UNIT 6: Electrical Installations (6 hours)

Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB,Types of

Wiring and Cables, Earthing. Types of Batteries, Important Characteristics for Batteries.
Elementary calculations for energy consumption, power factor improvement and battery
backup.

Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB

Switchgear: The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits
and equipment is known as switchgear. The term ‘switchgear’ is a generic term encompassing a
wide range of products like circuit breakers, switches, switch fuse units, off-load isolators, HRC
fuses, contactors, earth leakage circuit breaker, etc.

Classification of Switchgear: Switchgear can be classified on the basis of voltage level into the
following:
1. Low voltage (LV) Switchgear: upto 1KV
2. Medium voltage (MV) Switchgear: 3 KV to 33 KV
3. High voltage (HV) Switchgear: Above 33 KV

Components of LT Switchgear: The term LT Switchgear includes low voltage Circuit

Breakers, Switches, off load electrical isolators, HRC fuses, Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker,
Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB) and Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the
accessories required to protect the LV system. The most common use of LV switchgear is in LV
distribution board.
FUSE: Fuse is the simplest and cheapest device used for interrupting an electrical circuit under
short circuit, or excessive overload, current magnitudes. The action of a fuse is based upon the
heating effect of the electric circuit. The part which actually melts and opens the circuit is known
as the fuse element.
Fuses have following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. It is cheapest form of protection available.
2. It needs no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which requires an
elaborate equipment for automatic action.
4. It interrupts enormous short circuit currents without noise, flame, gas or smoke.

Disadvantages:
1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
2. On heavy short circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained unless there
is considerable differences in the relative sizes of the fuse concerned.
3. The current-time characteristics of a fuse cannot always be correlated with that of the
protected device.

The various types of fuse units, most commonly available are:

1. Round type fuse unit.
2. Kit-kat type fuse unit.
3. Cartridge type fuse unit.
4. HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) fuse units
5. Semiconductor fuse units.

Round type fuse unit: This type of fuse unit consists of a porcelain or bakelite box and two separated
wire terminals for holding the fuse wire between them. This type of fuse is not common use on account of
its following disadvantages: 1. One of the terminals remain always energized and, therefore, for
replacement of fuse either the worker will have to touch the live mains or open the main switch. 2.
Appreciable arching takes place at the instant of blowing off fuse and thus damage the terminals. After
two or three arcing the fuse unit becomes unusable.
Rewirable or Kit-kat Type Fuses: The most commonly used fuse in “house wiring’ and small current
circuits is the semi-enclosed or rewirable fuse (also sometimes known as kitkat type fuse). It consists of a
porcelain base carrying the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing live or phase wires are
connected and a porcelain fuse carrier holding the fuse element, consisting of one or more strands of fuse
wire, stretched between its terminals. The fuse wire may be of lead, tinned copper, aluminium or an alloy
of tin-lead. The actual fusing current will be about twice the rated current. The specifications for
rewirable fuses are covered by IS: 2086-1963. Standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, 63 and 100A. A fuse wire of
any rating not exceeding the rating of the fuse may be used in it i.e. a 80A fuse wire can be used in a
100A fuse, but not in the 63A fuse.

Cartridge Type Fuses: This is a totally enclosed type fuse unit. It essentially consists of an insulating
container of bulb or tube shape and sealed at its ends with metallic cap known as cartridge enclosing the
fuse element and filled with powder or granular material known as filler. There are various types of
materials used as filler like sand, calcium carbonate, quartz etc. This type of fuse is available upto 660V
and the current rating upto 800 A.

1. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuses: With a very heavy generating capacities of the
modern power stations, extremely heavy currents would flow into the fault and fuse
clearing the fault would be required to withstand extremely high stresses in this process.
HRC fuses developed and designed after intensive research for use in medium and high
voltage installations. Their rupturing capacity is as high as 500MVA up to 66 KV and
above.
2. Semiconductor Fuses: These are very fast acting fuses for protection of thyristor and
other electronic circuits.
 Switch Fuse Unit (SFU):
Switch fuse is a combined unit and is known as an iron clad switch, being made of iron. It
may be double pole for controlling single phase two-wire circuits or triple pole for controlling
three- phase, 3-wire circuits or triple pole with neutral link for controlling 3-phase, 4-wire
circuits. Therespective switches are known as double pole iron clad (DPIC), triple pole iron
clad (TPIC), and triple pole with neutral link iron clad (TPNIC) switches.

