
body of the research, mean. Without knowing explicitly what the terms mean, we can't evaluate

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the research or determine whether the researcher has carried out what in the problem, was
announced as the principal thrust of the research. Thus, terms should be defined from the outset.
There are three types of definitions: real, nominal, and operational.
a) Real definitions are statements of essential nature or characteristic of the entity.
b) Nominal Definitions are statements assigned to a term such as its dictionary definition.
c) Operational Definitions are specifications of dictionary definition of the term into observable
and hence measurable characteristics.
Terms must be defined operationally: i.e., the definition must interpret the term as it is employed
in relation to the researcher's project. Sometimes students rely on "dictionary definitions."
Dictionary definitions are seldom neither adequate nor helpful. In defining a term, the researcher
makes that term mean whatever he/she wishes it to mean within the particular context of the
problem or its sub problems.
We must know how the researcher defines the term. We need not necessarily subscribe to such a
definition, but so long as we know precisely what the researcher means when employing a
particular term. We are able to understand the research and appraise it more objectively.
10. Research Methodology
Assuming that the research questions and/or research proposals to be addressed have been
clearly identified, the purpose of the methodology is to show how these questions will be
answered in the most rigorous way possible. The researcher has to choose which methods to use
and justify them. The nature of the problem determines the methodology to be used.
In general, in short and management reports, the methodology should not have a special section.
Then it should be mentioned in the introduction with details placed in an appendix. However, for
a technical report, the methodology is an important section. It contains at least five parts.
a) Sampling Design - The researcher explicitly defines the target population being studied and
the sampling methods used. Example: - probability or non-problibility; If probability:
• Simple random or complex random?
• How were the elements selected?
• How is the size determined"!
• How much confidence we have?
• How much error was allowed?
Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters, or other points that
need explanation should be covered with brevity. Calculations should be placed in the appendix.
b) Research Design - The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose.

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For example, in experimental research, the materials, tests, equipment, control conditions, and
other devices should be indicated.
c) Data Collection - This part describes the specifics of gathering the data. It contents depend on
the selected design. Typically you would include a discussion on the relevance of secondary data
that guided these decisions. Again, detailed materials such as questionnaires or interview guide
should be included in the appendix.
d) Data Analysis - This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. The rationale
for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. This section then describes data handling,
preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs, and other technical information.
e) Limitations- This section should be thoughtful presentation of significant methodology or
implementation problem. All research studies have their limitations, and sincere investigator
recognizes that readers need aid in judging the study's validity.
11. Organization of the Study
This section explains what each chapter of the research report consists of. Consider the
following example:
The study will be organized into four chapters. The first chapter deals with the problem and its
approach. The second chapter will be concerned with presenting the review of the related
literature. The third chapter will treat the analysis of the data collected. The fourth chapter will
bring to an end this study with summary conclusion and recommendation.
12. Review of the Related Literature
This section examines recent or (historically significant) research studies, company data or
industry reports that act as a basis for the proposed study. Begin your discussion of the related
literature and relevant secondary data from a comprehensive perspective, moving to more
specific studies that are associated with your problem. If the problem has a historical
background, begin with the earliest references.
A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge
including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a
particular topic
Definition and Concepts of literature Review
 A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current
knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological
contributions to a particular topic.
 A literature review is a critical and in-depth evaluation of previous research. It is a
summary and synopsis of a particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the

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 paper to establish why you are pursuing this particular research program.
 Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and
forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.
 In the initial stages of research it helps you to establish the theoretical roots of your
study, clarify your ideas, explore the context for your project and develop your research
methodology.
 Later in the process, the literature review serves to enhance and consolidate your own
knowledge base and helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body of
knowledge
 During the write-up of your report it helps you to integrate your findings with existing
knowledge-that is to either support or contradict earlier research
 After Your research it will help you to see what impact your own work has had, and to
help you develop ideas for further research projects
Importance and Purpose of Literature Review

A literature review has the following functions:

 It provides a theoretical background to your study

 It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what
has already been studied.
 It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge in your profession.
 It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of knowledge

In relation to your own study, literature review can help in four ways. It can:

 Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

 Improve your research methodology;
 Broaden your knowledge base in your research area; and
 Contextualize your findings

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value. Among
these characteristics are:

 The survey materials must be as recent as possible

 Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased

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  Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study

 Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable

 Review materials must not be too few not too many.

How to Begin a Search for Related literature?

The process of reviewing the related literature comprise, among other things, active reading,
careful record keeping, selective note- taking, and critical evaluation of the information
Active Reading
Any research activity requires the researcher(s) to be involved in a significant amount of
reading. The critical reading refers to a considered and justified examination of what others have
written or said regarding the subject in question. Reading for research could take place in three
stages of the research project:
1) At the beginning of your research, the purposes of which are to; check what other researches
have done, focus your ideas, and explore the context for your project;
2) During your research, the purposes of which are to; keep you interested and help you better
understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and to serve as a source
of data;
3) After Your research, whose specific purposes are to; see what impact your own work has
had, and help you develop ideas for further research projects
Therefore, as you read each source, you have to evaluate the material based on the following
criteria:
 The relevance of the work to your topic and starting question
 The timeliness(recentness)of the work
 The author of the work ( based on all available information)
 The prestige (reputation)or nature of the journal (scholarly or popular press)
 The controversial nature of the source (whether it agrees with or contradicts other
sources).
Record Keeping
A researcher must be careful right from the beginning of the research project up to the end and
even beyond the project. That will save time and trouble of the researcher in the long run.
Therefore, the researcher should resolve right from start by noting down full details of
everything he/she reads. These details should include:
 Name of the author or authors;

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  The title of the paper, report or book;
 The date of publication;
 If it is a book or report, the publisher and place of publication;
 If it is a chapter in an edited book, the title and editor of the book, and the page
numbers of the chapter;
 if it is a paper in a journal, the title of the journal, volume and issue number, and
pages
There are a number of ways in which you might collect and store this information. These
include notebooks, loose sheets of paper and note cards (index cards)
Review the literature; don't reproduce it!
The review of the literature section of a proposal or a dissertation is perhaps one of the most
challenging to write. It requires that you keep a clear focus on just what this section is intended
to do. Many students seem to think they have the opportunity to quote long passages from the
literature, to cite at length the words or ideas of others. More important is what you say about the
study than what the author of the study says in the study. Thus,
 Present your own discussion
 Paraphrase, (précis, resume, give synopsis, an epitome)
 Use short direct quotations if necessary
 Long direct quotations are the last resort uses them only for a very good reason.
Begin your discussion of the related literature from a comprehensive like an inverted
pyramid: broad end first. Then you can deal with more and more specific or more localized
studies, which focus closer and closer on your specific problem.
Use proper citation style
Citation refers to indicating the source or borrowed or quoted idea.
Citation has two advantages:
a) It protects against plagiarism.
b) It supports and adds power to one’s own point of view.
"Plagiarize" is defined as to steal and us of the ideas or words of another as one’s own to use
without crediting the source. The three ways one can be guilty of plagiarism are:
 Paraphrasing someone else’s words at length without giving him/her credit.
 Copying someone else's word or sentences variation without quoting appropriately and
showing a reference.
 Using ideas that have been strongly influenced by someone else's work without giving
appropriate credit.

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Paraphrases and Quotations
Paraphrasing: is taking someone else's work and putting it into one’s own words. In other
words it is restating or rewording a passage from a text, giving the same meaning in another
form. The main objective of paraphrasing is to present an author's ideas in your own words.
Guidelines for successful paraphrasing:
 Place the information found in the source in a new order
 Break the complex ideas into smaller units of meaning
 Use concrete, direct vocabulary in place of technical jargon found in the original source.
 Vary the sentence patterns.
 Use synonyms for the words in the source
Quotation: is copying someone else's words or sentences as it exists. If the quotation appears as
part of a paragraph, it should be preceded and followed by quotes. If the quotation is longer than
four typed lines, it should be set off as a paragraph of its own, single spaced, and typed without
quotation marks. Both paraphrased and quoted materials should be cited and referenced
carefully.

Reference Styles
Three of the most commonly used referencing styles are the APA (American Psychological
Association the Harvared style), MLA (Modem Language Association of America), and
Turban (named for its creator, Kate L. Turabian) styles.
The Harvard style is an author-date system. It appears to have its origins in a referencing
practice developed by a professor of anatomy at Harvard University (Neville 2007) and usually
uses the author’s name and year of publication to identify cited documents within the text. All
references are listed alphabetically at the end of the text.
The APA Style relies on in text mention or the author's name and year of publication. Following
are two variations. Example:
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically, 75-85%
of the information the grapevine carries is true. (Davis, 1981).
Davis (1981) reports that grapevine communications are for more accurate than most people
realize. Typically, 75-85% of/the information the grapevine carries is true.
If the writer quotes Davis directly as in the following manner, then the page number might be
added to the reference.
“The degree of grapevine activity is a misuse of company's spirit and vitality. If employees are
so disinterested in their work that they do not engage in shop talk, they are maladjusted.” (Davis,
1973, p45).

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The MLA style is similar to APA form of textual citation. The main difference is that the APA
will cite the author's name and date of publication, whereas the MLA will provide the author's
last name, title of work and page numbers.
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically, 75-85%
of the information the grapevine carries is true. (Davis. “The care and cultivation of the
corporate Grapevine.” 44)
Whatever style the writer chooses, he/she should be careful to maintain consistency. When the
author of the referenced material is two or three, the last name of each of the authors should be
indicated. However, if the authors are more than three, only the name of the first author is
written followed by et. al., which means "and others." The abbreviation ‘et.al’ should be
underlined as it is Latin word written in English.
For example:
According to Thompson et. at (1996), there is a general agreement that once a training
program is over, we should try to check its effectiveness.
Under the Turban style, each citation is given a number, starting with 1 and proceeding
consecutively through the paper.
Procedures of writing foot note references under Turabian Style.
 Assigning number starting with 1 and proceeding consecutively throughout the
paper.
 The number must be typed slightly above the line to distinguish from the text.
 If foot notes are typed at the bottom of each page
a. Rule 1 and1/2 inch line to separate the text from the foot note
b. Author’s name is not transposed and alphabetized
c. The first line of an entry should be indented by five space and the subsequent
lines of the same entry should start from the left margin.
d. There must be single space between lines of the same entry.
Another style concern is how to repeat references, that is references to sources that have been
cited and are now being cited again." Consider the example that follows. The Turabian uses the
following citations.
The notation Ibid is the abbreviation for the Latin ibidem, meaning "in the same place." It is
used when a repeated reference immediately follows the original reference. In the case where
other references come between the original and the repeated citation or a given reference, the
author's last name and the Latin op.cit (Opera citato, in the work cited) are used. Here is an
example:

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"Gibson and Hogget”, Op, cit,
The notation Loc.cit is the abbreviation for the Latin loco ctamus, meaning the work cited
earlier the same place (page). When the page is the same, we use loc.cit and when the page is
different, we use op.cit.
“Gibson and Hogget”, loc.cit.
NB: Under the APA and MLA styles any reference is listed only once under "References" or
"Bibliography" and its location to determine alphabetically according to the first author's
surname for foreign names, however, under the Turabian method, as can clearly be seen from
examples, the names are not transposed as in the case of bibliographic presentations.
3 Keith Davis, The Care and cultivation of the Corporate Grapevine, (July 1973):
4Jane Whitney Gibson and Richard M. Hogget’s. Business Communication: Strategies and
Skills. New York: Harper and Row, 1990.
Moreover, in the case of bibliography, the first line of bibliographic entry starts from the left
margin and the subsequent lines of that entry are indented 2 spaces. In the case of footnote or
endnotes, however, it is the first line of the reference that should be indented and the subsequent
lines start at the left margin
In addition to indicating citations to acknowledge indebtedness and to determine the validity of
the evidence footnotes are used for the following purposes.
a) To elaborate the ideas or information presented in the text. If discussing something within the
body is difficult (or not necessary), one can type the number slightly above the term(s) to be
explained at the foot of the page.
b) To give cross reference to different parts of the same paper.
13. Budgets and Schedule
The budget should be presented in the form the sponsor requests. It should be no more than one
to two pages. But it should contain all the costs needed.
Your schedule should also include the major phases of the project, their timetables, and
milestones that signify completion of a phase. For example, major phases may be (1) Writing
literature, (2) Writing questionnaires (3) writing interview questions, (4) writing proposal, (5)
questionnaire revision, (6) field interviews, (7) editing and coding, (8) data analysis, and (9)
report generation. Each of these should have an estimated time schedule.
14. Bibliography
For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is necessary. Use the bibliographic
format required by the sponsor. If none is specified, standard styles that may be used include
MLA style, APA style, and the Turabian style. Either of the three is correct. But keep

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consistency in your writing.
Form of the Bibliography Entry
The concluding section of a research paper, thesis or dissertation is usually an alphabetical
listing of source materials. This list is generally entitled "Bibliography". This list allows the
reader to observe the scope of the research behind the paper or to see if a particular work has
been used. The bibliography may also provide the reader with a foundation for further research.
The type of bibliography required for both undergraduate and graduate research papers is a list
of works cited in notes or within the text. Another type of bibliography goes beyond works
actually cited in a paper and includes all the works used in preparation for writing the paper.
Three categories of information are needed for each bibliography entry: author, title and facts
of publication. Each of these categories may contain more than one piece information. A book
may have more than one author and the facts of publication for some materials may be
complicated. A period follows each category of information in a bibliography entry. i.e., period
follows the author the title and the facts of publication. Because an entry in a bibliography
(unlike an entry in a note) refers to the complete work rather than to a specific passage, a
bibliography entry does not include page numbers. A bibliography entry for an article lists the
inclusive pages of the entire article rather than specific pages from which material was selected
for action.
Procedures of writing list of bibliography
 Use surname first and the sequence of the list arranged alphabetically (articles like a, an
and the- are not considered during alphabetizing)
 Write the title
 Write publication information like publisher, place of publication and year of publication
 The same source is written once in the bibliography even if it is indicated so many times
in the textual citation.
 Only page numbers of articles of journal can be indicated.
 First line of the entry starts from the left margin and the subsequent lines of the same
entry are indented by 5 space.
 There must be single space between lines of the same entry.
 There must be 1 and ½ space between lines of the different entries.
Procedures of writing list of Endnotes
 Use first name first and the sequence of the list arranged based on assigned numbers
chronologically.
 The same source is written more than once in the foot note based on the number of

