560 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

20.7 G.P. THOMSONS’S EXPERIMENT

The de Broglie hypothesis was further
T
conrmed in 1927 by the experiments
conducted independently by G.P.Thomson in
C
England and by Kikuchi in Japan.
Thomson’s experimental arrangement is F P
shown in Fig. 20.5. Electrons are produced
rom a heated lament F and accelerated A B G
through a high positive potential given to the
Fig. 20.5
anode A. The whole apparatus is kept highly
evacuated. The electron beam passes through a ne hole in a metal block B and alls on
a gold foil of thickness 0.1 mm. The electrons passing through the foil are received on a
photographic plate P.
Metals are polycrystalline in which the grains are oriented completely at random.
Thereore, some grains have always the right inclination θ towards the incident beam in order
to produce a Bragg refection. Owing to the random orientation, the refections rom a given
set of lattice planes at the glancing angle occur in every azimuth about the incident beam.
Consequently, the refected beams orm a cone o semi-vertical angles 2θ. Each set o lattice
planes with its particular spacing d in the grain produces its own cone of diffracted rays. A
concentric rings pattern is produced on the photographic plate when it intercepts the coaxial
cones of diffracted rays.
The diffraction pattern produced by the electron beam was strikingly similar to the x-ray
diffractions obtained from powder samples. Thus, the experiments of G.P. Thomson and
Kikuchi provided irrefutable proof to the existence of de Broglie waves.
In 1937, C.J.Daavisson and G.P.Thomson were jointly awarded the Noble Prize in physics
for their experimental discovery of electron diffraction.
In 1929, soon after the discovery of wave properties of electrons, the German physicist
Otto Stern and his coworkers detected diffraction phenomena with neutral atomic and
molecular beams.
20.8 VELOCITY OF DE BROGLIE WAVES
Any harmonic wave is characterized by a precise wavelength l and constant amplitude. It is
non-localized and has no beginning and end. It means that such a wave extends over a very
large volume of space.
20.8.1 Phase Velocity
If we consider a harmonic wave, the wave has a single wavelength and a single frequency.
The velocity of propagation of the wave is given by
υp = nl
Using, v = w/2p and l = 2p/k into the above equation, we get
ω 2π ω
up = ⋅ = (20.11)
2π k k
υp is called the phase velocity. The velocity with which the plane of equal phase travels
through a medium is known as the phase velocity. It thus represents the velocity of propagation
of the wave front.
As E = hv and p = h/l, we get
E h E
up = ⋅ = (20.12)
h p p
Quantum Mechanics 561

(i) When the atomic particle velocity is non-relativistic, the total energy E = mc2 and
momentum p = mu.
Therefore, the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave associated with the particle is
E mc 2 c 2
up = = = (20.13)
p mυ υ
As u < c, the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave associated with the atomic particle
is always greater than c.
(ii) When the atomic particle velocity is relativistic, the total energy E = mo2c 4 + p 2c 2 ,
where mo is the rest mass of the particle.
Therefore, the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave associated with the particle is
1/2
E  mo2c 4 + p 2c 2 
up = = 
p  p2 
1/2 1/2
 m 2c 2   m 2c 2 λ 2 
= c  o 2 + 1 = c  o 2 + 1 (20.14)
 p   h 
mo2c 2 λ 2
As the term is always a positive quantity, the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave
h2
associated with the atomic particle is always greater than c.
According to the theory of relativity, it is not possible that the velocity of the particle
wave be greater than or equal to the velocity of light. Hence, a harmonic wave of wavelength
l cannot represent a moving atomic particle. Thus, de Broglie waves cannot be harmonic
waves.
20.9 WAVE PACKET – REPRESENTS A MICROPARTICLE
We have so far assumed that a particle may be represented by a monochromatic de Broglie
wave. However, a wave spreads over a large
region of space and cannot represent a highly
localized particle. Schrödinger postulated that a
wave packet rather than a single harmonic wave
represents a particle. A wave packet consists
of a group of harmonic waves. Each wave has
slightly different wavelength. The superpo-
sition of a very large number of harmonic
waves diering innitesimally in requency
will produce a single wave packet (see Fig. 20.6
c). The waves interfere constructively over only
a small region of space and cancel each other
everywhere except in that small region. The Fig. 20.6: Formation of a Wave packet. (a)
two waves of slightly different frequencies
position of the particle would then be approxi-
produce constructive interference. (b) three
mately determined by the position of the wave waves produce interference maxima of
packet. larger size separated by larger distance.
The velocity with which the wave packet (c) A large number of waves-having slightly
propagates is called the group velocity ug. different frequencies produces only one
maxima and it is called a wave packet.
562 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

