MPH 8313: Research Methodology &

Computer Application in Public Health (3

Credit Units)
By

Dr. S. Y. Goji

B.Pharm (UNIMAID), M.Sc (BUK), PhD (USM), Research Visitor (Keele

University, UK)

July. 2024
OUTLINE
Research problem formulation
Literature review and systems
Conceptualization of research design

Study type and design: Research objectives. Research

methodology. Hypothesis testing. Sampling

Data collection and instruments used for data collection: Selection

and training of interviewers. Pre-testing of interview instruments.
Data management, analysis and presentation. Ethical conduct of a
research
Research?

➢Research is a systematic and organized process of inquiry that involves

the investigation of a particular topic, question, problem, or
phenomenon to gain new knowledge, understanding, or insights

➢The primary aim of research is to contribute to the existing body of

knowledge and to advance our understanding of the world.
Key characteristics of a research

➢ Systematic Inquiry: Research involves a structured and organized approach to gather

information. It follows a set of methods and procedures to ensure that the data collected
is reliable and valid.
➢ Objective Exploration: Research is driven by a specific objective or question. It aims
to provide answers or insights that are not known or well-understood.

➢ Data Collection and Analysis: Researchers collect data through various methods,
such as experiments, surveys, interviews, observations, or literature reviews.
Once data is collected, it is analyzed to draw meaningful conclusions.

➢ Critical Evaluation: Research involves critical thinking and evaluation of

information. Researchers assess the reliability of data, the validity of methods, and
the significance of findings.
Key characteristics of a research…

➢ Contributing to Knowledge: One of the primary purposes of research is to

contribute to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field. This can involve
confirming or refuting existing theories, discovering new phenomena, or
proposing novel ideas.

➢ Communication of Findings: The results of research are typically communicated

through research papers, conferences, workshops, seminars or other forms of
scholarly communication. This allows other researchers to review, validate, and
build upon the findings.
Research methodology?

➢ Research methodology refers to the systematic process or set of procedures that a

researcher follows in order to design, conduct, and analyze research.

➢ It outlines the strategies, techniques, and tools that will be used to gather and
analyze data, ensuring the research is reliable, valid, and capable of providing
meaningful insights.

➢ Research methodology is crucial for the success and credibility of any research
study.
Key Components of Research methodology?

➢ Research Design: This refers to the overall plan or structure of the research. It
outlines the type of study (e.g., experimental, observational, qualitative,
quantitative), the sampling strategy, and the methods of data collection and
analysis.

➢ Sampling Technique: Researchers need to decide how to select participants or

samples from the larger population. Common sampling techniques include
random sampling, stratified sampling, and convenience sampling.
Key Components of Research methodology…?

➢ Data Analysis Techniques: Once data is collected, researchers need to analyze it to

draw meaningful conclusions. Data analysis techniques depend on the type of data
(qualitative or quantitative) and may include statistical analysis, content analysis,
thematic analysis, etc.

➢ Instrumentation: If the research involves the use of tools or instruments (e.g.,

surveys, questionnaires), the methodology should specify how these
instruments will be developed, validated, and administered.

➢ Ethical Considerations: Research methodology should address ethical concerns

related to the treatment of participants, confidentiality, informed consent, and
other ethical principles.
Key Components of Research methodology…?

➢ Timeframe and Budget: The methodology often includes a timeline for different
stages of the research and an estimate of the budget required to conduct the
study.

➢ Validity and Reliability: Researchers need to address issues of validity (whether

the study measures what it intends to measure) and reliability (whether the
study's results are consistent and replicable).
Some key applications of research methodology include:
Scientific Research:

➢ In natural and physical sciences, research methodology is fundamental for conducting

experiments, collecting data, and testing hypotheses.

➢ It contributes to the advancement of scientific knowledge and the development of new

theories and technologies.

Social Sciences:

➢ Research methodology is extensively used in disciplines such as sociology, psychology,

anthropology, and economics.

➢ Surveys, interviews, experiments, and observational studies help understand human

behavior, societal trends, and economic patterns.
Some key applications of research methodology include:
Medical and Health Research:

➢ Clinical trials and epidemiological studies rely on rigorous research methodologies to

investigate the efficacy and safety of medical treatments, interventions, and public health
strategies.

➢ Research informs medical practices, healthcare policies, and the development of

pharmaceuticals.
Business and Management:

➢ Market research employs various research methods to understand consumer behavior,

market trends, and competitors.