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 assigned numbers for the same source in the textual citation.
 Publication information should be indicated in bracket.
 Page number(s) of both books and articles of journals are indicated.
 The first line of an entry is indented by 5 space and the subsequent lines of the same
entry should start from the left margin.
 There must be single space between lines of the same entry
There must be 1 and ½ space between lines of different entries
Approaches of Writing BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
The author category for a book may include one or more authors (surname first) , editors,
compilers, and translators, or a corporate author or institution. The title category includes the
title and subtitle. The facts of publication category identifies the series in which the work
appears, the city of publication (the state or the country is generally omitted), the name of the
publisher, and the year of publication.
Bronowski, Jacob. The ascent of Man. Boston: Little Brown, 1973·
Notice that periods mark the end of the author, title and facts of publication sections. Two spaces
follow each period; one space follows commas and colons.
NAME OF AUTHOR: In a bibliography entry, the name of the author appears last names first
for purposes of alphabetization except for Ethiopian names. When there are two or three authors,
the names are listed in the order in which they appear on the title page, whether or not that order
is alphabetical. Only the name of the first author appears in inverted order. A comma separates
the first name of the first author from succeeding names.
March, James G, and Herbert A. Simon. Organizations. New York: Wiley,
1958.
If a book has more than three authors, list each of their names in the bibliography.
Pherson, William, Stephen Lehman, Craig likness, and Marcia Pankake.
English and American Literature. Chicago: American Library Association,
1987.
In the note form, use only the name of the author listed first on the title page, followed by et al
(an abbreviation of et al which means "and others.")
When two authors have the same last name, the name should be repeated:
Ebbitt, Wilma R; and David Ebbitt. Writers Guide and Index of English. 6thed.
Glenview: Forest man, 1970.
When an author's name given on the title page is a pseudonym (pen name), the bibliography

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entry begins with the pseudonyms and continues with the author’s real name in brackets. If the
real name is unknown, the abbreviation pseudo within brackets follows the name.
When no author's name appears on a work or when the title page lists Anonymous as the author,
the work is listed by title.
The Wind. New York: Harper, 1925.
When the author is a group or corporation, the publication is under the name of the organization.
Holiday Magazine. New York: Random House, 1964.
When the corporate author is also the publisher, the name does not need to be repeated with the
other facts of publication.
Columbian University. The Facultv Handhook. New York, t987
When a work has been edited, compiled or translated by a person other than the author, you
have to decide under which name you should alphabetize the work or if the emphasis of your
investigation is on the author, the author's name precedes the title and the period follows the
title. The appropriate abbreviation and one or more names to indicate compiler, editor, or
translator follow (use clomp., ed., trans., or the plural forms, comps., eds., trans.,)
Hayes, William C. Most Ancient Egypt. ed, Keith C. Seele. Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1965.
If the emphasis in your research is on the work of the compiler, editor, or translator, the name of
the compiler, editor, or translator followed by a comma, the appropriate abbreviation, and a
period precede the title. The names of the author and the title form a unit: the author's name
follows the title in the first name - last name order preceded by a comma, one space, and the
word by.
Seele, Keith C., ed. Most Ancient Egypt, by William C. Hayes. Chicago: Univ.
or Chicago press, 1965.
Maceldo, Suzette, trans. Diagnosis of tile Brazilian Crisis, by Celso Furtado.
Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1965.
When a bibliography entry begins with three or more editors, compilers, or translators, follow
the rules for works with three or more authors. The plural form of the appropriate abbreviation
(eds., comps., trans.) follows the names.
When you want to emphasize an article or chapter in the collection, place the name of the author
of the article or chapter first. Title of articles or chapters within a book or journal should be
placed within double quotation marks.
Miller, Arthur. "The Playwright and the Atomic World." In Theatre in the
Twentieth Centurv. ed. Robert W. Corrigan. New York: Grove, 1963.

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TITLE:- The title of a book should appear in the bibliography exactly as it is on the title page.
Capitalization, however, May be changed. Any subtitle should be separated from the main title
with a colon followed by one space. In notes the sub title is optional but it must appear in the
bibliography entry. The full title should be underlined.
Walker, Ronald G. Infernal Paradise: Mexico and the Modern English Novel.
Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1978.
When the edition you use is not the first, the number of the edition as well as its date of
publication should be provided. Unless you have a particular reason for using an earlier edition,
refer to the latest edition of a work. Additional editions may have a variety of designations such
as 2nd rev. ed. (2nd revised edition), 3rd enl. and rev. ed. (3rd enlarged and revised edition), and
these should be recorded as they appear on the title page.
Cochran, John A. Money Banking. And the Economy. 3rd ed. New York:
Maemillan, 1975.
FACTS ABOUT PUBLICATION the facts of publication are the place of publication, the
name of the publishing house, and the date of publication. The city name alone (without the state
name) may serve as the place of publication. When a book is published simultaneously by two
companies, name either the first publisher mentioned on the title page or both publishers
separating names with a semicolon.
The name of the publisher may be shortened as long as its identity remains clear. Abbreviations
such as Inc., Co., and Ltd. and an initial should be omitted. You should decide on policy for
shortened names and use it consistently throughout your paper. When you cannot find an
unambiguous or orderly accepted way to shorten a name, it is best to write out the full name.
The date of publication for any work other than an article in periodicals is the year alone,
without the month or day. The date generally appears on the title page or on the copyright page.
When various printings are listed, the date of the first printing is used in the bibliography or list
of woks cited. A printing is press run of a book. An edition is a new version of a text. The most
recent edition of a book should be cited unless there is some reason to cite a previous edition.
Ordinal numbers are used to designate editions: 2nd, 3rd, 4thand so on.
An entry for a work that was out of print but has been republished should indicate the original
date of publication and the fact that the work is a reprint.
Markham, Beryl. West With the Night. 1942. Reprint. Berkeley: North Point
Press, 1983.
When a paper bound book is original edition, it is listed just as any other book would be. But
when it is reprint of the original hardcover edition, the entry indicates the date of publication of

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the hardcover edition. This information generally appears on the copyright page.
Bowra, C. M. The Romantic Imagination. 1949. Reprint. New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1961.
When you cannot locate one of more pieces of information concerning publication, you should
use one of the following abbreviations in the appropriate place in the entry. No place (n.p.), No
Publisher (n.p.), No date (n.d.)
Capitalize the abbreviation only when it begins a section of the entry
Eliot, George. Felix Holt. Edinburgh: WilIiam Blackwood, n.d.
Eliot, George. Felix Holt. N.P: WilIiam Blackwood, n.d.
MULTIVOLUME WORS AND SERIES
A multivolume work consists of two or more volumes under one general title. Each separate
volume may either have its own title or be identified by volume number only.
When you wish to refer to a complete multivolume work rather than to any specific volume, the
bibliography entry should include the total number of volumes and the inclusive dates of
publication, if applicable.
Bowsky, William M., ed. Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History. 4 vols.
Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963-67.
When each volume in multivolume work has an individual title, the entry takes the following
form.
Crutchfield, James C., ed. The Fisheries: Problems in Resource Management.
VOI.1 of Studies on Public Issues in Resource Management. Seattle: Univ. of Washington
Press, 1965.
PERIODICALS
Articles in periodicals
1. Author (surname)
2. Article title (under quotation mark)
3. Periodical title (underlined or bolded)
4. Volume number or Issue number (or both)
5. Publication date
6. Page numbers
Any publication that comes out at regular intervals is a periodical. Periodicals for an academic or
professional audience are usually called journals; periodicals intended for the general public are
often called magazines. The bibliography entry for periodical includes the author's complete
name, the title of the article, and the facts of publication, which include the name the periodical,

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the number of the volume, the date of the volume or the issue number, and the inclusive page
numbers for the entire article.
A period follows both the author and title segment, a colon introduces the page numbers, and a
period closes the entry.
JOURNALS Most journals paginate continuously through each volume; the basic format for an
entry referring to such a continuously paginated is:
Aron, Raymond. "The Education of the Citizen in Industrial Society."
Daedalus. (1962): 249-63·
Avoid including any information that is repetitive or unnecessary. If the volume serves to
identify the source, the season or month should be omitted. Months should be abbreviated as:
Jan., Feb., Mar., Aug., Oct., and Dec. The months May, June. and July are not abbreviated.
Seasons shouldn't be abbreviated.
MAGAZINES
Issues of magazines are most often by date only, even when they have volume numbers. Page
numbers are separated from the date by a comma (rather than a colon, as in journal entries).
Tuchman, Barbara W. The Decline of Quality." New York Times Magazine, 2
Nov. 1980,38-57.
NEWS PAPERS: The bibliography entry for a newspaper should include the name of the other
(if available) the newspaper underlined.
Rasky, Susan F. "Senate Calls for Revisions in New Tax for Health care" New
York Times, 8 June 1989, 20.
REFERENCE WORKS
Entries for widely known reference works, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, atlases and year
book need not include the fact of publication. The edition number or the year suffices for
identification of the work. The article or entry appeases with in quotation mark and the title of
the reference work is underlined.
Encyclopedia entry
"Huygens, christiaan"Encyclopaedia Britannia. 13thed.
Dictionary entry
"Advertisement" Webster's Third International Dictionary
(Because the number of the edition appears in the title, the date is not necessary).
Unpublished sources
In the citation of unpublished sources, you may encounter sources that do not provide all of the

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usual information. When that is the case, include any other piece of information essential for
locating the source according to the principles of the style you are using.
If the source has an individual or corporate author, list the name as in any author entry. Title of
unpublished works are not under lined but are endorsed in double quotation marks. If you have
to supply a title for the source, that title is neither underlined nor quoted. The facts of publication
include the origin or location of the source and the date.
Dissertations
When cited as unpublished sources, the titles of the dissertations and theses appear within
quotation marks.
Rosenthal, Marilyn. "Poetry of the Spanish Civil War." Ph.D. diss. New York:
University, 1972.
Bibliography Format
You may wish to classify the entries in a long bibliography by one of several principles: by form
of publication, by section or chapters of the paper, or by primary and secondary sources. Lists of
work cited should not be divided. Short research papers and reports usually do not require
classified bibliographies.
Classification by Form of Publication
Grouping references according to their forms of publication often facilitates the use of a
bibliography; for example books may be listed in one group, periodicals in a second group, and
government publications in still another. A general guide line for this sort of classification is to
divide bibliographies of more than 30 entries, to divide bibliographies of 20 to 30 items only if
the nature or variety of entries warrants classification and to use a single alphabetical listing for
fewer than twenty entries.
ALPHABETIZATION OF ENTRIES
Entries in a bibliography and works cited list are alphabetized by the last name of the author or
the first word, excluding articles of a group or corporate author. An entry for which the author is
unknown, such as newspaper article, is alphabetized by the first word of the title, excluding A,
An, and The. Letter-by-letter alphabetization is generally preferred to word-by-word
alphabetization for research papers and dissertations.
The entry for a work by two or more authors is alphabetized by the surname of the author who is
listed first on the title page, regardless of whether the names on the title page are in alphabetical
order.
When you have two or more works by the same author entries after the first begin with three

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hyphens positioned flush with the left margin and followed by a period and two spaces.
All listings for one author appear in alphabetical order by the first word of the title (excluding
the articles a, an and the).
Web sites
Include some or all of the following elements when citing entire Web sites:
1. Author or editor of the Web site (if known)
2. Title of the Web site
3. URL(
4. Date of access
Examples:
Financial Accounting Standards Board. Available from
http://www.fasb.org. Accessed 29 April 2002.

Lewis, Paul. Wilkie Collins. Available from

http://www.deadline.demon.co.uk/wilkie/wilkie.htm.
Accessed 29 April 2002.
Personal interview:
1. Person interviewed last name, first name.
2. Personal interview ( Under quotation)
3. Date interviewed.
Example: Lewis, Paul. “Personal interview”. 10 Dec. 2006
SAMPLES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Haag, Stephen and others (1998), Management Information
Systems for the Information age, IRWIN, Boston
 Hicks, Jams o. (1993) Management Information Systems: A user
Perspective (3rd ed.) West Publishing Company New York
 Laudan, Kenneth C. and Jame P. Laudan (1998) Management
Information Systems: New Approaches to Organization and
Technology (5th ed.), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
 O’Brien, James (1998) Introduction to Information Systems: An
Internet worked Enterprise, (2nd ed.), Irwin, MeGraw-Hill New York

 Romney, Marshal B. and Paul John Steinbart (1999) Accounting

Information Systems (8th ed) , Prenice Hall, Upper Sadar River, New Jersey.

 Schultheis, Robert and Mary Summner(1995), Management Information

Systems: The Manager’s view (3rd ed.), IRWIN, Chicago.