The individual waves forming the wave packet propagate at a velocity known as the phase
velocity up.
20.9.1 Group Velocity
When a number of plane waves of slightly different wavelengths travel in the same direction,
they form wave groups or wave packets. The velocity with which the wave group advances
in the medium is known as the group velocity υg. Each component wave has its own phase
velocity, υp = nl. The wave packet has amplitude that is large in a small region and very small
outside it. The amplitude of the wave packet varies with x and t. Such a variation of amplitude
is called the modulation of the wave. The
velocity of propagation of the modulation is
known as the group velocity, υg.
Here, we should note that wave packets
are only theoretical artifces to aid our
visualization of various phenomena in the
micro-world.
Expression for the Group Velocity Fig. 20.7 Beats are formed when two waves of
We derive now an expression for group slightly different frequencies combine
velocity considering a group of waves (a) the individual waves (b) the resultant wave.
consisting of two components of equal
amplitude and slightly differing angular velocities ω1 and ω 2 .
Let the waves in Fig. 20.7 (a) be represented by the equations
y1 = A sin (w1t – k1x)
y2 = A sin (w2t – k2x)
The superposition of these two waves is given by
y1 + y2 = A sin (w1t – k1x) + A sin (w2t – k2x)
 α+β   α − β 
Using the trigonometric relation sin α + sin β = 2sin   sin   , we write the above
 2   2 
equation as
 ( ω + ω 2 ) ( k1 + k2 )   ( ω − ω 2 ) ( k1 − k2 ) 
y1 + y2 = 2 A sin  1 t− x  cos  1 t− x
 2 2   2 2 
 ∆ωt ∆kx 
= 2A sin ( ωt – kx ) cos  –  (20.15)
 2 2 
where w = (w1+ w2)/2, k = (k1+ k2)/2, ∆w = w1 – w2 and ∆k = k1 – k2. Equ.(20.15) represents
the resultant wave which is seen to have the following two parts.
(i) A wave of angular frequency w and propagation constant k , moving with a velocity
ω
up = = νλ and
k
(ii) A second wave of angular frequency Dw/2 and propagation constant Dk/2, moving
∆ω
with a velocity ug = .
∆k
When ∆w and ∆k are very small, we can write the above equation as
dω
ug = (20.16)
dk
Quantum Mechanics 563
2π d ν dν
or ug = = −λ 2
2π d (1 / λ ) dλ

20.9.2 Relation between Phase Velocity and Group Velocity

The velocity of the individual component wave of the wave packet is given by
up = nl
Using, v = w / 2p and l = 2p / k into the above equation, we get
ω 2π ω
u p= ⋅ = (20.17)
2π k k
\ w = kup
The group velocity is given by the relation (20.16) as
dω d dυp
u g=
dk dk
= ( )
kυp = υp + k
dk
2π
But k= .
λ
2π
Therefore, dk = − 2 d λ
λ
k λ
and = − .
dk dλ
dυp
\ ug = υ p − λ (20.18)
dλ
Group velocity will be the same as phase velocity if the entire constituent waves travel
with the same velocity. It means that in a nondispersive medium, υg = υp. However, the waves
of different wavelengths travel in a medium with different velocities. Therefore, the group
velocity is in general less than the phase velocity.
20.9.3 The Velocity of a Particle Equals the Group Velocity of the
Associated Matter Waves
A particle moving with a velocity u is supposed to consist of a group of de Broglie waves.
The group velocity of a wave packet is given by
dω
ug =
dk
 d ω   dE   dp 
which we can write as ug =  (20.19)
 dE   dp   dk 

ω h dω 1
As E = hν = h ⋅ = ⋅ ω = ω , =
2π 2π dE 
h 1 k h dp
and p= = h⋅ = h⋅ = ⋅ k = k , =
λ λ 2π 2π dk
 d ω   dE   dp  1  dE   dE 
\ ug =  = =  (20.20)
 dE   dp   dk    dp   dp 

