PHYSICAL

SCIENCE
Formation of Elements
Found in the Universe
The Universe and the Solar
System
•With regards to the formation of
the universe, science already
has an existing theory for that.
BIG BANG THEORY

Big bang theory explains the origin of

the universe from an expansion
which hurled matter and space
approximately 15 billion years ago.
Formation of the Early Earth
•The Earth was
created 4.6 billion
years ago from the
accretion of cold
nebular clouds after
our Sun.
The expanding of the
balloon in the
activity is a model of
an expanding
universe.
After the big bang the
universe started to expand
and continues to expand since
then.
Edwin Hubble

•In 1929,
astronomers
Edwin Hubble
proved that the
“nebulae” were
distant galaxies.
• Hubble deduced that galaxies
have been moving away from
one another since the big bang.
• This shows that the universe is
expanding.
GEORGE GAMOW

• Big Bang of Gamow

Evidences supporting the big bang theory of

Gamow
1. Measurements showed that the universe is
expanding and that galaxies are moving away
from one another.
2. A cosmic background radiation was detected.
3. Primordial helium was discovered.
Formation of Heavier
Elements in the
Evolution of the
Universe
Periodic table of
elements
•Is a table that shows the
names and symbols of the
chemical elements that are
universally accepted.
Periodic
Table of
Elements
Si Sisa Pumasok Sa Pinto
Si Dani Pumasok Sa Dilim
Paano Si Fe Dani
Paano Si Fe Dani
Paano Fe Dani Fe
•So far, 118 elements
have been discovered
by scientist.
•94= occur naturally
on Earth
•24= are produced
artificially through
nuclear processes.
Activity:
Make a list of the first 20
elements, their respective
symbols, atomic number
and properties.
 Drill no.1
Elements
Symbol Name Atomic no. (Z) Atomic mass
(A)
1. Al
2. C
3. F
4. Mg
5. N
6. Li
7. K
8. B
9. S
10. Na
Drill no.1
Elements
Symbol Name Atomic no. (Z) Atomic mass
(A)
1. Al 13 27
2. Ca 20 40
3. F 9 19
4. Mg 12 24
5. N 7 14
6. Li 3 7
7. K 19 39
8. B 5 11
9. S 16 32
10. Na 11 23
Drill no.1
Elements
Symbol Name Atomic no. (Z) Atomic mass
(A)
1. Al Aluminum 13 27
2. Ca Calcium 20 40
3. F Fluorine 9 19
4. Mg Magnesium 12 24
5. N Nitrogen 7 14
6. Li Lithium 3 7
7. K Potassium 19 39
8. B Boron 5 11
9. S Sulfur 16 32
10. Na Sodium 11 23
 Drill no.2
Elements
Symbol Name Atomic no. (Z)

1. Scandium
2. V
3. 26
4. Cu
5. Co
6. 37
7. K
8. P
9. Si
10. Y
 Drill no.2
Elements
Symbol Name Atomic no. (Z)

1. Sc Scandium 21
2. V Vanadium 23
3. Fe Iron 26
4. Cu Copper 29
5. Co Cobalt 27
6. Rb Rubidium 37
7. K Potassium 19
8. P Phosphorus 15
9. Si Silicon 14
10. Y Yttrium 39
The idea of the
Atom
 Models of the Atom

a Historical Perspective
Early Greek Philosophers Theories

• Thales- thought that all matter was

made of water.

• Anaximenes - thought that all

matter was made of air.

• Heraclitus - thought that all

matter was made of fire.
Early Greek Philosophers Theories
• 350 B.C - Aristotle modified an
earlier theory that matter was made of
four “elements”
fire

Aristotle earth air

water

• Aristotle was wrong. However,

his theory persisted for 2000
years.
Early Greek Theories

• 400 B.C. – Democritus and Leucippus thought all matter are

composed of very small bits of matter that cannot be
subdivided

Democritus

Atomos
=
atom
Alchemy
•A pseudoscience
•Some alchemists
were mystics and
some were serious
scientists
•Discovered several
elements
John Dalton
• 1800 –Dalton put together many observations
and results of several experiments and
formulated the “ Atomic Theory”.
• All matter is made of atoms.
• Atoms of an element are
identical/alike.
• Atoms are rearranged in reactions.
• Atoms of different elements combine
in constant ratios to form compounds
John Dalton
• All matter is made of atoms.
• Atoms of an element are identical.
• Atoms of different elements combine
in constant ratios to form compounds.
• Atoms are rearranged in reactions.