 Thompson, Ronald and William Casts-Baril (1997), Information

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 Technology and Management, IRWIN, Boston.
Turban style of referencing
Sample of Endnote and footnote
Note: The information below is taken directly from the Style manual for authors editors and
printers, 2002, pp. 214-215.
ibid. (ibidem) - in the same place
op. cit. (opere citato) - in the work cited
loc. cit. (loco citato) - in the place cited
id. (idem) - the same
An 'ibid.' signifies a reference to the same work cited immediately before it. It can refer to the
same page or to a different one. For example:
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's welfare: services and assistance,
AIHW Canberra, 1999, pp. 128-41.
2. ibid.
3. ibid., p. 160
An 'op. cit.' refers the reader back to a previously cited work but to a different page:
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's welfare: services and assistance,
AIHW, Canberra, 1999, p. 128.
2. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Causes of death, cat. no. 3303.0, ABS, Canberra, 1995.
3. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, op. cit., p. 171.
A 'loc. cit.' refers the reader back to the same page of a work already cited:
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's welfare: services and assistance,
AIHW, Canberra, 1999, p.128.
2. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Causes of death, cat. no. 3303.0, ABS, Canberra, 1995.
3. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, loc. cit.
An 'id.' signifies that the work in the second note is the same author as the work in the first note:
1. R Hyslop, Aye, aye, Minister: Australian naval administration 1939-59, AGPS Press,
Canberra, 1990, p. 89.
2. id., Australian mandarins: perceptions of the role of departmental secretaries, AGPS
Press, Canberra, 1993, p. 45.
Endnotes
1
Elizabeth Bowen, Pictures and Conversations (New York: Knopf, 1985), p. 17.
2
Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study in the History of an Idea
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1994), p. 118.

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 3
William Bloom and Don W. Fawcett, A Textbook of Histology, 9th ed. (Philadelphia:
Saunders, 1986), p. 342.
4
Verbib L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought, 3 vols. (New York:
Harcourt Brace, 1989-94).
5
Andrew Wright, A Reader’s Guide to English and American Literature (New York.:
Scott, Foreman, 1990), p. 123.
6
Vernon L. Parrington, “Roger Williams,” Main Currents in American Thought, I (New
York: Harcourt Brace, 1998), p. 62.

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 Chapter Four
Research Design
Meaning of Research Design
A research design is defined as the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a way to achieve research purpose. In other words, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data. Accordingly, the design incorporates a framework of what
the researcher is going to do from writing the basic questions to the final analysis of data. More
specifically, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 What types of data are required?
 Where the required data can be found?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be
studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data; (e) time and cost
breakdowns for the whole project.
Types of Research Designs
1) Historical Research Method
It is the research method, which makes use or observations based on past events. It applies the
method of reflective thinking to social and economic problems still unsolved by means of
discovery of past trends of events, facts and attitudes. Thus, historical research may be defined
as a system in which present day evens are studied with reference to the events that took place in
the past. It seeks to find explanation of questions of current interest by an intensive study of the
past
Significance of Historical Method
 This method fills a gap of making some researches possible and meaningful, as some
problems would have remained unexplored without it for e.g. Time series data may be
used to assess the progress or the impact of several policies.
 Historical method makes it possible to study the development of a particular idea,

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 concept, philosophy or theory.
 Comparative studies in economics, such as growth of GNP, savings, investment, etc.
can't be done without the use of historical data and hence historical method.
 Analysis and interpretation of past data are indispensable to plan for the future in
business and hence historical method.
In general, historical method gives people a sense of continuity and consciousness of unity in
their efforts and achievement Thus, it can be concluded that “no individual. let alone a social
scientist, call wisely ignore the Long arm of the past. "
Sources of Historical Data
 Books, magazines, papers, literature, documents, etc.
 Cultural and analytical historical materials.
 Memories, personal letters, personal observations, diaries, autobiographies, etc.
 Archives, diplomatic agreements, statistical materials, etc.
 Artistic materials, paintings, portraits. Charts, maps, etc.
When, how, and under what circumstances to use these sources depends to great extent on the
discretion of the researcher, the scope and the purpose of the study und the availability of these
sources, it should also be kept in mind that all historical details are not authentic and could not
be fully relied upon.
Historical data are reliable and adequate for research when:
(1) They are presented as component of social process;
(2) Social phenomena depict social process meaningfully; and
(3) Psychological, economic, educational, political, religious, etc. sets of interrelationship
contribute to a unified whole.
Advantages of Historical Research Method
1) It enables to investigate some problems, which may not be investigated by other methods.
(E.g. Time series data for assessing the progress or impact of policies)
2) Historical data, as opposed to laboratory experiments, are not repeatable. Hence historical
method serves as a ready hand method to the researchers whose problems depend on historical
observations.
Limitations of Historical Method
1) Non-matching situations - Because a past situation has been influenced by social economic,
political, and other factors different from the current, compatibility of the past to present is
questionable.
2) Over generalization- the tendency of historical researcher to over generalize this results

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would lead to implausible explanation and inaccurate specifications of the research problem.
3) Subjective interpretations because socio economic variables are complete in nature which
can be interpreted in different ways, this method suffers from subjective interpretations. The loss
of objectivity can lead to inaccuracies in research findings.
Limitations may also arise because:
• Historians can't write history life sizes
• Not all happening in time and space can be known at the time of writing
• Personal biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously.
Necessary Conditions for Historical Research
Because historical method tries to solve current problem by an intensive study of the past, a
researcher must have the following essential qualities to be effective.
1) Selection of a topic for research. The researcher must be competent enough to choose
practically feasible topic to the study.
2) Social insight. This helps the researcher to understand cause and effect relations of social
events and to draw proper conclusions.
3) Historical orientations. The researcher needs to understand the facts and events in the
historical perspective.
4) Knowledge of related social sciences - This helps the researcher to analyze data in its proper
perspective.
5) Wide educational background. This helps the researcher to understand the topic in an
interrelated manner.
6) Familiarity with the topic and its objectives
7) Dispassionate study. This helps the researcher not to be misguided by guesswork,
preconceived notions, biases and emotions.
8) Imaginative capacity. This helps the researcher to understand the topic and to draw complete
picture or the study by collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data that are not easily obtained
in detail and in a coherent form.
9) Selection and rejection of material. This enables the researcher to choose relevant data from
scattered materials history provides
10) Analyzing and coordinating capacity - This helps the researcher to coordinate historical
data with the present day situations. ,
11) Knowledge of study field. This helps the researcher to gather data that are not readily
available from different sources.

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 12) Knowledge of one’s own Imitations. This makes the researcher receptive to new ideas and
knowledge put forth by more intelligent and experienced persons and induces him/her to
probe further into the matter.
Steps involved in historical research method
1) Selection of the problem. This depends on the researcher's caliber, intelligence, skill,
aptitude, interest, and training, Courage, imagination, and deep knowledge to the subject.
Availability of adequate data, time, and other resources are also indispensable. The topic to be
studied must be specific and not general in order to facilitate a deep study. It must be
pragmatic (realistic) and must be capable of presenting an original contribution.
2) Objectives of the study formulation. The objectives should be both general and specific.
3) Formulation of hypothesis - This is an assertion to be investigated,
 It gives definite point to inquiry and establishes direction in which to proceed
 It helps to delimit the field by singling out the pertinent facts on which to concentrate
 It prevents from a blind, search and indiscriminate gathering of data.
4) Preparation for gathering data, at this point the researcher prepares exhaustive bibliography
and sketches an outline and identifies the sources of data and makes note of related facts.
5) Testing of hypothesis. This helps to validate the hypothesis drawn.
6) Evaluation of data. This helps to verify and validate data through criticisms.
7) Organization (synthesis) of data. This calls for a thorough understanding of the meaning,
implication of every piece of evidence, understating of the work related to the theme, critical
thinking, and ability to interpret and arranging data. This helps to draw conclusions by
discarding irrelevant facts. It requires sound thinking, wide reading, greater imagination, and
good training.
8) Interpretation and writing report after the data has been arranged, scrutinized, and analyzed,
the next step is the interpretation and establishment of cause and effect relationships. This gives
understanding of the general facts and provides theoretical generalization, which can serve as a
guide for further research. After various generalizations have been drawn, the report has to be
prepared, containing the procedure adopted and the findings arrived.
2) THE CASE STUDY METHOD
A case study is a deep and intensive study of particular social unit, confined to a very small
number of cases. Case study is. therefore, method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social
unit, be that unit a personal, a family, institution, cultural groups or event an entire community.
The sources of data in case study method are personal documents and life history of the case.
Characteristics of case Study Method

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 • It places more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and
their interrelations.
• Although hypothesis is often used, the reliance on qualitative data makes support or
rejection more difficult.
• An insight on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and
strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of information. It allows evidence
to be verified and avoids missing data.
Advantages of Case Study Method
• It produces new ideas and fresh suggestions
• It formulates sound hypotheses.
• It helps in exploring new areas of research.
Limitations of Case Study Method
• It develops false sense of confidence which is detrimental to any scientific outlook.
Everything about the subject can't be known although each unit is studied.
• Generalizations about similar cases are impossible.
• It does not provide universal, impersonal and common aspects or phenomena.
• Because of the absence of control on the respondent, and because the data can’t be
verified, the references drawn may not be accurate.
• It is costly, time consuming and wasteful in contain case where the objectives are limited.
• The objective may be lost due to personal relationship between the subject and the
researcher.
• Because it is qualitative in nature the case study method is not itself a scientific method
at all, but merely first step in scientific procedure.
Steps Involved in case study method
1) Selection of cases and identification of situations
2) Collection and recording of data
3) Interpretations of data
4) Report writing
(3) SURVEY RESEARCH METHOD
The term survey is composed of two Latin words 'sur' which means "super" "above," "over," or
"beyond” and "vey" which means to "look" or to "see". Thus the word survey means "to look or
to see over or beyond."
Survey method is, thus, the technique of investigation by direct observation of phenomena or

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systematic gathering of data from population by applying personal contact, interviews and
questionnaires when adequate information about a certain problem is not available in records,
files, and other sources. Survey research is defined as an organized attempt to analyzed,
interpret and report the present status of social institution group area.
In such type of study, several data related to the subject(s) understudy are gathered and the
common elements are identified. It is, therefore, used to explore a topic and to give a beginning
familiarity with the topic. It is broad in size rather than study in depth as it takes large area and
tries to come up with the major common characteristics. It, thus, scratches the surface rather than
going to depth of the problem.
Types of Surveys
There are different types of survey study. Some of them are briefly described below.
1) Opinion type of survey
This type of survey study is the study conducted by asking the opinions of different people
known as pillars i.e. (people who vote) and make different type of decisions. E.g. The opinion of
people to choose among negation and war between two countries to resolve conflict
2) Attitudinal survey study
This is the type of survey that gathers data on the attitude of people on certain issue. E.g. The
attitude of students towards quantitative courses, the attitude of elder generation towards the
young generation, the attitude of one ethnic group towards the other ethnic group in Ethiopia.
3) The comparative survey
This the type of survey that compares two or more elements (i.e. people, institutions, companies,
etc.). Comparison must be done if and only if two or more elements (subjects) to be compared
have similarities and or differences. Comparing things that are incomparable is wastage of effort.
E.g. Comparative study between private and government college students with regard to their
performance comparative study between privet banks and state owned banks in customer
handling.
4) The Descriptive Survey method
The descriptive survey method or what is sometimes called the normative survey is employed to
process the data that come to the researcher through observation. The method or research that
simply looks with intense accuracy at the phenomena of the moment and then describes
precisely what the researcher sees is called the descriptive survey. The basic assumption
underlying such an approach is that given phenomena usually follow a common pattern, or
norm.
In employing this method, the researcher does two things: first. he/she observers with close

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scrutiny the population which is bounded by the research parameters; second he/she makes a
careful record of what he/she observes so that when the aggregate record is made, the researcher
can then return to the record to study the observation that have been "described" there. In this
sense, survey research has a common denominator with historical research namely the study of
records.
The point should be clearly emphasized that "looking" or "seeing" is not restricted to the
perception through the physical eye. In research, we have many ways seeing, which have
nothing to do with physical vision. The physician "looks" at the patient's heart through a
stethoscope and by means of an electrocardiogram. The educator, the psychologist, the guidance
and vocational counselor "looks" at the achievement, intelligence, altitudes, beliefs or
personality structure through tests, inventories attitude scales, and other test and evaluation
scales. Hundreds of thousands of survey studies have been conducted in which the "looking" has
been by means of a questionnaires and in interview studies. The "looking" has largely been by
the ear rather than by the eye
Characteristics of the Descriptive Survey
a) It deals with a situation that demands the technique of observation as the principal means of
collecting the data.
b) The population for the study must be carefully chosen, carefully defined, and specifically
delimited in order to set precise parameters for ensuring discreteness to the population.
c) Data in descriptive survey research are particularly susceptible to distortion through the
introduction of bias into the research design. Thus, particular attention should be given to
safeguard the data from the influence of bias.
d) Although the description survey method relics upon observation for the acquisition of the
data, those data must then be organized and presented systematically so that valid and accurate
conclusions may be drawn from them.
Guidelines With Respect To Interpretation of the Data
In the Descriptive survey study
 Be systematic in describing the treatment of the data.
 State clearly the data you need to resolve the sub problem.
 State precisely where the data are located.
 State without equivocation how the data will be secures.
 State fully and unequivocally precisely how you intend to interpret the data.
 Every step in the interpretation of the data should be fully spelled out.
 Be sure the data support your conclusions.