1. For Two-wire DC Circuits or Single Phase AC Circuits: 240V, 16A, DPIC switch fuse
2. For Three-Wire DC Circuits: 500V, 32A (63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS approved
TPIC switch fuse.
3. For Three-Phase Balanced Load Circuits: 415V, 32A (63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS
approved TPIC switch fuse.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

A device which provides definite protection to the wiring installations and sophisticated
equipment against over-currents and short-circuit faults. Thermal operation (overload protection)
is achieved with a bimetallic strip, which deflects when heated by any over-currents flowing
through it. In doing so, releases the latch mechanism and causes the contacts to open. Inverse-time
current characteristics result. i.e. greater the overload or excessive current, shorter the time
required to operate the MCB. On occurrence of short circuit, the rising current energizes the
solenoid, operating the plunger to strike the trip lever causing immediate release of the latch
mechanism. Rapidity of the magnetic solenoid operation causes instantaneous opening of contacts.
They are suitable for the protection of important and sophisticated equipment, such as air-
conditioners, refrigerators, computers etc.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):
It is a device that provides protection against earth leakage. These are of two types.
1. Current operated earth leakage circuit breaker:
2. Voltage operated earth leakage circuit breaker.

1. Current operated earth leakage circuit breaker: It is used when the product of the
operating current in amperes and the earth-loop impedance in ohms does not exceed 40. such
circuit breakers is used where consumer’s earthing terminal is connected to a suitable earth
electrode. A current-operated earth leakage circuit breaker is applied to a 3-phase, 3-wire circuit.
In normal condition when there is no earth leakage, the algebraic sum of the currents in the three
coils of the current transformers is zero, and no current flows through the trip coil. In caseof any
earth leakage, the currents are unbalanced and the trip coil is energized and thus the circuit
breaker is tripped.

2.Voltage operated earth leakage circuit breaker: It is suitable for use when the earth–loop
impedance exceeds the values applicable to fuses or excess-current circuit breaker or to current
operated earth leakage circuit breaker. When the voltage between the earth continuity conductor
(ECC) and earth electrode rises to sufficient value, the trip coil will carry the required current to
trip the circuit breaker. With such a circuit breaker the earthing lead between the trip coil and the
earth electrode must be insulated; in addition, the earth electrode must be placed outside the
resistance area of any other parallel earths which may exist.
In both the above types of ELCB the tripping operation may be tested by means of a finger-
operated test button which passes a predetermined current from the line wire through a high
resistance to trip the coil and thus to earth. This test operation should be performed regularly.

Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) :

It is a type of electrical protection device that can be used for a wide range of voltages, and frequencies of
both 50 Hz and 60 Hz, the main distinctions between molded case and miniature circuit breaker are that
MCCB can have current rating up to 2500 amperes, and its trip setting are normally adjustable. MCCBs are
much larger than MCBs. An MCCB has three main functions:
• Protection against overload.
• Protection against electrical faults.
• Switching a circuit ON and OFF.
This is a less common function of circuit breakers, but they can be used for that purpose if there is not an
adequate manual switch.
The wide range of current ratings available from molded-case circuit breakers allows them
to be used in a wide variety of applications. MCCBs are available with current ratings that
range from low values such as 15 amperes, to industrial ratings such as 2500 amperes. This
allows them to be used in both low power and high power applications.

Operating Mechanism: At its core, the protection mechanism employed by MCCBs is based on the
same physical principles used by all types of thermal-magnetic circuit breakers.
• Overload protection is accomplished by means of a thermal mechanism. MCCBs have a
bimetallic contact what expands and contracts in response to changes in temperature. Under
normal operating conditions, the contact allows electric current through the MCCB. However,
as soon as the current exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact will start to heat and expand
until the circuit is interrupted.
• The thermal protection against overload is designed with a time delay to allow short duration
overcurrent, which is a normal part of operation for many devices. However any over current
conditions, that lasts more than what is normally expected represent an overload, and the
MCCB is tripped to protect the equipment and personnel. On the other hand, fault protection
is accomplished with electromagnetic induction, and the response is instant. Fault currents
should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their duration is short or long. Whenever a
fault occurs, the extremely high current induces a magnetic field in a solenoid coil located
inside the breaker-this magnetic induction trips a contact and current is interrupted. As a
complement to the magnetic protection mechanism, MCCBs have internal arc dissipation
measures to facilitate interruption.
 Types of Wires and Cables:

Wires and cables are essential part of an electrical circuit. For any connection or internal wiring
of any building, wires and cables may be categorized into following groups:
 Conductor Used: According to conductor material used in the cables, these may be divided into two
classes known as copper conductor cables and aluminium conductor cables.
 Number of Cores Used: It may be divided into different classes known as: single core cables, twin
core cables, three core cables, two core with ECC (Earth Continuity Conductor) cables etc.
 Voltage Grading: According to voltage grading the cables may be divided into two classes (i)
250/440 Volt cables and (ii) 650/1100 volt cables
 Types of Insulation Used: According to type of insulation the cables are of following types:
o Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables
o Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS) cables.
o Lead Sheathed Cables.
o Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Cables.
o Weatherproof cables.
o Flexible cords and cables.
o XLPE cables.
o Multi-strand cables.
o Multi-strand cables.
Following is a discussion of important and most commonly used types of cable.

 Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables: VIR cables are available in 240/415
volts as well as in 650/1100 volt grades. VIR cables consists of either Tinned copper
conductor Covered with a layer of VIR insulation. Over the rubber Insulation cotton tape
sheathed Covering is provided with Moisture resistant compound bitumen wax or some
other insulating material for making the cables moisture proof.
 Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS) cables: These cables are
available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades and used in CTS (or TRS) wiring. TRS
cable is nothing but a VIR conductor with an outer protective covering of tough rubber,
which provides additional insulation and protection against wear and tear. These cables
arewaterproof, hence can be used in wet conditions. These cables are available as single
core, circular twin core, circular three core, flat three core, twin or three core with an earth
continuity conductor. The core are insulated from each other and covered with a common
sheathing. These cables are cheaper in cost and lighter in weight than lead alloy sheathed
cables and have the alloy sheathed cables and have the properties similar to those of lead
sheathed cables and thus provide cheaper substitute to lead sheathed cables.
 Lead Sheathed Cables: These cables are available in 240/415 volt grade. The lead
sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous
sheath of lead. The lead sheath provides very good protection against the absorption of
moisture andsufficient protection against mechanical injury and so can be used without
casing or conduit system. It is available as a single core, flat twin core, flat three core and
flat twin or three core with an earth continuity conductor. Two-core lead sheathed cable
is shown in the given figure.
 Polyvinyl Chloride Insulated Cables: These cables are available in 250/440 volt and
650/1100 volt grades and are used in casing-capping, batten and conduit wiring system.
In this type of cable, conductor is insulated with PVC insulation. Since PVC is harder than
rubber, PVC cable does not require cotton taping and braiding over it for mechanical and
moisture protection. PVC insulation is preferred over VIR insulation because of the
following reasons:
o PVC insulation has better insulating qualities.
o PVC insulation provides better flexibility.
o PVC insulation has no chemical effect on metal of the wire.
o Thin layer of PVC insulation will provide the desired insulation level.
o PVC coated wire gives smaller diameter of cable and, therefore, more no. of
wires can beaccommodated in the conduit of a given size in comparison to VIR
or CTS wires.
o PVC cables are most widely used for internal wiring these days. Though the
insulation resistance of PVC is lower than that of VIR but its effect is negligible
for low and medium voltages, below 600 V.

 Weather Proof Cables: These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply
or industrial supply. These cables are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber insulated
conductors being suitably taped braided and then compounded with weather resisting
material. These cables are available in 240/415 volt and 650/1100 volt grades. These
cables are not affected by heat or sun or rain.
 Flexible Cords and Cables: The flexible cords consist of wires silk/cotton/plastic
covered. Plastic cover is popular as it is available in different pleasing colours. Flexible
cords have tinned copper conductors. Flexibility and strength is obtained by using
conductors having large no. of strands. These wires or cables are used as connecting wires
for such purposes as from ceiling rose to lamp holder, socket outlet to portable apparatus
such as radios, fans, lamps, heaters etc. These must not be used for fixed wiring.
 o The flexible cords used for household appliances are available in various sizes
and in various thickness of coating as very thin/thin/medium/thick/very
thick/extra thick etc.
 Multi-Stranded Cables: Multi-stranded cables have got the following advantages with
respect to the single solid conductor and hence preferred. The multi-stranded cables are
more flexible and durable and, therefore, can be handled conveniently. The surface area
of multi-strand cable is more as compared to the surface area of equivalent single solid
conductor, so heat radiating capacity being proportional to the surface area is more. Skin
effect is better as the conductors are tubular, especially in the case of high frequency.
Different Types of Electrical Wiring Systems

