The Impact of the First World War and the Post-War Conferences

●​ 1914–1918 (WWI): Japan's participation was minimal militarily but opportunistic.

It seized German holdings in the Shandong Peninsula (China) and islands in
the Pacific.
●​ 1915: Issued the "Twenty-One Demands" to China, seeking to extend its
influence, leading to tensions with Western powers.
●​ 1919 (Paris Peace Conference): Japan emerged as a victor, securing
mandates over former German territories in the Pacific (e.g., Micronesia).
However, its proposed racial equality clause was rejected, causing resentment
and fueling nationalism.
●​ Economic Benefits During WW1:Benefited economically, as Japan expanded
its export industries to fill global gaps caused by the war, becoming a major
supplier of goods such as textiles, armaments, and ships.
●​ The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) further limited Japan’s
ambitions, setting strict naval ratios between the U.S., Britain, and Japan, which
frustrated Japanese militarists.
●​ Economic Despair After: Rising rice prices led to widespread protests and
looting across the country, involving over a million participants.

Taisho Democracy: The Growth of Liberal Values and the Two-Party System

Taisho Democracy Timeline:

●​ Meiji Constitution of 1889: provided Japan a form of constitutional monarchy based on

the Prusso-German mode, but also a base of democratic structure.
●​ 1912:Emperor Meiji dies, and Emperor Taisho ascends to the throne, marking the
start of the Taisho period. Political instability grows as the genro struggle to maintain
control.
●​ 1913: Taisho Political Crisis: Public protests forced the resignation of Prime Minister
Katsura Taro, signaling the decline of oligarchic control and the rise of parliamentary
democracy.
●​ 1916: Formation of the Kenseikai (Constitutional Party) by progressive politicians,
creating a significant opposition to the conservative Seiyukai party.
 ●​ 1918: Rice Riots: Widespread protests over rising food prices reflect public discontent.
Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake resigns, and Hara Takashi, a civilian politician,
becomes prime minister, symbolizing the shift toward party politics.
●​ 1920: Japan joins the League of Nations, marking its rise as a global power. However,
economic hardships from the post-war recession intensify domestic unrest.
●​
●​ 1921: Prime Minister Hara Takashi is assassinated by an ultranationalist, reflecting
growing tensions between democratic and militarist forces.
●​ 1922: The Washington Naval Treaty limits Japan’s naval strength, frustrating
militarists but aligning with liberal calls for international peace.
●​ 1923: The Great Kanto Earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama, killing over
100,000 people. The disaster exacerbates economic struggles and highlights the need
for modernization and better governance.
●​ 1924: Formation of a coalition government by the Kenseikai and Seiyukai parties,
symbolizing the maturing of party politics. Universal male suffrage is debated.
●​ 1925: Universal male suffrage is granted, expanding voting rights to all men over 25.
The Peace Preservation Law is also enacted, limiting leftist activities and showing the
government's fear of radicalism.
●​ 1926: Emperor Taisho dies, ending the era. Emperor Showa (Hirohito) ascends the
throne, marking the beginning of the Showa period and the eventual decline of
democratic values

Causes of Growth:

●​ 1. Educational Expansion:
○​ By 1920, Japan had achieved an enrollment rate of 98% for boys and 93% for
girls in primary education, reflecting widespread literacy and growing public
awareness.
○​ The number of students in higher education institutions doubled from 51,000 in
1910 to 102,000 by 1925, fostering intellectual discourse and democratic ideals.

●​ 2. Economic Modernization:
○​ During WWI (1914–1918), Japan’s industrial production grew by 30% annually,
and exports tripled between 1913 and 1918.
○​ By 1925, over 50% of Japan’s population lived in urban areas, reflecting a
shift from an agrarian society to an industrialized economy.
 ○​ The rise of the zaibatsu , many of whom supported democratic institutions to
safeguard their economic interests.

●​ 3. Western Influences:
○​ Japan signed 200 trade treaties with Western countries by 1920, promoting
interactions with democratic nations and ideas.
○​ In 1920, Japan became one of the founding members of the League of Nations,
reflecting its desire to integrate into the international order.
○​ The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) limited Japan’s naval
expansion but also demonstrated Japan’s commitment to diplomatic solutions,
aligning with liberal internationalism.

●​ 4. Weakening of Oligarchic Rule:

○​ By the mid-1920s, the genro (elder statesmen) had significantly diminished
influence, with only 3 out of the original 10 genro still active in politics by
1926.
○​ Political parties like the Seiyukai and Kenseikai controlled over 80% of seats
in the Imperial Diet by 1924, reflecting the decline of oligarchic dominance.