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The Analytical survey Method
In descriptive survey method the data have more of a tendency to be verbal because descriptive
studies deal with inquires questions and interviews - and simple observation information. The
analytical survey study takes data that are essentially quantitative in nature and analyzes these
data by means of appropriate statistical tools. The purpose is to probe those data by means of
statistics so that we may infer certain meanings which lie hidden within the data or, if not that, to
determine the presence of certain potentials and dynamic forces which may be a clue to areas
that warrant further investigation.
In analytical survey, we are concerned primarily with problems of estimation and the testing of
statistically based hypotheses. The methods employed are those techniques that are generally
referred to as belonging to the domain of inferential statistics.
The Essential Nature of Quantitative Data
a) They are measurable. Measurement of data is expressed by means of various scales of value.
In measuring, one develops some form of scale and transfers the observation of the property
indicated into this scale.
We generally recognize four basic scalar categories for classifying analytical- survey data:
i) The nominal scale is the grossest of the differential scales. It merely expresses categorical
classification. It is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to level
them. E,g Assigning number to football players to in order to identify them. The numbers are
just convenient labels for the particular classes of events and they have no quantitative value.
Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events.
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It simply describes differences
between things by assigning them to category.
ii) The ordinal scale is the scale that is ordered meaning fully. You can speak the first is the
best, the second is next, and the third is fair. The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of
“greater than” or “less than” without being able to state how much greater or less.
iii) The interval scale for which a unit of measurement has been established. It helps for a unit
of measurement that has been established between two intervals. E,g To scale the different age
group, or different salary of respondents or service year of respondent.
iv) The ratio scale in which they are measured from an absolute or arbitrary designated zero
point. The ratio scale measure multiples of one value over another. E.g. Harar Beer has 4.25%
alcoholic content. The temperature measures 25% Celsius.
b) Data also have two other characteristics: discrete or continues.
i) Discrete data are those which arise from the process of counting. It assumes only certain

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value with no intermediate values. It can not be between 0 and 1or b/n 1 and 2. The possible
values can be listed and it is relatively simple to work with discrete data set. E.g. The number of
eggs in a dozen, the number of students in a class, etc.
ii) Continuous data arise from the measurement process, which is a part of a continuum. They
assume any numerical value over certain interval. We cannot count the values of continuous
data. It simply assigns a set of all positive numbers or values between 0 and 1 on continuum
basis. E.g. Length, width, time, and age values are all continuous data.
Advantages of Survey Research Method
 Direct and close contact between researcher and the respondents
 Greater objectivity
 Formulation and testing of hypothesis
 Social surveys are based on actual observation
 Universal application
Limitations of Survey Research Method
 It is costly, time consuming, and wasteful in certain cases where objectives are limited.
 If the subject to be surveyed is large or where they are spread over a large geographic
area, it is unsuitable.
 Personal bias may vitiate the result.
 It lacks flexibility.
 It is useful only for current problems and is not suitable for the problem that requires the
study in the historical retrospect.
 If the sample survey is not carefully planned and executed, the inferences drawn may be
inaccurate and misleading in survey studies that involve sample.
Steps of a Social Survey Research Method
1) Selection of a problem: - The topic selected should:
-be practically feasible, manageable, and of practical importance.
-not necessarily be new and beyond the reach of the researcher.
-be interesting to the researcher.
-take into account the availability of facilities, equipment, information and the services of
experts who guide the research.
2) Preliminary or pilot study: - This acquaints the researcher with all the available material and
literature in the field.
3) Formulating general specific ejectives of the study: - The general objectives, usually
expressed in broad terms, define the area and scope of the research Specific objectives is the

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general objectives broken down into measurable objectives.
4) Determining the resources and personal needed: - Estimation of the financial budget and
the staff required dong with their qualifications, facilities the reach work.
5) Sampling: - This is done when complete coverage of the universe is neither possible nor
undesirable.
6) Determining method of date collection: - Depending on the nature of the data -
questionnaires, interviews, schedules and observations - to be used are determined.
7) Training the staff- Because the quality of investigators and interviewers determine the
success of the survey, they should be adequately trained.
8) Organization of the fieldwork: - The data is collected effectively and efficiently the field
work should be organized carefully and sometimes experts have to guide the surveyors.
9) Content analysis: - At this stage, the information collected from the field is scrutinized for
errors, commissions, etc. and is ready for coding and tabulation. After the tabulation and coding
of collected data, a scheme analysis is drawn up and the data may be analyzed by suitable
statistical methods to determine their reliability.
10) Reporting: - A report is written embodying the survey findings and contains a detailed
statement of the different stages of the survey the types of the estimates contained along with
their precisions.
4) The Experimental Research Method
This methodology goes by various names; the experimental method, the cause and effect
method, the pretest posttest control group design and the laboratory method. The basic idea
behind this method is to attempt to account for the influence of a factor or as in the case of
complex designs, of multiple factors conditioning a given situation.
In its simplest form, the experimental method attempts to control the entire research situation.
The experimental research method requires us the understanding of different variables. But what
are variables?
Variables
The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for the property being
studied. In this context, a variable is "a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned."
The numerical value assigned to a variable is based on the variables properties. For example,
variables referred to as being dichotomous have only two values reflecting the presence or
absence of property. Employer-employee or male-female have two values, generally 0 and 1.
Variables could be discrete or continuous.
Variables that produce data that fit into categories are discrete since only certain values are

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possible. Variables that may take values within a given range are continuous variables.
Income, temperature, age, or test score are examples of continuous variables. These variables
may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Your test score may
range from 0 to 100, your age may be 23.5, and your present income could be Birr 35,000.
Independent and Dependent variables
If the investigator has control over the variable and is able to manipulate it or change it at will,
then we say that variable is an independent variable. If, on the other hand, the investigator has no
control over the variable and it occurs as the result of the influence of the independent variable
then that variable is known as the dependent variable.
Researchers are most interested in relationships among variables.
For example, does a participative leadership style (independent variables) influence satisfaction
or performance (dependent variables) or can a superior's modeling of ethical behavior influence
the behavior of the subordinate?
The following table lists some term that have become synonyms for independent and dependent
variable.

Independent variable Dependent Variable

Presumed cause ------------------------- presumed effect

Predicated from -------------------------- Predicted to
Antecedent ------------------------- Consequent
Manipulated ------------------------- Measured outcome

Extraneous variable: A variable which interfere the relationship between the dependent and an
independent variable is called extraneous or intervening variable. It is an independent variable
that is not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable in some
way.
Suppose the researcher wants to test the effect of socio-economic background of a student’s
family on learning, the variables such as IQ, age, school and other facilities may act as
intervening variables. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variables) is technically described as an ' experimental error'. A study must always be so
designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent
variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable(s).
Control: minimizing the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). In experimental
researches, the term ' control' is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.
Confounded relationship: when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of

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extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Moderating variables
There is at least one independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) in each relationship.
It is normally hypothesized that in some sway the IV "causes" the DV to occur. For simple
relationships, all other variables are considered extraneous and are ignored. Thus, we might be
interested in a study of the effect of the four-day workweek on office productivity and
hypothesize the following:
The introduction of the four-day Workweek (IV) will lead to increased office productivity per
Worker-hour (DV).
In actual study situations, however, such a simple one-to-one relationship needs to be
conditioned or revised to take other variables into account. It often uses another type of
explanatory variable of value here - the moderating variable (MV). A moderating variable is a
second independent variable that is included because it is believed to have a significant
contributory or contingent effect on the originally slated IV-DV relationship. For example one
may hypothesize that:
The Introduction of the four-day work week (IV) will lead to increased office productivity per
worker-hour (DV), especially among younger workers (MV).
Research hypothesis: the research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable. Often a research hypothesis must contain, at least,
one independent and one dependent variable
Experimental and control groups: in an experimental research when a group is exposed to
usual conditions, it is termed as ' Control group', but when the group is exposed to some novel or
special condition, it is termed an ' experimental group.'
Treatments: the different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ' treatments'. If we want to determine the comparative impact of three
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat through an experiment, the three varieties of
fertilizer will be considered as treatment.
Experiment: the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types’ viz.,
absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a
fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine
the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment

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then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often we undertake comparative experiments
when we talk of designs of experiments.
Underling Concepts
The matter of control is so basic to the experimental method. We frequently refer to this means
for searching for truth as the control group - experimental group design. At the outset, we
assume that the forces and dynamics within both groups are equisetic. We begin, as far as
possible with matched groups. These groups are randomly selected and paired so that each group
will resemble the other in as many characteristics as possible and, certainly, with respect to those
qualities that are critical to the experiment.
Mathematically, Experimental group = control group
And, although we assume that both groups have at the beginning of the experiment identical
characteristics, identical values and identical status, perfect identity is more theoretical than real.
In recognition of the fact, therefore, we employ the phrase matched group or we say that they are
groups matched on the base of x, y and z" The x, y, and z are the qualitative parameters which
provide the basis for matching.
The Characteristics of the Experimental Method
1) The experimental method deals with the phenomenon of cause and effect. Here, we have
two situations and we assess each to establish comparability. We attempt to alter one of these by
introducing into it an extraneous dynamic. We reevaluate each situation after the intervening
attempt at alteration. Whatever change is noticed is presumed to have been cause by the
extraneous variable.
2) Experimental research needs to be planned. This planning is called the designing of the
experiment.
Experimental design refers to the architectonics and planning of the entire experimental
approach to a problem for research. There are two types of experimental designs:
1) Factorial Design- The design in which the researcher is not able to control the independent
variable at will.
2) Functional Design- The design in which the researcher can control the independent variable
at will.
Classification of Experimental Method
According to Cambell and Stanley, experimental designs are divided into the following
classifications
A) Pre-Experimental Designs
i) The one - shot case study

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The one-shot case study is the most primitive method. It is the simplest and naive experimental
design. It may be represented by the following symbolic formula
Paradigm of Design I: x-0
(X - is used when an object is exposed to an experimental variable)
(0 - indicates an observation or measurement of the data)
E.g. - We see a child sitting on the damp earth in mid-July. The next day he has a sore throat and
a cold. We conclude that sitting on the damp earth causes one to catch cold.
X= exposure of child to cold damp earth, 0 = observation that child has a cold
Here the fact and the consequence observed were linked together as cause and effect.
ii) The one -group pretest-post-test design.
This is a type of experiment where a single group has:
(1) a pre-experimental evaluation, then
(2) the influence of the variable, and, finally
(3) a post-experimental evaluation. The paradigm for this type of research is:
Paradigm for Design II: 0 X ---- 02
E.g. taking coffee increases blood pressure.
0 - Blood pressure before the experimental treatment
X - The experiment (Taking coffee)
O2- Blood pressure after the experimental treatment
If there is change of the blood pressure, it is concluded that the experiment (taking coffee) has
increase the difference.
iii) The static group Comparison
This paradigm provides for two study groups, one of which receives the experimental stimulus
while the other serves as a control
Paradigm for Design III: Group I X - 01
Group II - O2
Here is a design in which two randomly sleeted groups are designated by the dictates of chance,
one to be a control group, and the other to be experimental group. The experimental group is
exposed to variable X; the control group is not. At the close of the experiment, both groups are
evaluated and a comparison is made between the evaluation values of each group to determine
what has been the effect of factor X. In this design, no attempt is made to obtain or examine the
pre-experimental equivalence of the comparison groups.
Its chief weakness is that there is no way to assure that the two groups really are comparable. To
overcome this difficulty, true experiments need to be used.

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B) True Experimental Designs
The true experimental design involves a greater degree of control and refinement and a greater
insurance of both internal and external validity.
With experimental designs, internal validity is the basic minimum without which any experiment
is uninterruptible. The question that the researcher must answer is whether the experimental
treatment did indeed make a difference in the experiment. To what population, settings,
treatment variables, and measurement variables can the effect, as observed in the experiment be
generalized is external validity. Of the two types of validity, internal validity is certainly the
more important so far as the integrity of the study is concerned.
a. The pretest-posttest control group design
Here we have the experimental group carefully chosen through appropriate randomization
procedures and the control group similarly selected. The experimental group is evaluated from
the experimental variable, and reevaluated. The control group is isolated, subjected to the
experimental variable influences and is merely evaluated at the beginning and at the end of the
experiment.
Paradigm for Design IV: R1 [01 - X - O2)
R2 (03----04)}
The bracketing of both groups shows that R1 the randomization process is common to both
groups and the R2 - shows that before separation these two randomized samples were kept
isolated from the influence of the experimental variables X. 01 and 02 are the two evaluations of
the experimental group and 03 and 04 are the evaluations of the control group.
b. The post-test only control group design
In this design, the pretest measurements are omitted
Paradigm for Design V: R1 X----02
R2 04
C) Quest Experimental Design
In a quest – experiment, equivalent experimental and control groups can not be established
through random assignment. A quest experiment is inferior to a true experiment design but it is
usually superior to available non – experimental approaches
a. The non-randomized Control protest posttest design
This is similar to the first of true experimental pretest posttest design discussed except for the
lack of randomization.
Paradigm for Design VI: 01 --X -- O2
03-------04

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To minimize the differences that might exist between the experimental and the control groups,
the researcher might attempt to match as closely as possible and on as many variables as possible
the two groups before beginning the experiment.
b. The time series experiment
This consists of taking a series of evolution and then introducing a variable or a new dynamic
into the system, after which another series of evaluations is made. If a substantial change results
in the second series of evaluation, we may assume with reasonable experimental logic that cause
of the difference is observational results was because of the factor introduced in to the system.
Paradigm for design VII 01—02—03—04—05—06—07--08
In this design, the effects of extraneous factor are likely to be confounded with those of the
experimental factors and the wrong attribution of the cause for the effect observed may be made

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 Chapter Five

Sampling Design

The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, conclusion
may be drawn about the entire population. An element is the subject in which measurement is
being taken. It is the unit of the study.

Sample is a subset of a population which the researcher selects with the intention to generalize
the result of the study to the population. The selected sample should be representative of the
population

A population is total collection of elements about which we wish to make some information. A
census is a study including all the elements in the population.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as a
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of
a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.

Why Sampling?

The economic advantages of taking a sample rather than a census are massive. Consider the
probability cost of taking census. Why should we spend high cost and time interviewing all 4000
employees in one economy if we can find out what we need to know by asking only a few
hundred?

Deming argues that the quality of a study is often better with sampling than with a census. He
suggest", "sampling possesses the possibility of better interviewing (testing), more thorough
investigation of missing, or suspicious information, better supervision, and better processing
than is possible with complete coverage." Sampling also provides much quicker results than
does a census. The speed of execution minimizes the time between the recognition of a need for
information and the availability of that information. Some situations also require sampling. For
e.g. blood test requires sampling. Sampling is also the only process possible if the population is
infinite.

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Sampling is not appropriate when the population is small and the variability is high. Two
conditions are appropriate for a census study: (1) A Census is feasible when the population is
small and (2) necessary when the elements are quite different from each other.

The major problem in sampling is that any sample we draw may not be representative of the
population from which it is drawn.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

The basic features of a quality sample design include the following. Sampling design must:

 result in a truly representative sample.

 results in a small sampling error.

 be viable in the context of funds available

 Control systematic bias

 Help the sample study to be applied in general for the population with a
reasonable level of confidence.