Electrical wiring ensures the proper connections between different elements present in a network. In the
basis of requirements the need for different types of connections arises. The following types of wirings are
most commonly used for internal wiring

 Cleat wiring
 Wooden casing and capping wiring
 CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
 Conduit wiring

Cleat Wiring
This system of wiring comprise of ordinary VIR or PVC insulated wires (occasionally, sheathed and
weather proof cable) braided and compounded held on walls or ceilings by means of porcelain cleats, Plastic
or wood. Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system therefore it is not suitable for domestic premises.
The use of cleat wiring system is over nowadays. This type of system is simple and cheap wiring system,
most suitable for temporary use such as under construction building or army camping. Customization can
be easily done in this wiring system. This type of wiring has many disadvantages, it can’t be used
in important and sensitive location and places. This type of wiring not lasting, reliable and
sustainable wiring system, generally it has been mostly avoided.
 Casing and Capping wiring : Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past
but, it is considered obsolete this days because of Conduit and sheathed wiring system. The cables used
in this kind of wiring were either VIR or PVC or any other approved insulated cables.
The cables were carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing is made up of a strip of wood
with parallel grooves cut length wise so as to accommodate VIR cables. The grooves were made to separate
opposite polarity. the capping (also made of wood) used to cover the wires and cables installed and fitted
in the casing.
Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:
 It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.
 It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:
 There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
 Not suitable in the acidic, alkalies and humidity conditions
 Costly repairing and need more material.
 Material can’t be found easily in the contemporary
 White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.

Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)

Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape cables are used in this kind
of wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are chemical proof, water proof, steam
proof, but are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on well seasoned and straight teak
wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.
Advantages of Batten Wiring

 Wiring installation is simple and easy

 cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
 Paraphrase is good and beautiful
 Repairing is easy
 strong and long-lasting
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system

Disadvantages of Batten Wiring

 Cannot be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
 High risk of firs
 Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because, the wires are openly visible
to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
 Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
 Only suitable below then 250V.
 Need more cables and wires.

Conduit Wiring
In conduit wiring, steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of pipe
hooks (surface conduit wiring) or buried in walls under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are afterwards drawn
by means of a GI wire of size if about 18 SWG. In Conduit wiring system, The conduits should be
electrically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable points in case of steel conduit. Conduit
wiring is a professional way of wiring a building. Mostly PVC conduits are used in domestic wiring.
There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation

 Surface Conduit Wiring

 Concealed Conduit Wiring

Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring method, they make
holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed then with the help of rawl plugs.

Concealed Conduit wiring

If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called concealed conduit
wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or
metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. It is the most common and widely preferred electrical
wiring system nowadays.
Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)

 Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
 No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
 Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
 Repairing and maintenance is easy.

Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional earthing for metallic
pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
 Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
 installation is not easy and simple.
Importance of earthing:

An electrical equipment or appliance is said to be earthed, if its outer frame and its other parts
not carrying any current are connected to the earth so as to attain as nearly zero potential as
possible. In practice, all equipment and machinery, as well as electric poles, towers, neutral
wires, etc, are earthed. The purpose of earthing is to ensure that all parts of the system other than
live parts are maintained at the earth potential at all times.
Objective of Earthing:
1. The main objective of earthing is to provide safety of operation.
2. Another objective of the earthing, though not widely used nowadays, is to save conducting
material. It also helps in protecting high-rise buildings from atmospheric lightening. A fork
metal rod or thick wire, called the lightening conductor, sticks out from the top of the
building, chimney, tower, etc. its other end buried deep into the ground. Whenever
lightening occurs, the electricity passes directly from the top of lightening conductor to the
earth, thereby protecting the building from any damage.

Methods of Earthing: Earthing should be done in a way so that on a short circuit, the earth
loop impedance is low enough to pass 3 times the current if fuses are used, and 1.5 times the
current if MCBs are used. The metal work should be solidly earthed without using any switch
or fuse in the circuit.
For effective earthing, the resistance offered by the earth electrode along with the soil in which
electrode is embedded should be quite low.
Galvanised Iron (GI) or copper is used to make an earth electrode.
There are different types of earthing methods are used:
1. Strip or Wire Earthing.
2. Rod Earthing.
3. Pipe Earthing.
4. Plate Earthing.

Pipe and Plate Earthings are commonly used.