Reasons for and Impact of the Rise of Militarism and Extreme Nationalism

Timeline:

●​ 1921: Assassination of Prime Minister Hara Takashi by a right-wing nationalist,

marking the erosion of parliamentary dominance.\
●​ 1926 : End of Taisho Democracy and start of Showa Period, that transforms into less
democratic ideals.
●​ 1931: Mukden Incident leads to the invasion of Manchuria, signaling the military’s
takeover of foreign policy.
●​ 1932: May 15 Incident, where naval officers assassinate Prime Minister Inukai
Tsuyoshi, highlighting the dominance of militarist factions.
●​ 1936: February 26 Incident, a failed coup by the Imperial Way Faction, but it resulted in
further military consolidation of power.
●​ 1940: The Tripartite Pact aligns Japan with Germany and Italy, cementing an ideological
commitment to militarist expansion.
●​ Hideki Tojo 1941-1944: Elected in, marking the end of Taisho Democracy, and the start
of militarism.
Causes Of Militarism and Nationalism:

●​ 1. Economic Instability:
○​ 1920–1921 Post-War Recession: Economic output contracted by over 8%,
leading to unemployment and strikes, especially in urban centers.
○​ 1918 Rice Riots: Rising Prices, over 1 million people protest.
○​ 1927 Banking Crisis: Financial instability saw the failure of 37 banks,
intensifying public distrust in civilian governance.
○​ Great Depression (1929): Japan’s exports dropped by over 50%, crippling
rural communities and empowering militarists who blamed foreign
dependency.3,000,000 Unemployed
○​ Great Kanto Earthquake(1923): Contribute to Collapse of Ecnomy

●​ 2. Weakness of Democratic Institutions:

○​ Assassination of Prime Minister Hara Takashi (1921): This showed the
fragility of civilian leadership under pressure from right-wing extremists.
○​ Despite the introduction of universal male suffrage in 1925, real political
power remained concentrated in the hands of a small elite. The Genro
(elder statesmen), unelected and unaccountable, continued to select
prime ministers, undermining democratic processes
■​ 1924 Kato Takaaki's Cabinet Formation.
○​ Peace Preservation Law (1925): Although intended to suppress leftist ideas, it
ironically paved the way for militarists to curtail freedoms in the name of national
security.
○​ 1930 Treaty Debate Incident: Prime Minister Hamaguchi Osachi was shot for
supporting the London Naval Treaty, which limited Japan’s naval expansion,
further undermining public confidence in civilian politicians.
○​ Between 1912 and 1926, 13 different cabinets were formed, with many
lasting less than a year.
○​

●​ 3. Nationalist Ideology and the “Divine Mission”:

○​ Education Reform (1920s): Nationalist curricula emphasized loyalty to the
Emperor and Japanese supremacy in Asia. By 1930, over 90% of textbooks
propagated militarist and nationalist themes.
○​ Rise of the Imperial Way Faction (1920s): Within the army, groups like the
Kōdōha advocated aggressive expansionism and anti-Western ideals.
○​ Emperor-Centered Propaganda: By 1937, state-sponsored media reached over
80% of households, reinforcing nationalist fervor.

●​ 4. Global Isolation and Humiliation: Belief that military strength was necessary to
secure respect.
○​ Paris Peace Conference (1919): Japan’s proposal for a racial equality clause
was rejected, igniting outrage and fueling nationalism.
 ○​ Washington Naval Treaty (1922): The 5:5:3 ratio in naval limitations was seen
as a national insult, motivating calls for rearmament.
○​ Mukden Incident (1931): This staged attack by Japanese forces in Manchuria
was used as a pretext to justify military expansion and resist Western
condemnation.
○​ After Japan’s withdrawal(1932) over criticism of the Manchurian invasion,
nationalist newspapers reported a sharp increase in public approval for
militarist policies
○​ In a 1934 Yomiuri Shimbun poll, 63% of respondents favored territorial
expansion in Asia, citing economic and national security concerns.
○​ By 1937, shortly after the invasion of China, over 75% of public opinion surveys
conducted by pro-government media showed support for continued military
action as a way to “secure Japan’s future.”
○​ National Origins Act (Oriental Exclusion Act): Exclusion of Asian to immigrate to
the US.
○​ The slogan “Fukoku Kyohei” (Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Military)
became a rallying cry, reflecting widespread belief in military strength as vital for
Japan’s status.