1 ( mυ )
2
1 p2
For a particle, E = mυ 2 = = .
2 2 m 2m
564 A Textbook of Engineering Physics
dE p
\ ug = = = υ. (20.21)
dp m
Thus, the de Broglie wave group associated with an atomic particle travels with the same
velocity as that of the particle itself.
20.9.4 Relation Between the Group Velocity and Particle Velocity (in a
Non-dispersive Medium)
A particle moving with a velocity u is supposed to consist of a group of de Broglie waves. For
an atomic particle of rest mass mo moving with a velocity u, the total energy and momentum
are given by
mo c 2 mo υ
E = mc 2 = and p = mυ = respectively.
1 − υ2 / c 2 1 − υ2 / c 2
The frequency of the associated de Broglie wave is
E mo c 2 2π mo c 2
n= = and w = 2πν = .
h h 1 − υ2 / c 2 h 1 − υ2 / c 2
2πmo
Therefore, dw = υ⋅dυ . (20.22)
( )
3/2
h 1 − υ2 / c 2

The wavelength of the de Broglie wave is

( )
2 2 1/2
h h 1− υ / c 2π 2π mo υ
l= = and k = =
mo υ
(
λ h 1 − υ2 / c 2
)
1/2
p

2πmo 
( ) υ
( ) 
−1/2 −3/2
\ dk = 1 − υ2 / c 2 dυ + υ⋅ 1 − υ2 / c 2 d υ
h  c2 
2πmo d υ
or dk = (20.23)
( )
3/2
h 1 − υ2 / c 2

Dividing eq. (20.22) by (20.23), we get

dω
ug = =υ (20.24)
dk
Thus, the de Broglie wave group associated with an atomic particle travels with the same
velocity as that of the particle itself in a non-dispersive medium.
20.10 APPLICATIONS OF DE BROGLIE WAVES
We discuss here some of the applications of de Broglie waves.
1. Possible energy states of a microparticle trapped in a box
Let us consider a microparticle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L. According to de
Broglie hypothesis, the particle is associated with a wave having a wavelength l. The particle
cannot move beyond the walls of the box. Hence, the amplitude of the de Broglie wave drops
to zero at the walls. It implies that the de Broglie wave of the particle forms a standing wave
pattern with nodes at the walls. The formation of standing wave pattern requires that the
distance L must be an integral multiple of half-wavelength. Thus,
568 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Example 20.2. An enclosure flled with helium is heated to 400K. A beam o He-atoms
emerges out o the enclosure. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He
atoms. Mass o He atom is 6.7×10–27kg.
h
Solution. De Broglie wavelength l =
2mkT
6.63 × 10 −34 Js
=
2 × 6.7 × 10 −27 kg × 1.376 × 10 −21 J / deg × 400

= 0.769 Å
Example 20.3: Find the de Broglie wavelength of
(i) an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 182 volts, and
(ii) a 1 kg object moving with a speed 1 m/s. Comparing the results explain why the wave
nature of matter is not more apparent in daily observations.
Solution:
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J .s
(i) le = =
2 emV ( )(
2 1.602 × 10 −19 C 9.11 × 10 −31 kg 182V )
6.626 × 10 −34 J .s. kg .m 2 / s
= = 0.91 × 10 −10 = 9.1 × 10 −11 m = 0.91Å
7.29 × 10 −24 kg .m / s kg .m / s

h 6.626 × 10 −34 J .s kg .m 2 / s
(ii) λ m = = = 6.6 ×10 −34 = 6.6 × 10 −34 m .
Mυ 1kg × 1m / s kg .m / s
It is seen from the above that the wavelength of the accelerated electron is about 105
times larger then its own size (≈10-15 m) and is thereore signicant. On the other hand, the
wavelength associated with the macroscopic object is negligibly small and is thus not apparent
in its interactions with other objects.
20.11 HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
The wave nature of atomic particles leads to some inevitable consequences. Classically, the
state o a particle can be dened by speciying its position and momentum at any given time t.
If a body is moving along x-direction with a velocity u, its position is given by x = u t and its
momentum by p = mu. From this,
p
x= t (20.28)
m
At each instant, the position and momentum can be measured to a very high accuracy.
When an atomic particle is conceptualized as a de Broglie wave packet such a precision
becomes restricted.
Schrödinger postulated that a moving microparticle is equivalent to a wave packet.
A wave packet spreads over a region o space. Thereore, it is dicult to locate the exact
position of the microparticle. Although the particle is somewhere within the wave packet, it
is impossible to know where exactly the particle is at a given instant. If the linear spread of
the wave packet is Δx, the particle would be located somewhere within the region Δx. The
probability o nding the particle is a maximum at the centre o the wave packet and alls o
to zero at its ends. Therefore, there is an uncertainty Δx in the position of the particle. As a
Quantum Mechanics 569