Steps in Sampling Design

1. Defining the population: specifying the population of the study; (there should be no
ambiguity as to whether a given unit belongs to the population). If a population is not
properly defined, it is difficult to:

 determine units to be considered in selecting sample

 to infer the result of the study to the population

2. Listing the population (preparing sampling frame): preparing the list of names of all
items of the universe (in case of finite population only).

3. Selecting a representative sample (sampling): selecting a sample of units from the

source list or sampling frame.

4. Obtaining an adequate sample: the size of sample should be optimum, which is neither
excessively large nor too small. In principle, a small sample is sufficient for

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 homogeneous population, but a much larger sample is necessary if there is greater
variability in the units of the population.

Steps in Sampling Design

1. Defining the population: specifying the population of the study; (there should be no ambiguity
as to whether a given unit belongs to the population). If a population is not properly defined, it is
difficult to:

 determine units to be considered in selecting sample

 to infer the result of the study to the population

2. Listing the population (preparing sampling frame): preparing the list of names of all items of
the universe (in case of finite population only).

3. Selecting a representative sample (sampling): selecting a sample of units from the source list
or sampling frame.

4. Obtaining an adequate sample: the size of sample should be optimum, which is neither
excessively large nor too small. In principle, a small sample is sufficient for homogeneous
population, but a much larger sample is necessary if there is greater variability in the units of the
population.

For statistical measurement > 30 sample size, use this formula

N =N
1 + N(e2 )

 Determine the size of the population.

 Decide on the margin of error. (As much as possible the margin of error should
not be higher than 5%. Probably 3% is an ideal one)

Use the formula, n = ___N_______

1 + N (e2)

n = sample size

N = the size of the population

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 e = the margin of error

Compute the sample proportion by dividing the sample obtained by the population.

 Population is 5,346, Margin of error is 3%

 Using the formula n = ___N______

1 + N(e2)

 n = 5346/1+ 5346(.03) 2

 n = 372

When the sample is drawn properly, some sample items underestimate the parameters and the
others overestimate them. Valuations in these item values tend to counteract each other; this
counteraction tendency results in a static that is generally close to the parameter.

Types of Sampling Design

There are two broad categories of sampling. These include the following.

1. Probability sampling and

2. Non-probability sampling

A variety of sampling techniques is variable. The one selected depends on the requirements of
the project, its objectives, and funds available. The different approaches may be classified by
their representation basis and the element selection techniques as in the following taste.

Element selection Representation Basis

Probability Non Probability

Unrestricted Simple random sampling Convenience

Restricted Complex random sampling Purposive

Systematic Judgment

Cluster Quota

Stratified Snowball

Double

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The members of a sample are selected either on a probability or non-probability basis.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection - a controlled procedure that
assures that each population element is given a known nonzero chance of selection. Non-
probability sampling, on the other hand, is subjective and each member does not have a known
nonzero chance of being included.

The major concern in sampling is a choice of sample that is representative of population. A

sampling that is said to be representative if it generates a result that would be reached if the
research were conducted on the whole population. In order to be representative, a sample should
possess all the important characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. The task in the
selecting are:

Clearly Define the Characteristics of the Population.

If generalization is to encompass the view of the population, we have to first determine the
characteristics we want observe. Then the scope and the size the sample are decided.

In general, it is assumed that the larger the sample size the lower the errors will be and vice
versa. But this is only an assumption and may not always be true. A large sample that lacks
proper selection may be less representative than the smaller sample carefully selected.

The basis for calculating sample size in probability sampling assumes an infinite population.
Thus, a sample of 100 drawn from population 5,000 has roughly the same estimating precision
as 100 drawn from a population of 200 million. The only problem with sample from larger
population is the difficult of drawing the sample. From this it can be seen that there is no hard
and fast the size of sample. But what it is taken by scientists is 1.25% when the population is
very large.

The most important factor in determining the size of sample needed for the estimating
population is parameter is the size of population variance. The greater the dispersion or variance
in the population, the larger the sample must be to provide estimation precision.

Determine the homogeneity level of the member of the population

In a universe consisting of homogeneous units a small sample is suitable, while in a consisting of

heterogeneous units, a large-sized sample is inevitable, for yielding good results.

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The greater the similarity of the members that are being sampled, the smaller the error be and
vice versa. If the element of the population is similar, the representative of the sample would be
increased and the error would be minimized.

Probability Sampling

Probability sampling provides scientific techniques of drawing samples from population

according to some laws of chance in which each unit has some definite pre assigned probability
of being chosen in the sample.

Simple Random Sampling

A simple random sampling is one in which each item in the universe has an equal or known
opportunity of being selected. It is more suitable in more homogeneous and comparatively larger
groups. Three methods are generally used for drawing out a sample on simple random basis.

1) Lottery Method: - A simple method to do this is to list numbers and to draw lots or to use
dies or charts or prepared for this purpose. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 5000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all 5000 items on
slips of paper and conduct a lottery.

2) Use of Tables of Random Numbers: - These numbers are very widely used in all the
sampling techniques and have proved to be quite reliable as regards accuracy and
representativeness. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 300. Then 30
five digits random numbers are selected from the table. To do this w select some random starting
point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding trough the table. Assume that we
produce 30 different sets of numbers as follows.

2952 6642 3992 9792 7979 5911

3170 5624 4167 9525 1546 1396

7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483

3408 2769 3563 6107 6919 7691

0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126

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Suppose are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a population of 30 units bearing
numbers from 3001 to 8000. We shall select 10 such figures from the above random numbers
which are not less than 3001 and not greater than 8000. If we randomly decide to read the table
numbers from the left to the right, we obtain the following numbers: 6642, 3992, 7979, 5911,
3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356, and 7483.

Precautions in Drawing a Simple Random

• Population to be sampled and the unit must be clearly defined.

• Different units should be approximately of equal size.

• The unit must be independent of each other.

• Method of selection should be completely independent.

• Every member should be accessible. Units once selected should not be ignored or replaced by
any other unit of the universe.

Merits of the Simple Random Method

• It eliminates bias and is more scientific method of taking samples.

• Assessment of the accuracy of the result is possible by sample error estimation.

• The sample drawn under this method is true representative of the universe.

• It is very simple and easily practicable of selecting samples.

Demerits of the simple Random method

• It requires complete list of the universe that restrict the use Of this method.

• It is not suitable for respondents (dispersed) over a large geographic area.

• For a given degree of accuracy, this method usually requires larger sample as compared to
stratified sampling.

Complex Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is after impractical. It requires a population list that is after not
available. The design may also be wasteful because it fails to use all the information about a

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population. In addition, the carrying out of a simple random design may be expensive in time
and money. These problems have led to development of alternative designs that are superior to
the simple random design in statistical and/or economic efficiency. In the discussion that
follows, four alternate probability sampling approaches are discussed systematic, stratified,
cluster, and double sampling.

(1) Systematic Sampling

Under this method a sampling is taken from a list prepared on a systematic arrangement either
on the basis of alphabetic order or on house number or any other method. In this method only the
first sample unit is selected at random and the remaining units are automatically selected in a
definite sequence at equal spacing from one another.

Steps involved in systematic sampling

1. Arrange population in serial number from l to N and determine the size of the sample.

2. Determine the sample interval by dividing the population by sample size as follows.

N/n = K; Where, N= Population size, n = sample size, K = Sample interval

3. Select any number at random from the first sampling interval. The subsequent samples are
selected at equal or regular intervals.

Merits of systematic sampling

- It is very easy to operate and checking can also be done quickly.

- It results in representative sample because of its randomness and probability features.

Demerits of systematic sampling

• It works well only if the complete and up-to-date frame is available and if the units are
randomly arranged.

• Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the representativeness of the sample.

(2) Stratified Sampling

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When the population is heterogeneous with respect to the variable or characteristics under study,
then the techniques of stratified sampling is used to obtain more efficient and accurate results.
Stratification means division of the universe in to groups according to geographical, sociological
or economic characteristics.

Most populations can be segregated into a number of mutually exclusive subpopulation, or

strata. For example, university students can be divided by their department, class level, faculty,
sex etc. After the population is divided into the appropriate data, a simple random sample can be
taken with each stratum. Researchers use stratified random sample for the following reasons

1) To increase sample’s statistical efficiency

2) To provide adequate data for analyzing the various subpopulation
3) To enable different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata.

Processes involved in stratified sampling

• Divide the universe into sub-groups. Then the required units are selected at random from each
subgroup.

• Conduct the stratification in such a way that item in one stratum should be similar to each other
but different significantly from unit of other strata.

• Each and every unit in the population must belong to one and only one stratum, i.e., various
strata must be non-overlapping.

• The size of each stratum in the universe must be large enough to provide selection of item in a
random basis.

• Size of the sample from each stratum can be proportional or disproportional to the size of each
stratum.

Merits of stratified sampling

 If a correct stratification has been made, even a small number of units will form a
representative sample.
 Under this method, no group is left unrepresented.
 It is more precise and avoids bias to a great extent.
 It is the only sampling plan, which enables to achieve different degrees of accuracy for
different segment of the population.

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  Replacement of case is easy in this method if the original case is not accessible to study.
 It enables different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata.
 Stratification is usually more efficient statistically than simple random sampling and at
worst is equal to it. With the ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally
and heterogeneous with other strata.

Demerit of Stratified Sampling

 It is a very difficult task to divide the universe into homogeneous strata.

 If the Strata are over-lapping, unsuitable or disproportionate, the selection of samples

may not be representative.

 Disproportionate stratification requires weighting which again introduces selective factor

in the sample and under weighting makes the sample unrepresentative.

CLUSTER SAMPLING

In a simple random sample, each population element is selected individually. The population can
also be divided into groups of e1ements with some group randomly selected for study. This is
cluster sampling. An immediate question might be: how does this differ from stratified
sampling? They may be compared as follows:

1) We divide the population into a few 1) We divide the population into many sub-
subgroups, each with many elements groups, each with a few elements in it. The
according to some criterion that is sub-groups are Selected according to some
related to the variable under study. criterion of ease or availability in data
collection.

2) We try to secure heterogeneity within sub

2) We try to secure homogeneity group and homogeneity between sub-groups,
within sub-groups and heterogeneity but we usually get the reverse.
between sub-groups.
3) We randomly choose a number of the sub-
groups, which we then typically study into.
3) We randomly choose element from
within each group.

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When properly done, c1uster sampling also provides an unbiased estimate of population
parameters. Two conditions foster the use of cluster sampling: (1) the need for more economic
efficiency than can be provided by simple random sampling and (2) the frequent unavailability
of practical sampling frame for individual elements.

Principles of cluster sampling

- Cluster should be as small as possible with the cost and limitation of the survey.

- The number of sampling units in the cluster should be approximately the same.

Merits of the cluster method

-It gives significant cost gain.

-It is easier and more practical method, which facilitates the field work.

Demerits of Cluster Method

- Probability and the representativeness of the sample are sometimes affected if the number of
the clusters is very large.

- The results obtained under this method are likely to be less accurate if the number of sampling
units in each in cluster is not approximately the same.

DOUBLE (OR MULTI-STAGE) SAMPLING

It may be more convenient or economical to collect some information by sample and use this
information as the basis for selecting a sub-sampling for further study. This procedure is called
double sampling, sequential sampling, or multiphase sampling. It is usually found with stratified
and/or cluster designs.

This technique is appropriate for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical
area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large
primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns, and finally certain families
within towns. If the technique of random sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling

Merits of Double Sampling

-It is more flexible in comparison to the other methods.

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-Under this method surveys can be conducted with considerable speed.

Demerits of Double sampling

- Errors are likely to be large in this method.

- A multi-stage is usually less efficient than a suitable single stage sampling of the same.

- It involves different stage listings though complete listing is not needed.

Non- probability Sampling

In probability sampling, researchers use a random selection of elements to reduce or eliminate

sampling bias. Non-probability sampling or judgment sampling is based on the personal
judgment. Under this method a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or
purposely depending upon the object of the inquiry so that only the important items representing
the true characteristics of the population are included in the sample. Under such conditions, there
is greater opportunity for bias to enter the sample selection procedure and to distort the findings
of the study. If this is so, why would anyone choose it? There are some practical reasons for
using these less precise methods. These are:

- It is appropriate for exploratory types of researches where one may wish to contact only certain
persons or cases that are clearly non-typical. This is the case when there is no desire to
generalize about population.

- It saves time and money. Probability sampling clearly calls for more planning and repeated
callbacks to assure that each selected member is contacted.

- While probability sampling may be superior in theory, there are breakdowns in its application.

- Sometimes non-probability sampling may be the only feasible alternative.

(1) Convenience Sampling

Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the least
reliable design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or field workers
have the freedom to choose whomever they find, thus the name convenience. Examples include
informal pools of friends and neighbors or people responding to question of the researcher.

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While a convenience sample has no controls to ensure precision, it may still be a useful
procedure. In the early stages of exploratory research when you are seeking guidance, you might
use this approach.

(2) Purposive Sampling

A non-probability sample that conforms to certain criteria is called purposive sampling. There
are two major types of judgment sampling and quota sampling.

i) Judgment sampling: occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform to some
criterion. In a study labor problem, for example, you may want to talk only with those who
experienced on-the-job discrimination. When used in the early stages of exploratory study, a
judgment sample is appropriate. When one wishes to select a biased group for screening
purposes, this sampling method is also a good choice.

ii) Quota Sampling: is the second type of purposive sampling. We use it to improve
representativeness. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain relevant characteristics
describe the dimension of populations.

In most quota samples, researchers specify more than one control dimension each should meet
two tests: (1) it should have a distribution in the population that we can estimate and (2) it should
be pertinent to the topic studied. We may believe that responses to a question should vary,
depending upon the gender of respondent.