• His ideas account for the law of conservation of

mass (atoms are neither created nor destroyed)
and the law of constant composition (elements
combine in fixed ratios)..
John Dalton

1. Unique behavior of each element

“All element in the periodic table

is unique”.
John Dalton
2. Definite composition of compounds

“ Also called law of definite

proportion”.

2. Conservation of mass

“ No atom is created nor

destroyed.
Self-Check
Identify which law governs the following observations:

A can of sardines that weighs about 100

grams expands when it becomes spoiled
due to the production of gases by
microorganisms. When the mass of
spoiled can of sardines is measured, it is
still 100 grams.
Self-Check
Identify which law governs the following observations:

The water vapor produced when

seawater and tap water are boiled have
identical properties and both contain two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
per molecule.
 Models of the Atom
The subatomic particles
Billiard ball model: John Dalton:

1) Dalton’s “Billiard ball” model (1800-1900)

Atoms are solid and indivisible.
Adding Electrons to the Model: Sir Joseph John Thomson

Thomson noted that these negative

subatomic particles (electron) were a
fundamental part of all atoms.

2) Thomson “Raisin bread” model (1900)

Negatively charged particles found in all
atom.
Nuclear model :Ernest Rutherford

Thought that atom as

submicroscopic system “ solar
system” in electrons orbited the
nucleus.
3) The nuclear model of the atom
(around 1910)
Atoms are mostly empty space.
Negative electrons orbit a positive
nucleus.
Planetary model:
Neils Bohr

•He proposed that the

electrons move in orbits.
Atomic Spectra

One view of atomic structure in early 20th century was that an electron (e-)
traveled about the nucleus in an orbit.
Atomic Spectra and Bohr

Bohr said classical view is wrong.

Need a new theory — now called
QUANTUM or WAVE MECHANICS.
e- can only exist in certain discrete orbits
e- is restricted to QUANTIZED energy state
(quanta = bundles of energy)
A more accurate model was
developed through the
studies of three physicists:

1. Louie de Broglie
2. Erwin Schrodinger
3. Werner Karl Heisenberg
 Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle

Problem of defining nature

of electrons in atoms
solved by W. Heisenberg.
We define e- energy
exactly but accept
W. Heisenberg
1901-1976
limitation that we do not
know exact position.
Wave model
Atomic Model
1) Dalton’s “Billiard ball” model.

2) Thomson “Raisin bread” model

3) The nuclear model of the atom

4.) Planetary model

Discovery of Proton:
Eugene Goldstein

•The fundamental positively

charged particle in an atom
as called proton.
Discovery of Neutron:
Sir James Chadwick

•Also found in the

nucleus.
•Neutral ( no charge)
Atomic numbers, Mass numbers
• There are 3 types of subatomic particles. We already know about electrons (e–)
& protons (p+). Neutrons (n0) were also shown to exist (1930s).
• They have: no charge, a mass similar to protons
• Elements are often symbolized with their mass number and atomic number

16
E.g. Oxygen: 8 O
• These values are given on the periodic table.
• For now, round the mass # to a whole number.
• These numbers tell you a lot about atoms.
# of protons = # of electrons = atomic number
# of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
• Calculate # of e–, n0, p+ for Ca, Ar, and Br.
 Atomic Mass p+ n0 e–
Ca 20 40 20 20 20
Ar 18 40 18 22 18
Br 35 80 35 45 35
Ions
• The atomic number, or the number of protons,
distinguishes one element from others.

• On the other hand, the number of electrons of

an atom may change resulting in the formation
of an ion.
• Depending on the number of e-
» positive ion ( fewer e- than p+ )
» negative ion ( more e- than p+ )
 Atomic Mass
p+ n0 e–
no. no.
Al 3+ 13 27 13 14 10
K 1+ 19 39 19 20 18
O 2- 8 16 8 8 10
Important Features of the Periodic Table:
Period (Row)
• each horizontal row of elements on the periodic table
1 18
1 2
1 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He
1.008 4.003

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
10.811 12.001 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
6.941 9.012

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar How many
periods
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948

4 19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr (rows)
are on the
44.956 54.938
39.098 40.078 47.87 50.942 51.996 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80

5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Periodic
44
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Table
85.468 87.62
88.906
91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.4 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29
101.07

6 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Of
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327 174.967
178.49 180.95 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.967 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.980 (209) (210) (222) Elements?
7 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub
(285)
Uut Uuq Uup Uuh
(292)
Uus Uuo
(262) (284) (289) (288)
(261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (269) (272)
(223) (226)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
144.24 150.36 168.934
138.906 140.116 140.908 (145) 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 173.04

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
(237) (243) (247) (257) (258) (259)
(227) 232.038 231.036 238.029 (244) (247) (251) (252)