result, the momentum of the particle at that instant cannot be determined precisely. It means
that the location and momentum of a microparticle cannot be simultaneously determined
with certainty. Any attempt to determine these variables will lead to uncertainties in each of
the variables.
In 1927 Heisenberg showed that the product of uncertainty Dx in the x-coordinate of a
quantum particle and the uncertainty Dpx in the x-component of the momentum would always
be o the order o Planck’s constant h. Thus,
Dx ⋅ Dpx ≈ h

or more precisely Dx ⋅ Dpx ≥ (20.29)
2
This is known as Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle or position and momentum, which
may be stated as follows:
“It is not possible to know simultaneously and with exactness both the position and the
momentum of a microparticle”.
The Uncertainty Principle implies a built-in, unavoidable limit to the accuracy with which
we can make measurements. Classically, it is thought that the precision of any measurement
was limited only by the accuracy of the instruments the experimenter used. Heisenberg
showed that whatever may be the accuracy of the instruments used, quantum mechanics limits
the precision when two properties are measured at the same time. These are not just any two
properties but pairs of measurable quantities whose product has dimensions of energy × time.
Such quantities are called conjugate quantities in quantum mechanics, and have a special
relation to each other. Position–linear momentum, energy-time, time-frequency and angular
momentum-angular displacement are conjugate pairs of variables.
The uncertainty principle asserts that it is physically impossible to know simultaneously
the exact position (Dx = 0) and exact momentum (Dpx = 0) of a micro-particle. According to
it, the more precisely we know the position of the particle, the less precise is our information
about its momentum. To localize a wave packet, we have to add more wavelengths to form
the wave packet. More wavelengths mean larger ∆l and more uncertainty in momentum (note
that Dp ∝ Dl). Conversely, in order to have more precise value of momentum, the wave packet
should contain less number of waves. Less number of waves produces a longer wave packet.
Thus, the momentum o a particle cannot be precisely specied without our loss o knowledge
of the position of the particle at that time. Similarly, a particle cannot be precisely localized in
a particular direction without our loss of knowledge of momentum in that particular direction.
We can at best specify that certain momentum of the particle is more probable than the other
or that the particle is more likely to be here than there. We cannot use classical notions like
coordinates and momentum to describe the motion of quantum particles. Thus, the uncertainty
principle implies that we can never dene the path o an atomic particle with the absolute
precision indicated in classical mechanics. Therefore, concepts such as velocity, position, and
acceleration are of limited use in quantum world.
Relations similar to (20.29) hold good for other components of position and linear
momentum. Thus,

Dy ⋅ Dpy ≥ (20.29a)
2

Dz ⋅ Dpz ≥ (20.29b)
2
570 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

20.11.1 Energy - Momentum Uncertainty

The uncertainty relation for the simultaneous measurement of energy E and time t is expressed
as

DE ⋅ Dt ≥ (20.30)
2
The physical signicance o the energy-time uncertainty relation is dierent rom that o
the position –momentum uncertainty. If ∆E is the maximum uncertainty in the determination
of the energy of a particle, then the minimum time interval for which the particle remains in
that state is given by
/2
Dt =
∆E
And, if a particle remains in a particular energy state for a maximum time Dt, then the
minimum uncertainty in the particle energy is given by
/2
DE =
∆t
Derivation: We can obtain the result (20.30) as follows. Let us consider a microparticle of
mass m moving with a velocity u. Its kinetic energy will be
1
E = mυ2
2
1 
If the uncertainty in the energy is DE, then ∆E = ∆  mυ2  = mυ ∆υ = υ ∆p
2 
∆x ∆x
As the velocity υ = , the uncertainty in energy may be written as ∆E = ∆p
∆t ∆t
Thus, ∆E ⋅ Dt = ∆x ⋅ Dp