Quota sampling is a special type of stratified sampling. Here, the population is first stratified on
some basis, preferably on the basis of the characteristics of the population under study. After
this, the number of sample units be selected from stratum is decided by the researcher in
advance. This number is known as quota, which may be fixed according to some specific
characteristic such as income groups, sex, occupation, political/religious affiliations, etc. The
choice of the particular units for investigating is left to the investigators themselves. The
investigators try to get required information quickly by applying their judgment in the choice of
the sample. In case of non-response due to uncooperative nature of respondents, the investigator
selects some fresh units him/herself to complete his/her quota.

Merits of Quota Sampling Method

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- Because it is both stratified (probability) and purposive (non-probability), it enjoys the benefits
of both methods and hence is both practical and convenient method.

- If proper controls or checks are imposed on the investigator, quota sampling is likely to give
accurate results.

Demerit of Quota Sampling Method

- It suffers from the limitations of both stratified and purposive sampling.

- Control over fieldwork is difficult task. Hence the results may be biased because of the
personal beliefs and prejudice of the investigator in selection of the units under study.

- Since quota sampling is not based on random sampling, the sampling error can't be estimated.
Since the samples are not randomly selected, they may not be true representative of the universe.

- The bias may also occur due to substitution of unlike sample units.

In general purposive sampling (deliberate sampling) is the situation where the researcher
deliberately selects certain units for study from the universe and nothing is left to chance.

Merits of purposive sampling

- It is more economical and less-time consuming and hence is useful if controlled.

- If the researcher has full knowledge of the composition of the universe, this method ensures
proper representation of a cross section of various strata of the universe.

- It is useful especially when some of the units are very important and should be included in
study.

- It is a practical method where randomization is not possible.

Demerits of Purposive Sampling

- It presupposes considerable prior knowledge of the universe.

- There is possibility of the selection of biased samples due to ineffective controls and
safeguards adopted sometimes.

- The hypothesis framed can't be tested, as the calculation of sample errors is not possible.

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(3) Snowball Sampling

In the initial stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and may or may not be
selected through probability methods. This group is then used to locate others who possess
similar characteristics and who, in turn, identify others. Similar to a reverse search for
bibliographic sources, the "snowball" gather subjects as it rolls along.

Sampling Error and Sampling Bias:

Sampling studies are subject to sampling and non-sampling errors which are of a random and/or
of a constant nature.

a. Sampling errors: these are errors that are created because of chance only. Although a sample
is properly selected, there will be some difference between the estimates obtained from the
sample (sample statistics) and the actual value in the population (parameters). The mean of
the sample might be different from the population mean by chance alone. The standard
deviation of the sample will probably be different from the population standard deviation.
We can therefore expect some difference between the sample statistics (such as the mean
and the standard deviation) and the corresponding population values, known as parameters.
This difference is known as the sampling error.

b.Sampling bias (systematic error)

Sampling bias is a non-sampling error which can be created from errors in the sampling
procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. Such error
occurs because of human mistakes and not chance. The possible factors that contribute to the
creation of such bias include inappropriate sampling frame, accessibility bias, defective
measuring device, and non-response bias (or defects in data collection).

Inappropriate sampling: If the sampling unit is misrepresentation of the universe, it will result
in sampling bias. This could happen when a researcher gathers data from a sample that was
drawn from some favored locations.

Accessibility bias: when researchers tend to select respondents who are the most accessible to
them (easily reached).

Defective measuring device: when questions are not phrased so that they are fully
understandable by respondents. Consequently, the answers obtained are not accurate..

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None-Response bias: incomplete coverage of sample or inability to get complete responses
from all the individuals initially included in the sample.

Samples Size Determination

The size of the sample is determined by a number of factors such as the availability of resources
(e.g., cost, time, and personnel), the nature of the population (degree of heterogeneity or
homogeneity), the degree of accuracy we seek or magnitude of difference we wish to test the
confidence levels we wish to use, the appropriate size of the population from which the sample
is drawn, and the response rate. In any case, the size of the actual sample must be larger enough:

• to allow for reliable analysis of cross-tabulation;

• to provide for desired levels of accuracy in estimates of proportions, and

• to test for significance of difference between proportions.

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 Chapter six

Method of data collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design
is checked out. The researcher must collect and use two types of data: primary and secondary
data. The primary data those which are collected for the first time and they are original in
nature. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical processes. The methods
of collecting primary and secondary data are different. Primary data are originally collected
while the collection of secondary data is merely that of compilation.

Uses of Secondary Sources

Secondary data are used for three research purposes. These are:

1. They fill a need for a specific reference on same point

E.g. - The estimated production of Agricultural output last year.

- The population of Addis Ababa in 2020

-The Current rate of return on government bonds

2. Secondary data is an integral part of a larger research study.

- Research procedures call for some early exploration to learn if the past can contribute to the
present study.

- Data from secondary sources help us decide what further research needs to be done and can be
a rich source of hypothesis.

3. Secondary data may be used as the sole basis for research.

E.g. - Historical method solely depends on secondary data.

-Retrospective research often requires the use of past-published data.

-In many research situations, one can't conduct primary research because of physical, legal, or
cost limitations.

Types of Secondary Sources

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Data sources may be classified as either internal (organizational) or external sources of
information.

1. Internal sources

Accounting and management information systems create and store much of the internal data.
Research and development, planning and marketing functions also contribute.

E.g. Departmental reports, production summaries, financial and accounting reports and
marketing and sales studies

The collection methods used are unique to the specific situation and collection success depends
on knowing just where and how to look. Systematic searches should be made through
exploratory interviews with who handles the information.

2. External Sources

They are created outside the organization, and more varied than internal sources. There are also
better defined methods for finding them.

E.g. - Computerized databases

- Periodicals

- Books

- Government documents

- Special Collections

- University publications

- Company publications

- Personal document

Primary Data Collection Techniques

The choice of primary data gathering tools depends on:

 Methodology or type of research that has been selected;

 What is feasible in a given research situation;

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  What is likely to yield the most appropriate information?

Some of the more important data collecting methods for survey or descriptive research studies
are questionnaire, interview, and observation and focus group discussions methods. Each of
them is briefly discussed below.

Questionnaire

1. Questionnaires

 Quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.

 A questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions
and return the questionnaire.

 The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply. The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own.

Advantage of questionnaire

1. low cost and time saving

2. Used when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.

3. Free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.

4. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

5. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.

6. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. Low rate of return

2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.

3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

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 4. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.

5. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for
testing the questionnaires.

Main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form: the general form of a questionnaire is either structured or unstructured

questionnaire.

Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and
pre-determined questions. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’
or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed
during questioning. Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which
responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives. Structured questionnaires are
simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze but wide range of data in respondent’s
words cannot be obtained.

2. Question sequence: The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, relation of

one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are
easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The first few questions are particularly important
because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired
cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest.

The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a

questionnaire:

1. questions that put too great a hurt on the memory or intellect of the respondent;

2. questions of a personal character;

3. Questions related to personal wealth, etc.

Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are vital to the research problem
and simple questions first; relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end

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3. Question formulation and wording: each question must be very clear for any sort of
misunderstanding. All questions should be easily understood; simple i.e., should convey only
one thought at a time; concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way
of thinking.

Multiple choice (close - ended) questions; in this form of questions, respondent selects one of
the alternative. Closed -end questions have the advantages of easy handling, simple to answer,
quick and relatively inexpensive to analyze. The main drawback of fixed alternative questions is
that of “putting answers in people’s mouths”

Major Problems Related to Closed - End Questions

i. Sometimes the choices given should not be exhaustive: The researcher should strive to
include all possible choices. However, sometimes the list of possible choices could be very long.
Under such circumstance, only the major options should be included by making intelligence
questions. For minor ones, put the option others with blank space to be filled on.

ii. Some questions are not mutually exclusive: To be effective the items in the choice should
be mutually exclusive and should not be overlapping.

iii. Some questions that are asked might be defective that demands other question be
answered before them.

iv. Preparing such question is time consuming: Preparing such questions presupposes deep
knowledge of the problem understudy and possible responses to the questions. These questions
are good and convenient for busy respondents

Open - ended questions: Open-end questions invite free responses. Here the respondent is not
provided with a list of answers and is given an opportunity to give responses that go beyond
statistical data and/or factual data. It enables to get opinions, attitudes, presupposes, decisions
and the like.

They provide the opportunity for an in-depth and detail treatment of questions for the
respondents. Nonetheless because it takes much of the respondents' time and requires deep
knowledge, many of such questions are not given answers. The respondent supply the answer in
his/her own words. But one should not forget that open-ended questions are more difficult to
handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.

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Essentials of a Good Questionnaire:

 To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of
the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

 Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult
questions.

 Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.

 Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be

avoided in a questionnaire.

 Multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended often difficult to analyze and
hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

 Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.

Types of Questions

1. Nominal/categorical/scales. For nominal questions list each alternative, providing a

blank box to be checked, or a number to be circled.

For example: Check the appropriate blank 1. Sex: Male ___ Female ____

2. Inventory/ method. An inventory is list of items to be checked or marked by the respondent.

For example: Check all the ways in which you have learned some bit of news or information in
the last week.

____ Television

____ Radio

____ Newspaper

3. Ordinal/Likert scales. A response mode for such questions could be illustrated as follows.
Mathematics is essential for all business studies students: Strongly agree agree uncertain
Disagree strongly disagree

1. Ranked responses. Another response category format for designing questions is to present a
list of topics and have the respondent rank-order them.

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Examples

1. The following are some of the problems faced by citizens of Addis Ababa. Please order them
in terms of importance, from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important).

a) Housing, b) Traffic, c) Taxes, d) Transport, f) Living condition

4. Interval scales. These include the questions of the form:

1. What is your age? 10-14 15-19 20- 24

Cover Letter or Introductory statement of a Questionnaire

This is very important part of a questionnaire construction because it justifies the study to the
respondent and often determines whether she/he cooperates or not. As such, the introductory
statement should be concise, courteous and businesslike. Introductory statement should:

(1)state the purpose of the study and its significance;

(2)explain who the data collector is and why it is conducting the study;

(3)tell how and why the respondents were selected;

(4)explain why their answers are important;

(5)tell how to complete the form

(6) provide assurance of confidentiality and anonymity when appropriate;

(7) explain how the data will be used;

(8) explain who will have access to the information;

(9) Provide mail-back instructions (if necessary); and

(10) Present the response efforts as a favor and thank the respondents for their cooperation.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH INTERVIEW

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.

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(a) Personal interviews: requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally
in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This sort of interview may be in the form
of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct
personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. Indirect oral examination is interviewing other persons who are supposed to have
knowledge about the problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded.
Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on investigations
make use of this method.

Structured Interviews

• They are interviews with a listed number of possible answers.

• Their responses consist of single words such as “yes” or “no”

• They result in quite dependable responses, but the degree of data gained tends to be
narrow.

Unstructured Interviews

 They are conducted flexibly and are marked by an obvious lack of rigid organization in
which questions are raised and answers given. The answers are not definite and the
answers of this type of questions might differ from person to person greatly.

 The interviewer directs the respondents indirectly to the subject and gives much freedom
to the respondent.

 They are used to secure data related to opinions and attitudes which are difficult to get
through structured interviews.

Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages and weaknesses of

personal interviews can be enumerated in a general way as follows:

(i) More information with greater depth can be obtained.

(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the
respondents;

(iii) There is greater flexibility of restructuring questions

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 (iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers

(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.

(vi) No difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.

(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions.

(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.

(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can
be avoided.

(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in
interpreting results.

But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important
weaknesses, mention may be made of the following:

• A very expensive method, when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.

• There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent;

• Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high

income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.

• This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is large and
recalls upon the respondents are necessary.

• The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent,
sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the
interview interesting.

• Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.

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(b) Telephone interviews: this method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.

3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method;

4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.

5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method;

6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.

7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.

8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.

9. No field staff is required.

10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits. Some of these may be
highlighted.

1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely
to exceed five minutes in most cases.

2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.

3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.

4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to
various questions.

5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH OBSERVATION

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The main advantage of this method is that

 Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.

 The information obtained relates to what is currently happening.

 Independent of respondents’ willingness to respond

 Suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of
giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.

Disadvantages

 It is an expensive and the information provided by this method is very limited.

 Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.

Types of observation

Participant observation; when the observer observes by making himself a member of the
group, he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience.

Non participant observation: when the observer observes without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others feel. When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is
described as disguised observation.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

 A focus group discussion is a discussion made by a panel of 8 to 12 respondents led by a

trained moderator. The moderator focuses or guides the group in an exchange of ideas,
feelings, and experiences on a clearly understood topic. The output of the session is a list
of ideas and behavioral observations with recommendations of the moderator.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary
data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is
certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of
original data.

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Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are
available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various
publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organizations; (c) technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports
and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information.

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers,
trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organizations.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny
because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
context of the problem which the researcher wants to study. In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley
very aptly observes that it is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without
knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticize arguments that can
be based on them. By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that
they possess following characteristics:

1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said
data: (a) who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by
using proper methods (d) At what time were they collected? (e) Was there any bias of the
compiler? (f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should
not be used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize the
definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the
primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must
also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for
the present enquiry and should not be used.

3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by

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the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which
may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The already
available data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available
from authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be
economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting information. At times, there
may be wealth of usable information in the already available data which must be used by an
intelligent researcher but with due precaution.

Advantages of Secondary Data

- Secondary sources can usually be fund more quickly and cheaply than primary data

- Collecting primary data can be so costly and time consuming as to be impractical.

- We can't hope to gather primary information comparable to census reports and industry
statistics at any cost. These collections are not only voluminous, but their collection also is
provided for by law.

- Data about distant places often can be collected more cheaply through secondary sources.

Limitations of Secondary Data

- The information may not meet one’s specific needs. This is source material that has been
collected by others for their own purpose.

- Definitions will differ, units of measure are different, and different times may be involved.

- It is difficult to assess the accuracy or the information because one knows little about the
research design or the conditions under which the research occurred.

- Secondary information is often out of date. A study made five years ago may not be relevant
today.

SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously
select the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:

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1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: The method selected should be such that it suits the
type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in
deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet
available (primary data) are to be collected.

2. Availability of funds: When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will
have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as
some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has
to act within this limitation.

3. Time factor: Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be
collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus,
affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.

4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the
time of selecting the method of collection of data. But one must always remember that each
method of data collection has its uses and none is superior in all situations. For instance,
telephone interview method may be considered appropriate (assuming telephone population) if
funds are restricted, time is also restricted and the data is to be collected in respect of few items
with or without a certain degree of precision. In case funds permit and more information is
desired, personal interview method may be said to be relatively better. In case time is ample,
funds are limited and much information is to be gathered with no precision, then mail-
questionnaire method can be regarded more reasonable. When funds are ample, time is also
ample and much information with no precision is to be collected, then either personal interview
or the mail-questionnaire or the joint use of these two methods may be taken as an appropriate
method of collecting data. Where a wide geographic area is to be covered, the use of mail-
questionnaires supplemented by personal interviews will yield more reliable results per dollar
spent than either method alone.

Thus, the most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method depends on the
nature of the particular problem and on the time and resources (money and personnel) available
along with the desired degree of accuracy. But, over and above all this, much depends upon the
ability and experience of the researcher. Dr. A.L. Bowley’s remark in this context is very
appropriate when he says that “in collection of statistical data common sense is the chief
requisite and experience the chief teacher.”

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 Chapter Seven

Processing, Analysis, Interpreting and Reporting Research

Definitions of Processing, Analysis and Interpretation

Processing: implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data to make it
ready for analysis.

Analysis: refers to the computation of certain measures.

Interpretation: explaining the patterns and implications of the analysed data.

A) Processing Operations:

I. Editing - examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these.

-Field editing: review of the questionnaire and interview by the investigator as soon as possible.

-Central editing: take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and returned to
the office.

II. Coding- assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a
limited number of categories or classes.

II. Classification- reducing a large volume of raw data into homogeneous groups to get
meaningful relationships. This requires classification of data according to:

It’s attributes- classified on the basis of common characteristics, which can either be
descriptive or numerical.

It’s class intervals - quantitative phenomenon, which can be measured through some statistical
units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this category. Such data
are known as statistics or variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals.

It’s tabulation- arranging the same data in some kind of logical order, when a mass of data has
been assembled. It is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact
form for further analysis. It is an order arrangement of data in columns and rows using tables.

B) Analysis of Data

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Data analysis may be categorised as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis.

Descriptive Analysis – It is concerned with estimation as sample values.

Inferential analysis- It is concerned with the estimation of population values. It is concerned

with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.

C) Statistics in Research

The role of statistics in research is to function as tool in designing researches, analysing its data
and drawing conclusions. There are two major areas of statistics viz., descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices from the raw data.

Inferential statistics concerned with the process of generalisation and is also known as
sampling statistics. The important statistical measures that are used to summarise the survey
research data are:

1. Measures of central tendency or statistical averages; Mean, median and mode are the most
popular averages.

2. Measures of dispersion; range, mean deviation, standard deviation

3. Measures of asymmetry (skewness), normal distribution, poison distribution

4. Measures of relationship, regression

Writing the Research report

A study can be destroyed by a poor final report or presentation. Most people are influenced by
the quality of the reporting. This fact should prompt researchers to make special efforts to
communicate clearly and fully. The research report contains findings, analysis of findings,
interpretations, conclusions, and sometimes recommendations.

The results of research can be presented in two ways – oral and written.

Oral: presenting verbally the summary of the report from the beginning of the research to the
end. It is similar to written report; the major difference is that the written report may be more
comprehensive and durable.

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This chapter deals with research report components and how they should be presented,

Research Report Components

As opposed to short reports, long reports such as senior essays should be divided into chapters
and parts. Short reports like term papers, articles, and the like do not require an organization
which takes chapters, and all extended research reports such as senior essays, thesis,
dissertations, and the like should contain the following subdivisions:

A) The Preliminaries

i) Title page

The title page must quickly answer the questions: What? for whom, by whom? When?. The
title of the report answers the first question. It should be short and narrowly focused so that the
reader knows what the report is all about. The title page also states for whom the report is
written or to whom it is being submitted. The author's name relates who has written the report,
and the date indicates when the report was submitted.

ii) Acknowledgements

The acknowledgements section contains expressions or appreciation for assistance and guidance.
The help given by advisers and readers does not require written acknowledgement, but the
recognition of generosity with time and knowledge is a curiosity that is widely appreciated.
Acknowledgements should be expressed simply and tactfully.

iii) Table of Contents

In long reports, the table of contents should precede all the sections it lists. It should list all
elements of the preliminaries - the chapter (part or section titles, the main headings in the text,
and the reference materials). The numbering of chapters and the wording, capitalization, and
punctuation of titles and headings should be exactly the same as they are in the text.

The table of contents, thus, provides the reader a quick overview or the report by listing the
major headings and sub-headings of the paper. These are presented in the same sequence and
with the same wording as in the paper itself. Minor subheadings arc often omitted. If there are
many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed after the table of contents.

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iv) Table of Tables

It lists all the tables in the report and shows the page on which each appears. It gives the reader
quick access to important information,

v) Table of Figures

This table is used if a number of figures are used in a paper. It is setup in the same way as the
table of tables.

vi) Abstract

The abstract, sometimes called an executive summary, synopsis, or précis provides a condensed
version of the report. It summarizes the problem, the investigation or research, and the findings.
The abstract should be placed after the table of content, and any tables of illustrations and before
the introduction.

B) Body of the Report

The text of the report can be categorized in a variety of ways depending on topic, type of
research, and result. It is divided into four chapters. Chapter one, the problem and its approach;
Chapter 2, review or the related literature; Chapter 3, data presentation, analysis and
interpretation; and chapter 4, summary, conclusion and recommendations.

Chapter One: The problem and its Approach

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Statement of the problem,

1.3. Objectives of the study

1.4. Significance of the study

1.5. Delimitation of the study

1.6. Research Methodology and Data Sources

1.7. Limitations of the study

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1.8. Definition of used Terms

1.9. Organization of the study

Introduction: The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the
project: the problem statement, research objectives, and background material. In most projects,
the introductions can be taken from the research proposal with minor editing.

Background of the study: Here, we state the background (historical, geographical, societal, etc)
facts, which justify the study to be in order

Statement of the problem: Statement of the problem elaborates about the problem. It attempts
to focus on a clear goal. More specifically, statement of the problem is targeted towards the
following: developing key research questions, which may show the direction of the whole
exercise

Research Objectives / Aims Research: objectives are a modification of the statement of the
Research Problem. They are the essence of the inquiry. Actually, the researcher should identify
the research objectives and their hierarchies. This is because there are at least two levels of
objectives. These are the broad objective and the specific ones. As it says, the first category of
objectives refers to broad developmental goal within which the research falls.

The general objective provides a short statement of the development goal being pursued by the
research. Examples could be “sustainable development”, “poverty reduction”, etc. Specific
objectives are derivatives of the general objectives. The specific objectives are operational in
nature. That is, to explore possible future strategies for enhancing the performance of micro and
small enterprises. This could be achieved by building the capacity of SMEs. Thus, the specific
objectives possibly are:

1. To provide training to upgrade their knowledge and skills

2. To provide credit facility for obtaining the necessary inputs

3. To promote their products and services

4. To facilitate market access for their products and services, etc.

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Significance of the study; while preparing the research proposal, the researcher has to
incorporate the justification for the need of the research. He/she should justify the importance of
the study; as to how the results of his/her study will be useful to the beneficiaries.

The following are some of the points in which the justification stresses:

a. A wide time gap exists between the earlier study and the present one. The need
for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will necessitate for replicating the
study.

b. Lack /Shortage of information on the topic. In some instances information in the

area may be missing or scant. Therefore, the present study may be useful in
shading new light on the problem or in filling the gap in the knowledge pertaining
to the given area.

Delimitation (scope) of the Study Boundary of the study should be made clear with reference
to the scope of the study by specifying the content and geographical study areas to which the
will be confined.

Research Methodology

Procedures and methods for collecting Data, Sampling techniques used, Techniques used to
present data

Definition of Terms or Concepts The technical terms or words and phrases having special
meanings need to be defined operationally.

Limitations of the study although a researcher tries his best to design his research properly as
possible, therefore externals (uncontrollable) variables that confront his investigation and affect
his conclusion. In his proposal, the researcher has to specify such mitigating factors that hinder
the attainment his objectives fully. Such anticipated restrictions are referred as limitations of the
study. The possible sources of the limitations of the study include:

a. Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the researcher adapted.

b. Lack of access to the right data.

c. Poor choice/development/ delivery of instruments

d. Sampling restriction

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e. Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas

Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature

The theoretical and empirical framework from which the problem arises must be briefly
described. A brief summary of related studies found in journals, magazines, abstracts and
reports should be made. This provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is
already known. It also helps to avoid the risk of duplication of what has been done.

Chapter Three: Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation.

This chapter deals with presentation, analysis and interpretation of major data. The findings are
based on the data collected using different data collected from primary sources of data and some
secondary sources.

The section should start with presentation and analysis of general characteristics of respondents
(if any) followed by presentation, analysis and interpretation of data related to research questions
or hypothesis.

This is generally the longest section of the report. The objective is to explain the data rather than
draw conclusions. When quantitative data can be presented, this should be done as simply as
possible with tables, charts and graphs.

The data need not include everything you have collected. The criterion for inclusion is, "is this
material important to the reader understands of the problem and the findings?" However, make
sure to show findings unfavorable to your hypothesis and that support them.

How to Construct Tables and figuers - Some Important Considerations

1) Each series of items that involve frequencies should be presented in the form of a table with
appropriate title and number.

2) Horizontal and vertical rulings should be inserted to separate columns.

3) Don't use abbreviations in tables.

4) Place each small table on one page.

6) Place the table between complete paragraphs. Avoid inserting a table into the middle of the
paragraph.

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7) In as much as possible, avoid crowded tables (i.e., tables with many columns of data) as this
may confuse the readers.

8) Whenever you are referring to a table in your analysis address it by its number always.

Example: -

Table 1.General Characteristics of the Respondent

Item Responses Number Percent

1) Sex a. Male 20 40

b. Female 30 60

Total 50 100

2) Maximum Education Attained a. Below Grade Twelve 10 20

b. 12 Grade Complete 5 10

c. Diploma 20 40

Total 50 100

Interpretation and Analysis

Table 1 show that 40% of the respondents are males while the rest (60%) are females. As far as
the educational background is concerned, item number2 of table 1 reveals that majority (40 %.)
of the respondents are diploma holders and.... This shows....

In the presentation of the findings, the researcher must present the data in such a way that it
enables him\her to answer those basic questions raised in the statement of the problem section.
In general:

1) The data must be complete, accurate, and applicable to the problem presented

2) The data should be arranged in the light of the problem presented.

3) Whenever applicable, the data should be summarized and represented in the form of table,
diagram, graphs, and whenever they are used they should be accurate and properly prepared.

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4) The major highlights of the report should be reported in statement form. While analyzing the
data, opinion should not be confused with facts, limitation of the study should be recognized and
faulty logic should be avoided. Appropriate statistical tools, such as percentages, should be used
carefully and careless or incompetent data formulation should be avoided not to commit
conscious or unconscious bias.

Chapter Four: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

This chapter deals with the presentation summary of the findings, description of the conclusions
drawn based on the findings and the presentation of the recommendation forwarded based on the
conclusion drawn from the major findings.

4.1. Summary

In this section major highlights of the research findings are given in a summarized form. The
summary is a brief statement of the essential finding. Sectional summaries may be used if there
are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. In simple
descriptive research, a summary may complete the report, as conclusions and recommendations
may not be required.

The purpose of a summary is to provide the major findings on a nutshell. It should, thus, enable
the reader understand the major findings of the study going to the details.

4.2. Conclusions

In this section, the conclusions are given based on the findings put in the summary section
discussed above. Findings (summary) state fact, while conclusions represent inferences drawn
from the findings. A writer is sometimes reluctant to make conclusions and leaves the task to the
reader. Avoid this temptation when possible. As the researcher you are the one best informed on
the factors that critically influence the findings and conclusions.

The conclusions are the generalization one makes from the findings and contribute to the body
of knowledge. They must have one to one equivalence in answering basic questions posed in the
first chapter and it is the past in which you give answers to your basic questions.

In drawing conclusions, the researcher should make sure that the conclusion drawn is within the
framework of the study or data presented over or under generalization should be avoided. No
new data must be introduced at this stage and wordiness should be minimized,

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 4.3. Recommendations

This part culminates the research activity. Recommendations are meant to be suggestions by way
of providing solutions to the problem to the study. Recommendations should, however, be
feasible. They should take into account objective reality of the situation. They should not be
unrealistic or high sounded.

In academic research, the recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or
test understanding of the subject areas. In applied research the recommendations will usually be
for managerial action rather than research action. The writer may offer with justifications.

C) Supplementary sections

Long business reports usually have one or more supplementary sections that follow the body of
the report. Five of the most common supplements are: (I) endnotes, (2) bibliography, (3)
appendixes, (4) glossary and (5) index. Regardless of the number of supplementary sections,
they are typically reported in this order.

Endnotes: Report writers often place all reference notes at the end of the paper. In the APA
style of footnoting, discussed later in the chapter, all "footnotes" are called reference citations
and appear at the end of the document under the heading "References." Consider the following
examples:

ENDNOTES

I. Eric Berne, Games People Play (New York: Ballantine Books, 1964), P48

2. Sidney Jouard, The Transparent Self, revised ed. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971),
P. Viii.

3. John Powell, The Secret of Staying in Love, (Niles, Ill.: Argis communications, 1974), P.68

The notes should be numbered in which they appear in the text of the report. No footnotes
appear in the text pages.