➢ Organizational research helps in studying management practices, employee behavior, and

organizational effectiveness.
Some key applications of research methodology include:

Education Research:

➢ Educational researchers use methodologies to assess teaching methods, learning

outcomes, and educational policies.

➢ Research informs curriculum development, and educational interventions

Environmental Studies:

➢ Research methodology is applied to assess environmental impact, study ecosystems, and

monitor changes in biodiversity.

➢ It supports the development of sustainable practices and environmental conservation

efforts.
Some key applications of research methodology include:

Political Science:

➢ Research methods are used to analyze political systems, election outcomes, public
opinion, and policy effectiveness.

➢ Research informs political decision-making and policy formulation.

Engineering and Technology:

➢ Research methodology is essential in engineering disciplines for designing experiments,

testing prototypes, and developing new technologies.

➢ It contributes to innovation, problem-solving, and the improvement of existing systems.

Literature review and systems?

➢ A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. It

provides an overview of what is known, identifies gaps in the current knowledge, and
sets the context for new research.
Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

1.Define the Research Question: Clearly state the question that the literature review
will address.

2. Search the Literature: Use databases and other sources to find relevant studies.

3. Evaluate Sources: Assess the quality and relevance of the studies.

4. Analyze and Interpret Findings: Synthesize the information from the studies.

5. Write the Review: Present the findings in a structured format.

Tools and Databases

Databases: PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science.

Reference Management Tools: EndNote, Mendeley, Zotero.

Types of Research
Observational
Observational studies involve observing and measuring phenomena without
intervening. They are often used to identify associations between exposures and
outcomes.

1. Cross-Sectional Studies
•Description: Data is collected at a single point in time from a population or a
representative subset.

•Advantages:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Useful for assessing the prevalence of diseases or health behaviors.

•Limitations:
•Cannot establish causality.
•Subject to prevalence-incidence bias.
Observational……..

2. Case-Control Studies
•Description: Individuals with a particular outcome (cases) are compared to
individuals without the outcome (controls).

3. Cohort Studies
•Description: Groups of individuals (cohorts) are followed over time to observe
the occurrence of outcomes.
• Prospective Cohort Study: Follows subjects forward in time from
exposure to outcome.
• Retrospective Cohort Study: Uses existing data to follow subjects
backward in time from outcome to exposure.
Experimental studies

➢ Experimental studies involve the deliberate intervention by the researcher to

observe the effect on an outcome. The gold standard for experimental research
is the randomized controlled trial (RCT).

➢ Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs)

•Description: Participants are randomly assigned to intervention or control groups to
receive or not receive the intervention.
•Advantages:
• High level of control over variables.
• Can establish causality.
•Limitations:
• Expensive and time-consuming.
• Ethical constraints may limit applicability.
Selection and training of interviewers
➢ The quality of data collected in public health research heavily depends on the
skills and performance of interviewers. Proper selection and training of
interviewers are critical to ensure data accuracy, reliability, and validity.
Key Criteria for Selection

1.Communication Skills: Ability to articulate questions clearly and listen actively.

2. Cultural Competence: Understanding and respect for the cultural background of
the study population.
3. Experience: Previous experience in conducting interviews or working in public
health research.

4. Education: Relevant educational background, preferably in public health, social

sciences, or related fields.
5. Professionalism: Demonstrated reliability, punctuality, and ethical conduct.
Selection and training of interviewers…..

Selection process

1.Application Review: Screen resumes and cover letters for relevant experience and
skills

2. Interviews: Conduct face-to-face or virtual interviews to assess communication

skills and cultural competence.

3. Simulated Interviews: Have candidates perform mock interviews to evaluate

their interviewing technique and ability to follow protocols.

4. Reference Checks: Contact previous employers or colleagues to verify the

candidate's experience and reliability.
•Ethical considerations, including informed consent and confidentiality.

Selection and training of interviewers…..

Components of the training

1.Introduction to the Study

•Study objectives, design, and importance.

•Ethical considerations, including informed consent and confidentiality.

2. Questionnaire and Protocol Training:

•Detailed review of the questionnaire.

•Understanding the purpose of each question.
•Instructions on how to handle different types of questions (e.g., open-ended, closed-ended).
•Ethical considerations, including informed consent and confidentiality.

Selection and training of interviewers…..

Components of the training….

3 Interview Techniques:

•Building rapport with respondents.

•Techniques for probing and clarifying responses.
•Handling difficult or sensitive questions.

4. Role-Playing and Simulations:

•Practice interviews with feedback from trainers.

•Addressing common challenges and mistakes.