Invasions of Manchuria (1931) and China (1937), and Relations with the West

Invasion of Manchuria:

Invasion of Manchuria Causes:

●​ Economic Distress(need for raw materials):

●​ Between 1929 and 1931, Japan's exports dropped by 50%, causing widespread
unemployment and economic distress.
●​ Over 3 million workers were unemployed in Japan by 1931, creating social unrest and
bolstering militarist ideologies.
●​ Japan's GDP fell by over 20% between 1929 and 1931, driven by plummeting global
demand for silk, its primary export.
●​ By 1931, Japan had a $230 million trade deficit, adding pressure to secure new
markets and resources like those in Manchuria.

●​ Population Surplus:
●​ Manchuria, with its 200,000 square miles of fertile land, was seen as an ideal solution to
ease Japan’s agricultural pressures and resettle its surplus population.
●​ Japan's arable land accounted for less than 15% of its total area, making food
self-sufficiency increasingly difficult.
3. Weak Chinese Government and Power Vacuum in Manchuria

1.​ China had over 100 warlords controlling separate territories, leaving the
central government unable to unify the country.
2.​ In Manchuria, Zhang Xueliang, the regional warlord, commanded only
150,000 poorly trained troops, no match for Japan’s military.
3.​ China’s economy grew at just 3.5% annually during the 1920s, compared
to Japan’s pre-Depression growth rate of 6-7%, highlighting its
comparative weakness.

●​ 1.Mukden Incident (September 18, 1931):

○​ Japanese forces staged an explosion on the South Manchuria Railway as a
pretext to justify their occupation of Manchuria.
○​ Impact: The League of Nations condemned Japan’s actions, leading to
Japan’s withdrawal from the League (1933), isolating it from the international
community.

●​ 2. Occupation of Manchuria (February 1932):

○​ Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo with Puyi, the last Qing
emperor, as its nominal head.
○​ Impact: This move secured vital resources (coal, iron, and agricultural land) for
Japan’s economy, further emboldening militarists.

●​ 3. Lytton Report (October 1932):

○​ The League of Nations officially declared Japan’s occupation illegitimate.
○​ Impact: Japan’s diplomatic isolation deepened, fostering further resentment and
reinforcing its militarist, anti-Western stance.

Invasion of China (1937):

Causes Of Invasion:

1. Japanese Militarism and Expansionism

○​ By 1937, Japan’s military budget had increased to 30% of government

expenditures, up from 15% in 1931, reflecting a growing emphasis on military
expansion.
○​ The Japanese army had over 1.7 million soldiers trained by the mid-1930s, a
significant increase from 700,000 troops in 1931, enabling large-scale operations
like the invasion of China.
○​ Japanese imperial propaganda portrayed China as vital for Japan's economic and
military security, influencing public support for expansionism, as shown in 1935
opinion surveys where 60% of the population supported aggressive policies
toward China.

2. Economic Pressures and Resource Dependency

Japan’s growing economy required access to resources and markets, which it sought to
secure through territorial control in China.
●​ Evidence/Statistics:
●​ By 1937, China accounted for 20% of Japan’s foreign trade, making
economic dominance over the region a strategic necessity.
●​ Japan imported 90% of its iron ore and 70% of its coal from foreign
sources, with Manchuria and northern China being major suppliers.
●​ Japan's exports of manufactured goods to China dropped by 40% in
the mid-1930s due to Chinese boycotts, intensifying economic motives
for war.
●​ Events/Specific Causes:
●​ Nationalist Boycotts (1931-1937): Anti-Japanese sentiment in China led
to widespread boycotts of Japanese goods, causing economic losses and
prompting calls for harsher policies to subdue China.
●​ Sino-Japanese Tariff Disputes (1935): The Chinese government raised
tariffs on Japanese imports, escalating economic tensions.

1.​ Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 7, 1937):

●​ A clash between Japanese and Chinese forces escalated into a full-scale invasion.
●​ Impact: The Second Sino-Japanese War began, plunging China into chaos and
intensifying global tensions.

2.​ Nanjing Massacre (December 1937–January 1938):

 ●​ Japanese troops killed an estimated 200,000–300,000 civilians and prisoners of war,
and tens of thousands of women were raped.
●​ Impact: The atrocity drew international condemnation and significantly tarnished Japan’s
global reputation, particularly with Western powers.

3.​ Battle of Shanghai (August–November 1937):

●​ A grueling urban conflict resulted in a Pyrrhic victory for Japan, with massive casualties
on both sides.
●​ Impact: The drawn-out battle drained Japan’s resources and morale but also
demonstrated its determination to dominate China.