But ∆x ⋅ Dp ≥
2

Thereore, ∆E ⋅ Dt ≥
2
The above relations are to be supplemented by the following uncertainty relation

∆Mx ⋅ Dϕx ≥ (20.31)
2
where DMx is the uncertainty in the projection of the angular momentum on the x-axis and
DFx is the uncertainty in the angular coordinates of the microparticle.
By analogy with (20.28a) and (20.28b), we may write down relations for other projections
of momentum and angular momentum as follows:
∆Mx ⋅ Dϕy ≥ ħ/2 and ∆Mz ⋅ Dϕz ≥ ħ/2 (20.31a)
In general if q and p denote two canonically conjugate variables, the uncertainty relation
is given by
Dq ⋅ Dp ≥ ħ/2 (20.32)
The above relations do not mean that the uncertainty principle creates certain obstacles
to the understanding o the atomic phenomena; it only refects certain peculiarities o the
objective properties of a quantum particle.
Quantum Mechanics 571

20.12 ELEMENTARY PROOF OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE USING DE

BROGLIE WAVE CONCEPT
A wave packet produced by a superposition of large number of harmonic waves is shown
in Fig. 20.10. Since a wave packet is not an innite harmonic wave, it has a range o wave
numbers Dk instead o one denite wave number.
Dk is thus the uncertainty in wave number. Further,
the position of the particle cannot be given with
certainty. It will lie somewhere between the two
consecutive nodes (see Fig. 20.7b and Fig. 20.10).
Thus, the uncertainty in the position of the particle
is equal to the distance between two consecutive
nodes. Referring to equ. (20.15), the condition for
formation of a node is
 ∆ωt ∆kx  Fig. 20.10
cos  −  =0
 2 2 
∆ω ∆k π 3π 5π π
i.e., t− x = , , , .... , ( 2n + 1)
2 2 2 2 2 2
Thus, if x1 and x2 are the positions of two consecutive nodes, then
∆ω ∆k π
t− x1 = ( 2n + 1)
2 2 2
∆ω ∆k π
and t− x2 = ( 2n + 3)
2 2 2
Subtracting the above upper equation rom the lower one, we nd that
∆k ∆k
2
( x2 − x1 ) = p or 2 ∆x = π
where Dx = (x2 – x1) is the uncertainty in the position of the particle. Thus,
2π
Dx = .
∆k
2π 2πp
Since k= = ,
λ h
2π
Dk = ∆p
h
2π 2πh h
Therefore, Dx = = =
∆k 2π ∆p ∆p
or Dx ⋅ Dp = h
When we consider a group consisting of very large number of harmonic waves of continu-
ously varying frequencies, the product of the uncertainties comes to
1
Dx ⋅ Dp ≥ 
2

20.13 IMPLICATION OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

The uncertainty principle expresses a fundamental limitation in nature that also limits the
precision of our measurements. According to classical mechanics the position and momentum
572 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

of a macro-particle can be determined exactly. But the uncertainty principle asserts that it
is physically impossible to know simultaneously the exact position (Dx = 0) and exact
momentum (Dpx = 0) of a microparticle. According to it, the more precisely we know the
posistion of the particle, the less precise is our information about its momentum. Thus, the
momentum o a particle cannot be precisely specied without our loss o knowledge o the
position of the particle at that time. Similarly, a particle cannot be precisely localized in a
particular direction without our loss of knowledge of momentum in that particular direction.
We can at best specify that certain momentum of the particle is more probable than the other
or that the particle is more likely to be here than there. It means that our classical notions like
coordinates and momentum derived from ordinary macroscopic experiences are inadequate to
describe the atomic world. The uncertainty principle points out that in the microscopic world,
(1) the dynamical variables of a particle are combined in sets of simultaneously determined
quantities which are known as complete sets of quantities;
(2) the coordinate and momentum components of a particle etc are pairs of concepts which
are interrelated and all in dierent complete sets o quantities. They cannot be dened
simultaneously in a precise way.
Thus, the uncertainty principle implies that we can never dene the path o an atomic
particle with the absolute precision indicated in classical mechanics. Therefore, concepts such
as velocity, position, and acceleration are of limited use in quantum world. To describe the
quantum particle the concept of energy becomes important since it is related to the state of the
system rather than to its path.
20.14 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE IS NOT SIGNIFICANT IN CASE OF
MACRO-BODIES
The Heisenberg Principle is of no practical importance for heavy bodies where the de Broglie
wavelength is negligibly small.
For example, let us take the case o a cricket ball in fight. The indeterminacy in the
position of the ball is, say, 1 mm. We can determine the indeterminacy of velocity of the ball
from uncertainty principle.
Dx ⋅ Dp ≈ h
\ Dx ⋅ mDu ≈ h
h 6.62 × 10 −34 J .s
Du ≈ = ≅ 10 −30 m / s.
m∆x 0.5kg × 10 −3 m
The above inaccuracy is negligible and not detectable. It implies that the uncertainties are
of no importance in case of macro bodies; and the position and velocity of a macro body can
be simultaneously determined with a high degree of accuracy. As a result, macroscopic body
ollows a well dened trajectory.
In contrast if we take the example of an electron orbiting in a hydrogen atom, the
inaccuracy in its position is ± 1Å. The uncertainty in its speed is
h 6.62 × 10 −34 J .s
Du = = ≈ 2 × 105 m / s
m∆x 9.11 × 10 −31 kg × 2 × 10 −10 m
which is of the same order as the velocity of the electron in the orbit. It means that it is not
possible to determine the velocity and the position of a microparticle with certainty and as
such we cannot talk o a specic trajectory. Instead we have to be content knowing only the
probable values.
Quantum Mechanics 573