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Bibliography: - A bibliography is a comprehensive list of all sources directly cited in the report
as well as any other sources consulted for general background information. Bibliographic entries
include books, magazine articles, documents, newspaper articles, pamphlets, and unpublished
sources such as manuscripts or interviews.

Bibliographies are arranged alphabetically by author's last name and are not numbered. They
begin flush at the left margin, with each subsequent line of an entry indented three spaces. As
endnotes and references, double spacing is used between entries. Page references are not
included unless they identify the pages of an entire article that is being cited. Specific reference
pages are not included. Consider the following example.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berne, Eric. Games People Play. New York: Ballantine Books, 1964.

Jouard, Sidney. The Transparent Self, revised edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971.

Luft Joseph. Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics. Pals Alto, cal: Mayfield,
1970.

Appendixes: - Appendixes come right after the bibliography and include any material to which
the writer wants to refer but that is not necessary to understanding the report. Common examples
include the questionnaire used for a research survey discussed in the report, copies of letters or
memos referred to in the report, and statistical tales that support the analysis in the report. Each
appendix must be lettered, beginning with appendix A, and titled similarly to figures and charts.
The list of appendixes should appear in the table of contents following the bibliography entry.

Glossary: - A glossary is a list of terms and their definitions as used in the report. Glossaries are
appropriate when the report contains many technical or unusual terms. When there are only a
few such terms, they should be defined in the introduction of the report or when they are first
used. Index: - Like a glossary, an index is usually found only in very long report. Its purpose is
to help the reader quickly locate a specific topic. In writing an index, the author will identify the
key topics in the report, arrange them alphabetically, and list the pages, on which each appears.

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WRITING THE LONG REPORT

In addition to organizing the long report according to the sections discussed earlier the effective
writer will consider style and method of documentation.

Style

When writing a business report, elements of style such as logical presentation, positive language,
a proper degree of formality, and a focused message are all important. Other elements of style
include: (1) headings and subheadings, (2) objectivity, (3) presentation of statistical data, (4)
choice of tense and (5) use of transitional sections.

1) Headings and Subheadings: - The purpose of headings and subheadings is to make the
report easier to read and understand. Although there is no one correct way to structure headings
and subheadings, it is important to consistently use the chosen style.

2) Objectivity. When writing business reports, one of the most important elements is objectivity.
This makes a report to be complete and unbiased. The research report writer includes all research
findings regardless of whether they confirm or negate the papers hypothesis or position
regarding the problem. Emotional or exaggerated language is avoided. The desire to avoid
subjectivity results in a formal writing style in long business reports. Hence the writer uses third
person rather than first person writing style.

3) Presentation of Statistical Data. Statistical data are usually presented in the form of figures
and tables. Figures and tables should be placed as close as possible to the material they illustrate.
They should be carefully labeled, referred to in the text, and numbered consecutively throughout
the report.

4) Choice of Tense. It is a matter of personal preference whether the report should be written in
the past or present tense. Whichever may be used, it must be used consistently.

5) Use of Transition Sections. There should be a smooth flow of ideas in the report. This can be
accomplished with a sentence or two that carry the reader logically from one topic to another.

PRODUCING THE LONG REPORT Production of the final report typically involves
outlining the paper, writing the first draft, editing this draft, and then typing the final product.

Almost all business reports are first written in draft form. When editing the first draft, look for
ways to improve the report. When typing the final report, the typist should be familiar with the

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sequence of report parts as discussed earlier in the chapter. He/she should also know how to lay
out and number the pages.

Report Layout. The first page of each part of the report should have a 2-inch margin at the top
of the page. Preliminary parts such as the table of contents, the abstract, the first page of the
body, and the supplementary pages such as endnotes and bibliography should all start 2 inches
from the top of the page. All other margins should be 1 inch. However, if the paper is to be
bound on the left-hand side, this margin should be 11/2inch wide instead of 1 inch. The typist
should also follow the guidelines presented earlier for the correct placement and spacing of
headings and subheadings.

Pagination. The first page of the report to be numbered is the table of contents page. It should
bear the Roman numeral "i". The following pages should be numbered "ii" and so on throughout
the preliminary pages. The first page of the body should be numbered "1," and this sequencing
should continue throughout the rest of the report. Placement of the numbers is sometimes a
matter of choice. At least three systems are acceptable, as long as they are applied consistently.

1. Number each page in the center about 1/2, inch from the top except for the first page of any
new section or chapter, which is numbered at the bottom in the center.

2. Number all pages in the top right hand corner with the exception stated above.

3. Number all pages at the bottom, in the center of the page.

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 Chapter eight

The Thought Process: Reasoning

Scientific inquiry has been described as a puzzle-solving activity. For the researcher, puzzles are
solvable problems that may be clarified or resolved through reasoning.

Every day we reason with varying degrees or success and communicate our message, called
meaning, in ordinary language or in special cases, in symbolic, logical form, our meanings are
conveyed through one of two types of discourse: exposition or argument.

Exposition- consists of descriptive statements that merely state and do not give reasons.

Argument- allows us to explain, interpret, defend, and explore meaning. Two types of argument
of great importance to research are deduction and induction.

Deduction

Deduction is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive- the conclusion must necessarily
follow form the reasons give, these reasons are said to imply the conclusion and to represent a
proof. This is a much stronger and different bond between reasons mid conclusions than is found
with induction.

For a deduction to be correct, it must be both true and valid. That is, premises (reasons) given for
the conclusion must agree with the real world be true). In addition, the premises must be
arranged in a form such that the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises.

A deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true.
Conclusions are not logically justified if (1) one or more premises are untrue or (2) the argument
form is invalid.

Example 1

(Premise I) - All regular employees can be trusted not to steal

(Premise 2) - Hailu is a regular employee

(Conclusion) - Hailu can be trusted not to steal.

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If we believe that Hailu can be trusted, we might think this is a sound deduction. But this
conclusion cannot be accepted as a sound deduction unless the argument form is valid and the
premises true. In this case the form is valid, and premise 2 can be easily confirmed. However
many may challenge the sweeping premise that "all regular employees can be trusted not to
steal." While we may believe Hailu will not steal, such a conclusion is a sound deduction only if
both premises ate accepted as true.
Example 2

(Premise I) - Inner city household interviewing is difficult and expensive.

(Premise 2)-This survey involves substantial inner city household interviewing.

(Conclusion)-The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and expensive.

On reflection, it should be apparent that a conclusion that results from deduction is, in a sense,
already "contained in" its premises.

Induction

Inductive argument is radically different. There is no such strength of relationship between

reasons and conclusion. To induces to draw a conclusion from one or more particular of pieces
or evidence. The conclusion explains the facts, and the facts support the conclusion.

To illustrate, suppose you push the light switch in your room and the light fails to go on. This is
a fact-the light does not go on when you push the switch. Under such circumstances, we ask,
"Why doesn't the light go on?"

One likely answer to this question is a conclusion that the light bulb has burned out. This
conclusion is an induction because we know from experience that (1) the light should go on
when you push the switch and (2) if the bulb is burned out. The light will not function.

The nature of induction is that the conclusion is only a hypothesis. It is one explanation, but
there are others that fit the fact just as well. It could be that the electrical power is off from the
station, or it might mean that the switch is malfunctioning.

In this example, we see the essential nature of inductive reasoning. The inductive conclusion is
and inferential jump beyond the evidence presented. That is, while one conclusion explains the
fact of no light, other conclusions can explain the fact also. It may even be that none of the three
conclusions we have advanced correctly explains the failure of the light to go on.

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All of the above hypotheses are inductions we might base on the evidence of the failure of the
light to go on, plus some assumptions or beliefs we hold about the reason why the light fails to
go on. All of them have some chance of being true, but we would probably have some
confidence in some than in others. All must be subject to further confirmation before we could
hold any of them with much confidence. Confirmation comes with more evidence needed and to
design methods by which to discover and measure this other evidence.

Combining of Induction and Deduction

The induction and deduction processes me used in research in a sequential manner. Induction
occurs when we observe a fact and ask, "Why is this?" In answer to this question, we advance a
tentative explanation (hypothesis), The hypothesis is plausible if it explains the event or
condition (fact) that prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether
the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact. The process is:

1) You push the light switch and find no light.

2) You ask the question, "Why no light?"

3) You infer a conclusion (hypothesis) to answer the question and explain the fact the bulb is
burned out.

4) You use this hypothesis to conclude (deduce) that the light will not go on when we push the
switch. We know from experience that a burned-out bulb will not light.

This example is only an exercise in circular reasoning, but it does point out that one must be able
to explain that fact. To test a hypothesis one must be able to deduce other facts from it that can'
be investigated. This is what classical research is all about. We must deduce other specific facts
or events from the hypothesis and then gather information to see if the deductions are true. We
deduce:

5) A new bulb put in the lamp will result in light when the switch is pushed.

6) We put in the new bulb and push the switch. The light goes on.

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Understanding concepts and definitions

Introduction

Scientific knowledge is knowledge provable by both reason and experience. This implies that
social scientists operate at two distinct but interrelated levels-conceptual-theoretical and
observational-empirical. Social science research is the outcome of the interaction between these
two levels.

Concepts

Thinking involves the use of language, which is a system of communication composed of

symbols and a set of rules permitting various combinations of these symbols. One of the most
significant symbols in language, especially as it relates to research, is the concept. Science
begins by forming concepts to describe the empirical world. A concept is an abstraction
representing an object, a property of an object, or a certain phenomenon. For example, "social
status," "role," "power," "bureaucracy," and "relative deprivation" are common concepts in
political science and sociology. Concepts such as "intelligence," "perception," and "learning" are
common among psychologists. Every scientific discipline develops its unique set of concepts; to
scientists, this constitutes a language; outsiders call it a "jargon."

Functions of Concepts

Concepts serve a number of important functions in social science research. First and foremost,
they are the foundation of communication.

Without a set of agreed-upon concepts, inter subjective communication is impossible.

Concepts are abstracted from sense impressions and are used to convey and transmit perceptions
and information. It should be stressed that concepts do not actually exist as empirical
phenomena; a concept is not the phenomenon itself, but rather a symbol of the phenomenon.
Treating concepts as though they are the phenomena themselves leads to the fallacy of
reification to the error of regarding abstractions as actual phenomena. For example, it is
erroneous to regard a concept such as “power” as having driven, needs, or instincts.

Second, concepts introduce a point of view –a way of looking at empirical phenomena:

"Through scientific conceptualization the perceptual world is given an order and coherence that
could not be perceived before conceptualization. The concept enables scientists to relate to some
aspect of reality and give it a common quality:

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It permits the scientist, in a community of other scientists, to lift his own idiosyncratic
experiences to the level of consensual meaning. It also enables him to carryon an interaction
with his environment; he indicates to himself what a concept means and acts toward the des-
ignation of that meaning. The concept thus acts as a sensitizer of experience and perception,
opening new realms of observation, closing others.

Third, concepts are means for classification and generalization. Scientists categorize,
structure, order, and generalize their experiences and observations in terms of concepts. As john
McKinney puts it,

All phenomena are unique in their concrete occurrence; therefore no phenomena actually recur
in their concrete wholeness. The meaning of identity is always "identical for the purpose in
hand." To introduce order with its various scientific implications, including prediction, the
scientist necessarily ignores the unique, the extraneous, and nonrecurring, and thereby departs
from perceptual experience. This departure is the necessary price he must pay for the
achievement of abstract generality. To conceptualize means to generalize to some degree. To
generalize means to reduce the number of objects by conceiving by some of them as being
identical.

For example, we can overlook the ways in which pine, oak, spruce, fir, palm, and apple differ
from each other and grasp their generic resemblance via the concept "tree." Tree is the general
concept that enables us to grasp a multiplicity of unique aspects and comprehend them within an
order. Tree is also an abstract concept in the sense that the unique attributes of pine, oak, spruce,
fir, palm, and apple are lost in the conceptualization process. This process of abstraction and
generalization / enables scientists to delineate the essential attributes of empirical phenomena.
However, once a concept is formed, it cannot be a perfect symbol of that which it represents
because its content is inevitably reduced to those attributes that the scientist considers to be
essential.

The fourth function of concepts is to serve as components of theories and thus of

explanations and predictions. Concepts are the most critical elements in any theory because
they define the shape and content of theories. For example, the concepts "power" and
"legitimacy" define the shape and content of theories of governance. The concepts "individual-
ism" and "Protestantism" defined and shaped Durkheim's suicide theory. The theory predicts
conditions under which suicide rates would be high and low by specifying the relationships
between individualism and religion. The concept "relative deprivation" is central in theories of

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violence, and "supply" and "demand" are pillar concepts in economic theory. Such concepts
when linked in a systematic way lead to the0ries; concept formation and theory formation are
closely related.

DEFINITIONS

The growth of a scientific discipline brings with it the development of a system of specialized,
more or less abstract, concepts and of a corresponding technical terminology.

Clarity and precision in the usage of concepts are achieved by definitions. Two types of
definitions are important in social science research conceptual and operational.

Conceptual Definitions;- Definitions that describe concepts using other concepts are conceptual
definitions. For example 'power' has been conceptually defined as the ability of an actor (for
example, individual. group state) to get another actor to do something that the latter would not
otherwise do. The concept relative deprivation is defined as actors' perception of discrepancy
between their "value expectations" and their "value capabilities." "Value expectations," in turn,
are defined as the goods and conditions of life to which people believe they are rightfully
entitled, and "value capabilities" are defined as the goods and conditions people think they are
capable of getting and keeping.

Operational Definitions;- An operational definition is a set of procedures that describe the

activities one should perform in order to establish empirically the existence or degree of
existence of a phenomenon described by a concept. Through such definitions the meanings of
concepts are specified; operational definitions explicate the testing procedures that provide
criteria for the empirical application of concepts. Thus operational definitions bridge the
conceptual-theoretical level with the empirical-observational level. They tell what to do and
what to observe in- order to bring the phenomenon defined within the range of the researcher's
experience: "The thing or quality defined is not assumed to exist a priori. Rather its existence or
reality follows from the operations performed and resides in the invariants observed.

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