Relations with the West

Washington Naval Treaty (1922):

●​ Japan accepted a 5:5:3 naval tonnage ratio with the U.S. and Britain, limiting its naval
growth.
●​ Impact: The treaty was seen as humiliating, fueling nationalist and militarist calls for
Japan to assert itself against Western dominance.

Tripartite Pact (September 27, 1940):

●​ Japan allied with Germany and Italy, forming the Axis Powers.
●​ Impact: This alliance alienated the U.S. and Britain, leading to increased economic
sanctions against Japan.

U.S. Oil Embargo (July 1941):

●​ The U.S., Britain, and the Netherlands imposed an oil embargo after Japan occupied
French Indochina.
●​ Impact: The embargo crippled Japan’s economy, with 80% of its oil supply cut off,
pushing it toward war in the Pacific as it sought to secure resources in Southeast Asia.

Japan and the Pacific War (1941–1945)

1. Attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)

●​ Event: Japanese aircraft launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet
stationed at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, destroying or damaging 21 ships and killing
2,403 Americans.
 ●​ Causes:
●​ The U.S. oil embargo (July 1941) cut off 80% of Japan's oil supply,
pushing Japan toward resource acquisition in Southeast Asia.
■​ By late 1941, Japan’s fuel reserves were expected to last only 6–18
months under wartime conditions.
●​ Japan sought to preemptively neutralize U.S. military forces to secure its
planned invasions of resource-rich territories like the Dutch East
Indies.
●​ Statistics:
●​ Japan deployed 353 aircraft in the attack, sinking 8 battleships, including
the USS Arizona, and disabling 188 aircraft.
●​ American casualties totaled 2,403 dead and 1,178 wounded.
●​ Effects:
●​ The U.S. declared war on Japan the next day (December 8, 1941),
formally entering WWII.
●​ Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S., expanding the conflict into
a global war.

2. Initial Japanese Successes in the Pacific (1942)

●​ Events:
●​ Invasion of the Philippines (December 1941–May 1942): Japan
defeated Allied forces, taking over 75,000 prisoners in the Bataan Death
March.
●​ Battle of Singapore (February 15, 1942): Japanese forces captured
Singapore, considered an impregnable British stronghold, taking 130,000
Allied troops prisoner.
●​ Dutch East Indies Campaign (January–March 1942): Japan seized key oil
fields, gaining control of resources critical to sustaining its war effort.
●​ Causes:
●​ Japan aimed to secure a self-sufficient empire (the "Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere") by acquiring resources in Southeast Asia.
●​ Allied forces were unprepared for Japan’s rapid advances and
underestimated its military capabilities.
●​ Statistics:
●​ Japan gained control of 90% of Southeast Asia’s rubber production
and a significant portion of its oil resources.
●​ By mid-1942, Japan controlled territories containing over 150 million
people.
●​ Effects:
 ●​ Japan’s victories bolstered morale but overstretched its supply lines and
resources.
●​ Brutal occupation policies alienated local populations, fostering resistance
movements against Japan.

3. Turning Point: Battle of Midway (June 4–7, 1942)

●​ Event:​
The U.S. Navy decisively defeated Japan at the Battle of Midway, sinking four
Japanese aircraft carriers and reversing Japan’s momentum in the Pacific.
●​ Causes:
●​ Japan sought to eliminate the U.S. Pacific Fleet as a threat and extend its
defensive perimeter.
●​ U.S. codebreakers deciphered Japanese plans, allowing Admiral Chester
Nimitz to prepare an ambush.
●​ Statistics:
●​ Japan lost 4 carriers, 248 aircraft, and over 3,000 personnel, including
experienced pilots.
●​ The U.S. lost 1 carrier, 1 destroyer, and about 300 personnel.
●​ Effects:
●​ Japan’s naval superiority in the Pacific was irreparably weakened.
●​ The U.S. gained strategic initiative, shifting to an offensive strategy with
the island-hopping campaign.

The US Occupation (1945–1952)

●​ Reverse Course: As a U.S. Department of State official history puts it, "this 'Reverse
Course'...focused on strengthening, not punishing, what would become a key Cold War
ally."
●​ In 1946, a four-nation Allied Council for Japan was created to advise the SCAP
○​ A further 11 nations were added to the Far Eastern Commission in order to
formulate SCAP policy
■​ SCAP allowed for a shadow government of Japan allowing the real
government to grow
■​ General MacArthur allowed little representation from the other members
of the SCAP occupation
 ●​ This led to MacArthur having an almost dictator-like complexion,
while SCAP covered up the damages of the Atomic bombings
○​ That being said, most SCAP policies were designed by
Washington D.C. and were approved by Truman