20.15 THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS

It is not possible to verify Heisenberg uncertainty principle in the laboratory. Therefore, we
illustrate it with the help of two thought experiments.
1. Treating the electron as a wave
We assume that an electron has wave
character. Suppose that we want to determine
the y-coordinate of an electron moving
along the x-axis. We place a slit of width ‘d’
perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the electron (Fig. 20.11). The precision of
the position o electron, Δy, in y-direction is
limited by the size of the slit. That is, Dy ≈ d. Fig. 20.11
If the slit is narrow enough, it causes a
change in the motion of the electron after going through the slit and brings out the wave
character of electron as evidenced from the diffraction pattern observed on the screen. The
uncertainty in the electron momentum parallel to y-axis depends on the diffraction angle q.
According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit, the angle q is given by
sin q = l/d (20.33)
The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron parallel to y-axis is given by
hλ h h
Dpy = p sin θ = = ≈
λ d d ∆y
\ ∆y ∆py ≈ h (20.34)
If we wish to determine the exact position of the electron along the y-axis, we have to
use a very narrow slit. However, a very narrow slit produces a wider diffraction pattern,
which leads to a larger uncertainty in our knowledge of the Y-component of the momentum.
Conversely, if we attempt to reduce the uncertainty in our knowledge of Y-component of
momentum, the diffraction pattern should be very Y
narrow. Therefore, we have to use a very wide slit,
which in turn results in a large uncertainty in the
y-coordinate of the electron. Thus, our efforts to
simultaneously reduce the uncertainties Dy and Dp d
will get frustrated.
2. Treating the Electron as a Particle
We now consider that electron is a particle and 2Dp
attempt to measure its position. For the sake of
convenience, we assume that the electron is at rest 2q
Scattered g
P P
and use a microscope to locate it. We cannot use light a
an optical microscope for this purpose. The act of Incident
observing an object requires that light from a source light
be refected by the object and enter a recording
x
Electron
instrument such as eye. An object refects a wave Dx
when the size o the object is suciently larger than
Fig. 20.12: Measurement of position
the wavelength of the wave. In the present case, if we and momentum of an electron by
use light waves, they would pass on without getting means of a g-microscope.
refected by the electron, since the size o the electron
574 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