5 Use of Technology:
Training on any electronic data collection tools or software.
Ensuring interviewers are comfortable with data entry and troubleshooting technical issues.
Monitoring and Evaluation

1.Field Observations: Supervisors conduct random observations

of interviews to ensure adherence to protocols.
2.Feedback Sessions: Regular meetings to discuss challenges and
provide feedback.
3.Performance Metrics: Evaluate interviewers based on response
rates, data quality, and adherence to protocols.
4.Refresher Training: Periodic refresher courses to address
common issues and update interviewers on any protocol changes.
Continuous Improvement

1.Debriefing Sessions: Regular debriefings to share

experiences and improve techniques.

2.Incentives and Recognition: Acknowledging and rewarding

high-performing interviewers to maintain motivation.

3.Feedback Loop: Encourage interviewers to provide feedback

on training and protocols to continuously improve the process.
Pre-testing of Interview Instruments

➢ Pre-testing of interview instruments, often referred to as pilot testing, is a crucial

step in the survey development process. It involves testing the interview instrument
on a small, representative sample of the target population before the actual data
collection begins.
Pre-testing of Interview Instruments

Key Benefits…..
1.Identifies Ambiguities and Misunderstandings: Ensures that questions
are interpreted consistently by all respondents.
2.Tests Questionnaire Length and Flow: Evaluates whether the instrument
is of appropriate length and whether the sequence of questions is logical.
3.Assesses Technical Aspects: Tests any technical components, such as
electronic data collection tools, for functionality and user-friendliness.
4.Improves Data Quality: Helps refine questions to improve clarity and
relevance, ultimately enhancing the quality of the data collected.
5.Provides Training Opportunity: Serves as a practice run for interviewers,
allowing them to familiarize themselves with the instrument and identify
potential challenges.
Steps in Conducting Pre-tests

1. Develop a Pre-test Plan

•Define Objectives: Clearly state what you aim to achieve with the pre-test.
•Select a Sample: Choose a small, representative sample of the target
population (usually 5-30 participants).
•Prepare Materials: Ensure that all materials, including the questionnaire
and any technical tools, are ready for testing.

2. Conduct Cognitive Interviews

•Purpose: To understand how respondents interpret, process, and respond
to survey questions.
•Method: Ask respondents to verbalize their thoughts as they answer each
question (think-aloud technique) or use probing questions to explore their
understanding.
3. Administer the Pre-test
•Simulate Real Conditions: Conduct the pre-test under conditions similar
to those of the actual survey.
•Observe and Record: Note any difficulties or issues faced by respondents
and interviewers. Record the time taken to complete the questionnaire.

4. Analyze Pre-test Data

•Identify Issues: Look for patterns in misunderstandings, ambiguous
questions, or technical problems.
•Feedback from Interviewers: Gather insights from interviewers on the
questionnaire's usability and any challenges encountered.
5. Revise the Instrument

•Refine Questions: Modify or rephrase questions based on the

feedback and observations.
•Adjust Length and Flow: Make necessary changes to the
questionnaire's length and sequence of questions.
•Re-test if Necessary: Conduct additional pre-tests if significant
changes are made to ensure that issues have been resolved.
Common Issues Discovered During Pre-testing
1.Ambiguity and Vagueness: Questions that are unclear or open to
multiple interpretations.
1.Solution: Reword questions for clarity and specificity.
2.Leading or Biased Questions: Questions that suggest a particular
answer.
1.Solution: Ensure that questions are neutral and unbiased.
3.Complex or Technical Language: Use of jargon or complicated terms
that respondents may not understand.
1.Solution: Simplify language and use terms familiar to the target
population.
4.Sensitive or Invasive Questions: Questions that make respondents
uncomfortable.
1.Solution: Rephrase or reorder sensitive questions, ensuring they are
necessary for the study.
Common Issues Discovered During Pre-testing

•Length and Fatigue: A questionnaire that is too long, leading

to respondent fatigue.

•Solution: Shorten the questionnaire by removing redundant or

less critical questions.

•Technical Issues: Problems with electronic data collection

tools, such as software glitches or difficult navigation.

•Solution: Test and refine the technical aspects of the

instrument.
Research Proposal writing
Computer and their types

➢ Computers are an integral part of modern society, used in various fields such
as education, business, science, and entertainment. They come in many
forms, each designed to meet specific needs and purposes.
Computer and their types….

Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified based on their size, functionality, and usage.
The main categories include:
1.Supercomputers
2.Mainframe Computers
3.Minicomputers
4.Microcomputers
5.Embedded Systems
Citation softwares

➢Given as assignment