●​ The Armed Forces were disbanded on November 30, 1945

○​ This led to 6.9 million being repatriated
●​ The zaibatsu were generally broken up but were founded again before the occupation
ended
●​ Black markets began appearing, and by October 1945, 17,000 of these markets had
appeared
○​ Thousands starved to death, with 68% of income being spent on food
●​ More than 200,000 political prisoners and “fascists” reentered society
●​ 1945 Communist had reenterd society
●​ SCAP imposed reforms in October 1945, declaring freedom of speech, press, assembly,
and the right to organize unions
●​ Labor Unions were created
○​ Membership surged from zero to 5 million by the end of 1946
○​ The proportion of wage workers in unions reached a peak of 56% of the
workforce by 1949
●​ Between 1947-48 the Americans began focusing on promoting economic recovery, as to
avoid Communism
○​ This led to less pressure being placed on the zaibatsu
●​ Power came through the democratically elected PM, with the constitution (written 1946,
came into effect May 1947) allowing women over the age of 20 to be able to vote
○​ The constitution created a Lower House of Parliament, its counterweight, the
House of Councillors, and a Supreme Court
○​ A Bill of Rights was created for the protection of individual rights, while a bureau
was created to protect women and children
■​ Created by Beate Sirota
○​ Members of the Seiyukai joined together to create the Liberal Party, while
Minseito became the Progressive Party, which evolved into the Democratic party
■​ Both of these parties combined for 80-90% of the total votes
●​ The Liberal Party formed a cabinet in 1946, led by Yoshida
Shigeru
○​ The Yoshida Doctrine stated that Japan would cooperate
with the United States but would not become involved in
world politics

●​ The Japan Socialist Party was formed in late 1945

●​ This party grew in popularity, winning 18% of the total vote in
1946, and then 28% in 1947
○​ In 1947 the Socialists combined with the Democratic Party
to form a cabinet led by Katayama Tetsu
●​ the Far Eastern Commission consisted of delegates from 11 (later 13 countries), and
was based in Washington D.C.
○​ The FEC helped advise SCAP on the implementation of policies
●​ There was also the Allied Council for Japan (ACJ), and its agent, the Supreme
Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP)
○​ The SCAP had the power to censor the press, disband political parties, and
dissolve the diet
●​ Yoshida Shigeru served as prime minister between 1946 and 1954
○​ Yoshida thought that occupation should be a mild housecleaning and then new
reforms
○​ Yoshida was an ambassador to Great Britain in 1936
■​ Yoshida opposed the Tripartite Pact of 1940
●​ 6 million ex-pats came back to Japan after WWII
○​ Many soldiers were looked at as war criminals
○​ The government placed price controls, but wholesale prices rose by 539% in
1946 and 336 in 1947
■​ Pillaging was an issue, as gangs and corrupt industrialists stole goods
●​ The Blood Cherry Gang was a gang of 50 women who walked the
streets
●​ Three D’s
○​ Demilitarization
■​ SCAP stripped Japan of Sakhalin, Manchuria, Korea, China, and Pacific
Islands
■​ Occupation authorities abolished the army and navy demobilized 5 million
troops and repatriated 3 million civilians
●​ In 1946, SCAP issued the Removal and Exclusion of Undesirable
Personnel from Public Office
○​ This disbanded ultranationalist groups, while police officers
○​ 145 bureaucrats had to leave office
■​ The Allies placed 6,000 Japanese on trial, primarily for atrocities
●​ On May 3, 1946, SCAP convened the International Military
Tribunal for the Far East, sentencing 28 high-ranking war criminals
to death or prison
●​ SCAP never took away Hirohito’s emperor status, as he would
need to be the figurehead of the nation
○​ Democratization
■​ The Americans wanted to create a new constitution to remake the
Japanese political system
●​ On February 1, 1946, a newspaper published the draft
constitution, with an obvious conservative bias
○​ The constitution expanded civil rights and assigned Diet
duties, while human rights could be restricted by legislation
 ■​ This constitution was unpopular with the Japanese
civilians
●​ MacArthur instructed General Courtney Whitney to prepare a
model constitution
○​ This “MacArthur Constitution” was finished in 6 days
■​ This constitution would let the emperor resume
ceremonial duties, but not political ones
■​ Hirohito would have to deny his divinity
■​ The constitution also separated religion from the
state
■​ Article 9 was the famous “peace clause”, where the
Japanese would renounce war as a sovereign right
■​ 31 articles in the Constitution strengthened
fundamental civil rights
●​

Reasons for Japan’s “Economic Miracle”