is about 105 times smaller than the wavelength of light. Therefore, we use a g-ray microscope
to detect and locate an electron.
Let a free electron be directly beneath the center of the g-ray microscope’s lens. The
circular lens forms a cone of angle 2a from the electron. The electron is illuminated from
the left by g-rays. The microscope can resolve objects to a size o Δx. Δx is given by the
expression
λ
                                        ) 5 3 . 0 2 (   Δx=
2sin α
To be observed by the microscope, the g-ray must be scattered into any angle within the
cone o angle 2α. A g-photon carries a very large momentum. When the g-photon strikes the
electron, part of the momentum and energy are transferred to the electron due to Compton
scattering. Consequently, as the scattered photon enters the microscope, the electron has
already moved away in a certain direction (Fig. 20.12). The total momentum p is related to
h
the wavelength by the formula p = .
λ
In the extreme case of diffraction of the gamma ray to the right edge of the lens, the
total momentum in the x direction would be the sum o the electron’s momentum p′x in the X
direction and the gamma ray’s momentum in the x-direction:
 h sin α 
px′ +  (20.36)
 λ′ 
where λ´ is the wavelength o the defected gamma ray. In the other extreme, the observed
gamma ray recoils backward, just hitting the left edge of the lens. In this case, the total
momentum in the X-direction is:
 h sin α 
px′′ −  (20.37)
 λ′′ 
The nal X-momentum in each case must equal the initial X-momentum, since momentum
is conserved. Thereore, the nal X-momenta are equal to each other:
 h sin α   h sin α 
px′ +  = px′′ − 
 λ′   λ′′ 
I α is small, then the wavelengths are approximately the same, λ′ ≈ λ′′ ≈ λ. And we have
2h sin α
p″x – p′x =
λ
2h sin α
or Dpx = (20.38)
λ
Using eq.(20.35) into the above equation, we obtain
h
Dpx =
∆x
\ Dx ⋅ Dpx = h
20.16 APPLICATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
We deal here with three simple examples to illustrate the application of uncertainty principle.
(a) Bohr’s Orbit and Energy
Let us consider the electron in a hydrogen atom. We cannot know at any instant the position
of the electron in its orbit. It might be on the left or right of the nucleus, as sketched in
Quantum Mechanics 575

Fig. 20.13. The electron position has an uncertainty ±r. We cannot know likewise whether the
electron is moving upward or downward .The uncertainty in its velocity therefore ±u. Taking
Dx = r ≈ 0.5 × 10–10 m, the uncertainty in the electron speed is
h
Du =
2πm∆x

6.62 × 10 −34 J .s
=
2 × 3.124 × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg × 0.5 × 10 −10 m
≅ 2 × 106 m/s
The velocity ‘u’, o an electron in an atom
is of the order of 1.0 × 106 m/s and is of the
same order as the uncertainty Du. Therefore,
we conclude that the uncertainty in momentum
is of the same order as the momentum. That ∆υ = –υ ∆υ = + υ
is Dp ≈ p. It means that sharp position and Nucleus
momentum do not exist simultaneously for the
electron in an atom. Hence it is not possible to
ascribe any specic trajectory to an electron
in an atom. It can only be said that atomic
electrons traverse the whole of the space about
the nucleus, but however, they move most ∆x = –r ∆x = r

of the time at a distance corresponding to a Fig. 20.13: The uncertainties in the position
permitted Bohr radius. and velocity of electron in an atom.
Now let us calculate the energy of the
Bohr’s rst orbit. The total energy o the electron in the rst orbit is given by
E = K.E. + P.E.
1  e2  p2  e2
=  mυ 2  − =  − (20.39)
2  4πε o r  2m  4πε o r
where p is the momentum of the electron.
h h
As Dp ≈ p, we can write p ≈ = . (20.40)
2π∆x 2πr

h2 e2
\ E= − (20.41)
8π 2 mr 2 4πε o r
εo h2
But r is given by r = .
π me 2
me 4
\ E= − (20.42)
8ε o2 h 2
The above expression (20.42) is the same as that is given by Bohr theory.
(b) Particle in a Box:
Let us consider a particle conned to a box o length l. The uncertainty Dx in the position is l.
Dx ⋅ Dp ≅ ħ
 