1. Strip or Wire Earthing: In this system of earthing, strip electrodes of cross section not
less than 25 mm X 1.6 MM if of copper and 25 mm X 4 mm if of galvanized iron or steel
are buried in horizontal trenches of minimum depth 0.5 metre. If round conductors are
used, their cross-sectional area shall not be smaller than 3.0 mm2 if of copper and 6 mm2
if of galvanized iron or steel. The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give
the required earth resistance. It shall, however, be not less than 1.5 metres. This type of
earthing is used at places which have rocky soil earth bed because at such places
excavation work of plate earthing is difficult.
2. Rod Earthing: In this type of earthing, 12.5 mm diameter solid rods of copper or 16 mm
diameter solid rods of galvanized iron or steel or hollow section 25 mm GI pipes of
length not less than 2.5 metres are driven vertically into the earth either manually or by
pneumatic hammer. In order to increase the embedded length of electrodes under the
ground, which is sometimes necessary to reduce the earth resistance to desired value,
more than one rod sections are hammered one above the other.
This system of earthing is suitable for areas which are sandy in character. This sytem of
earthing is very cheap as no excavation work is involved.

3. Pipe Earthing: In the given figure, a GI pipe with a few holes at its lower end is buried
to a depth not less than 2 m and atleast 0.6 m away from the foundation of any building.
Normally, the size of pipe is either 2m long and 38 mm diameter or 1.37 m long and 51
mm diameter. However, for dry and rocky soil, we use longer pipes. Alternate layers of
common salt and charcoal have thickness of 30 mm and 80 mm, respectively. To
maintain good conductivity of the soil, an arrangement is made for pouring water into
the earth pit surrounding the earth electrode. This is especially needed during summer.
As the pipe has much larger contact area with soil, it can handle larger leakage currents
than the plate earthing of same electrode size. The earth wire (made of copper) is tightly
fastened to the earth electrode by means of nut and bolt.
4. Plate Earthing: This is another common system of earthing. In plate earthing an earthing
plate either of copper of dimensions 60cm X 60cm X 3mm or of GI of dimensions 60cm
X 60cm 6mm is buried into the ground with its face vertical at a depth of not less than 3
metres from ground level. The earth plate is embedded in alternate layers of coke and
salt for a minimum thickness of 15cm. The earth wire (GI wire for GI plate earthing and
copper wire for copper plate earthing) is securely bolted to an earth plate with the help
of a bolt, nut and washer made of material of that of earth plate. A small masonry brick
wall enclosure with a cast iron cover on top or an RCC pipe round the earth plate is
provided to facilitate its identification and for carrying out periodical inspection and
tests.
The copper plate and copper wire are usually not employed for grounding because of
their higher cost.

Double Earthing: For providing better safety, it is advisable to provide two separate earth
wires, from two separate earth electrodes, connected to same metallic body of the equipment
at two different points. This is known as double earthing. Double earthing is essential, as per
Indian Electricity Rule, for metallic bodies of large rating equipment such as transformer,
motors etc. working at 400 V and above.
Advantages of Double Earthing:
1. Surety of safety, because if at any time one earthing is ineffective, then another will
provide earth path to fault.
2. As the two earth wires are in parallel so the effective resistance from equipment to
earth electrode is reduced.
Types of Batteries, Important characteristics for Batteries:

Types of Batteries: There are two types of batteries which are given below:

1. Primary Battery: Primary batteries can be used only once because the chemical reactions
that supply the current are irreversible. Primary batteries are the most common batteries
available today because of their low cost and simplicity in use. Carbon-zinc dry cells and
alkaline cells dominate portable consumer battery applications where currents are low and
usage is sporadic. Other primary batteries such as those using mercury or lithium-based
chemistries, may be used in applications when high energy densities, small sizes, or long shelf
life are especially important. In general, primary batteries have dominated two areas:
consumer products where the initial cost of the battery is very important and electronic
products (such as watches, hearing aids and pacemakers) where drains are low or recharging
is not feasible.
2. Secondary Battery: Secondary batteries, sometimes called storage batteries or
accumulators, can be used, recharged and reused. In these batteries, the chemical reactions
that provide current from the battery are readily reserved when current is supplied to the
battery. The process of inducing or storing energy in an accumulator is called the charging,
and the process of giving out energy in the form of an electric current, the discharging.
Accumulators or storage batteries owe their name “secondary” due to the fact that they can
supply electrical energy only after they have been charged. Secondary batteries, which are
rechargeable, have traditionally been most widely used in industrial and automotive
applications. Only two rechargeable battery chemistries, lead acid and nickel-cadmium,
have to-date, achieved significant commercial success. There are several types of
secondary batteries are given below:
a. Lead Acid Batteries: Lead acid batteries, according to service rendered by them, are
classified into automotive, motive power and stationary batteries.
b. Nickel-Iron (OR Edison) Batteries: These batteries are going to become more and more
popular as there is a possibility of their development into high energy density batteries for
electric vehicles.
c. Nickel-Cadmium Accumulators:
d. Nickel-Metal Hydride Cells:

Lead Acid Batteries:

Charging and Discharging Curves: Typical charge and discharge curves (variation in terminal voltage)
of a lead-acid accumulator are as follows:

When the cell is charged, the voltage of the Cell increases from 1.8V to 2.2V during first two hours, then
increases very slowly, rather remains almost constant for Sufficient time and finally rises to 2.5 to 2.7V.
Nickel-Iron (OR Edison) Batteries:
Charge and Discharge Curve: The given figure shows how the voltage of a nickel-iron cell varies during
charging and discharging. The emf, when fully charged, is about 1.4V, decreases to 1.3V rapidly and then
slowly to 1.1 or 1.0V of discharge. An average discharge voltage is about 1.2V. The average charging
voltage is about 1.7V per cell. The voltage characteristics are similar to those of a lead-acid cell. There is
no lower limit to the voltage of the Edition cell because in it there is nothing like sulphation, but discharge
is not continued below a useful lower limit. The emf of the cell or battery increases slightly with the
temperature. Due to comparatively high internal Resistance, the efficiency of the Edison batteries are lower
than those of the lead-acid batteries.
Application: These batteries are used for the propulsion of industrial trucks, and mine locomotives and for
railway car lighting and air-conditioning because of their rugged construction and other advantages.

Important characteristics for Batteries:

Electrical Characteristics:
There are three important characteristics of an accumulator (or storage battery) namely,
  Voltage
 Capacity and
 Efficiency

Voltage: Average emf of cell is approximately 2.0 volts in case of Lead Acid cells. The value of
emf of a cell does not remain constant but varies with the change in specific gravity of electrolyte,
temperature and the length of time since it was last charged. The emf of the cell increases with
the increase in specific gravity of the electrolyte and vice versa but increase in specific gravity of
the electrolyte also causes increase in internal resistance of the cell, therefore, its value should not
go beyond 1.22. Best results are obtained with the electrolyte of specific gravity 1.21.
The emf of the cell, though, not much, but slightly increases with the increase in temperature.
The terminal voltage of battery is higher during charge than that during discharge.

Capacity: The quantity of electricity which a battery can deliver during single discharge until its
terminal voltage falls to 1.8 V/cell is called the capacity of a battery. The capacity of cell is,
therefore, expressed in ampere-hours (A-H) and is equal to the product of the specific discharge
current in amperes multiplied by the number of hours before the cell discharges to the specific
extent
If 𝑰𝒅=Discharging Current in Ampere and
𝑻𝒅=Discharging Time of cell or battery in hours
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐼𝑑𝑇𝑑

Efficiency: The efficiency of the cell can be given in two ways

Quantity or A-H efficiency: The ratio of output ampere-hour during discharging to the input
ampere-hour during charging of the battery is called quantity or ampere-efficiency of the battery.
Mathematically,

Id Td
𝜂AH =
Ic Tc
Where Id = discharging current in ampere;
Td = discharging time in hour
I c = charging current in ampere
Tc = charging time in hour.
Energy or W-H efficiency: The ratio of output watt-hour during discharging to the input watt-
hour during charging of the battery is called energy or watt-hour efficiency of the battery.
Mathematically,

Vd Id Td
𝜂AH = Vc Ic Tc

Where Vc= charging voltage

Vd= discharging voltage
Id = discharging current in ampere;
Td = discharging time in hour
I c = charging current in ampere
Tc = charging time in hour.
Elementary calculations for energy consumption and savings:

Electrical energy is supplied to a consumer by the supplier. To charge the electrical energy consumed by a
consumer, an energy meter is installed to its quantity. The unit of these energy meter is considered as killo-
watt hour (kWh). The reading of the energy meter is taken every month. The difference between the fresh
reading and the previous reading tell about the consumption of electrical energy in that month.