\ Dp = = (20.43)
∆x l
576 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

p 2 ( ∆p ) ( / l ) = 2
2 2
Energy is given by E= ≈ = (20.44)
2m 2m 2m 2ml 2
This result agrees with the result obtained from Schrödinger equation. Refer to § 20.95.
(c) Electrons cannot be present in the nucleus:
The radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei consists of a, b and g-rays, out of which b-rays
are identied to be electrons. We apply uncertainty principle to nd whether electrons are
coming out of the nucleus. The radius of the nucleus is of the order of 10–14 m. Therefore,
if electrons were to be in the nucleus, the maximum uncertainty Dx in the position of the
electron is equal to the diameter of the nucleus. Thus,
∆x = 2 × 10–14 m.
The minimum uncertainty in its momentum is then given by
 1.04 × 10 −34 J .s
∆p = = = 5.2 × 10–21 kg-m/s.
∆x 2 × 10 −14 m
The minimum uncertainty in momentum can be taken as the momentum of the electron.
Thus,
p = 5.2 × 10–21 kg-m/s.
The minimum energy of the electron in the nucleus is then given by
Emin = pmin c = (5.2 × 10–21 kg-m/s)(3 × 108 m/s) = 1.56 × 10–12 J = 9.7 MeV.
It implies that if an electron exists within the nucleus, it must have a minimum energy
of about 10 MeV. But the experimental measurements showed that the maximum kinetic
energies of b-particles were of the order of 4 MeV only. Hence electrons are not present in the
nucleus. It is subsequently established that emission of b-particles occurs due to transforma-
tions in the nucleus. The transformation of a neutron into a proton produces an electron.
Example 20.4: Uncertainty in time of an excited atom is about 10–8s. What are the
uncertainties in energy and in requency o the radiation?
h
Solution: DE Dt ≈
2π

1.054 × 10 −34 J .s 1.054 × 10 −26

\ DE = = eV = 6.58 × 10 −8 eV .
10 −8 s 1.602 × 10 −19
∆E 1.054 × 10 −26 J
Dn = = = 15.9 MHz.
h 6.626 × 10 −34 J .s
Example 20.5. An electron is confned to a potential well o width 10 nm. Calculate the
minimum uncertainty in its velocity.
h h
Solution. ∆x ∆p ≈ or ∆x ∆p ≈
2π 2π
h
\ ∆u =
2π m ⋅ ∆x

6.63 × 10 −34 Js
\ ∆u = = 12.1 km/s.
2 × 3.143 × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg × 10 × 10 −9 m
Quantum Mechanics 577

Example 20.6: If the kinetic energy of an electron known to be about 1 eV, must be measured
to within 0.0001 eV, what accuracy can its position be measured simultaneously?
p2 2 p ∆p m
Solution: E= \ ∆E = \ ∆p = ∆E
2m 2m p
h
∆x∆p =
2π
h h p h 2mE h E
\ ∆x = = ⋅ = =
2π ⋅ ∆p 2π m∆E 2π m∆E π ∆E 2m

6.63 × 10 −34 Js 1.602 × 10 −19 J

\ ∆x = ⋅
3.143 × 0.0001 × 1.602 × 10 −19 J 2 × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg

= 1.95 mm.
Example 20.7: An electron and a 150 gm base ball are traveling at a velocity of 220 m/s,
measured to an accuracy of 0.005 %. Calculate and compare uncertainty in position of each.
0.065
Solution: The uncertainty in the velocity is ∆u = u × 0.065% = ( 220m / s ) × = 0.143 m/s.
100
(i) The uncertainty in the position of electron is
 1.05 × 10 −34 J .s
Dxe = = = 0.4 mm.
2 m∆υ 2 × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg × 0.143 m / s
(ii) The uncertainty in the position of baseball is
 1.05 × 10 −34 J .s
DxB = = = 2.5 ×10–33m.
2 M ∆υ 2 × 0.15 kg × 0.143 m / s

20.17 WAVE FUNCTION AND PROBABILITY INTERPRETATION

Waves represent the propagation of a disturbance in a medium. We are familiar with light
waves, sound waves, and water waves. These waves are characterized by some quantity that
varies with position and time. Light waves consist o variations o electric and magnetic elds
in space, and sound waves consist of pressure variations. We cannot specify in a similar way
what is actually varying in de Broglie waves. Since microparticles exhibit wave properties, it
is assumed that a quantity y represents a de Broglie wave. This quantity y is called a wave
function. y describes the wave as a function of position and time. However, it has no direct
physical signicance, as it is not an observable quantity. In general, y is a complex-valued
function. According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, we can only know the probable
value in a measurement. The probability cannot be negative. Hence y cannot be a measure
of the presence of the particle at the location (x, y, z). But it is certain that it is in someway an
index of the presence of the particle at around (x, y, z, t).
Probability Interpretation of Wave Function given by Max Born
A probability interpretation of the wave function was given by Max Born in 1926. He
suggested that the square of the magnitude of the wave function |y|2 evaluated in a particular
region represents the probability o fnding the particle in that region. In other words,