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT OR RIGHT TO LEFT

Important Features of the Periodic
Table: Group (Family)
•each column of elements on the periodic table
1 How many groups 18
1 (families) 2
1 H 2 are on the 13 14 15 16 17 He
1.008 4.003

3 4 Periodic Table 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Of Elements? B C N O F Ne
10.811 12.001 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
6.941 9.012

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948

4 19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
44.956 54.938
39.098 40.078 47.87 50.942 51.996 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80

5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62
88.906
91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.4 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29
101.07

6 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327 174.967 180.95 186.207 192.217 195.078 196.967 204.383 208.980
178.49 183.84 190.23 200.59 207.2 (209) (210) (222)

7 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub
(285)
Uut Uuq Uup Uuh
(292)
Uus Uuo
(262) (284) (289) (288)
(261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (269) (272)
(223) (226)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
144.24 150.36 168.934
138.906 140.116 140.908 (145) 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 173.04

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
(237) (243) (247) (257) (258) (259)
(227) 232.038 231.036 238.029 (244) (247) (251) (252)

FROM TOP TO BOTTOM OR BOTTOM TO THE TOP

Group (Family) Properties
•Eighteen groups on the
periodic table (numbered from
left to right)

•Atomic numbers and atomic

masses increase as you move
from the top down in a group
(family)
Group (Family) Properties

•Atoms of elements in the same group

have the same number of electrons in
the outer orbitals/levels of their
atoms (known as valence electrons)
• Exceptions:
• Transition elements (3-12)
• Hydrogen (could be 1 or 17)
• Helium (actually has 2 valence electrons)
•Elements in groups usually have
similar physical and chemical
properties
Group (Family) Names
Alkali
Alkaline Noble
MetalsEarth Boron Nitrogen
Carbon Oxygen Gases
GroupGroupGroupGroup
Halogens
Metals

1 Transition Metals 18
1 2
1 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He
1.008 4.003

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
10.811 12.001 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
6.941 9.012

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948

4 19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
44.956 54.938
39.098 40.078 47.87 50.942 51.996 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80

5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62
88.906
91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.4 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29
101.07

6 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327 174.967 180.95 186.207 192.217 195.078 196.967 204.383 208.980
178.49 183.84 190.23 200.59 207.2 (209) (210) (222)

7 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub
(285)
Uut Uuq Uup Uuh
(292)
Uus Uuo
(262) (284) (289) (288)
(261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (269) (272)
(223) (226)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
144.24 150.36 168.934
138.906 140.116 140.908 (145) 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 173.04

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
(237) (243) (247) (257) (258) (259)
(227) 232.038 231.036 238.029 (244) (247) (251) (252)
3 Classes of Elements

1 Using this
Classas a guide,
Color color 18
1 code your periodic table to
Metal
2
1 H 2 show the three classes. Start
Non-Metal 13 14 15 16 17 He
1.008 4.003

3 4 by highlighting
Metalloid
the “zig-zag.” 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
10.811 12.001 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
6.941 9.012

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948

4 19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
44.956 54.938
39.098 40.078 47.87 50.942 51.996 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80

5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62
88.906
91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.4 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29
101.07

6 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327 174.967 180.95 186.207 192.217 195.078 196.967 204.383 208.980
178.49 183.84 190.23 200.59 207.2 (209) (210) (222)

7 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub
(285)
Uut Uuq Uup Uuh
(292)
Uus Uuo
(262) (284) (289) (288)
(261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (269) (272)
(223) (226)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
144.24 150.36 168.934
138.906 140.116 140.908 (145) 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 173.04

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
(237) (243) (247) (257) (258) (259)
(227) 232.038 231.036 238.029 (244) (247) (251) (252)
Metals

Location
• Found on the left of the 79
Au
zigzag line/staircase on 196.967

the periodic table

(exception → Hydrogen)
Chemical Properties
• Have few electrons in
their outer energy level, 11

thus lose electrons easily Na

22.990

Physical Properties
• ductile, good conductors,
malleable, shiny, most are Image taken from:
http://chemistry.about.com/od/periodictableelements/ig/E
solid @ room lement-Photo-Gallery.--98/Sodium.htm

temperature
What
@ room
metal
temperature?
is not a solid

What metal is not a solid

@ room temperature?
Atoms with Few Electrons in
their Outer Energy Level
11

-
Notice: only 1 Na
electron in outer
22.990

level
+ -
-
+ + -
- -
+
- -

+++
-
++ +
-
+ + -
4
++ +
Be
9.012 Notice: only
2 electrons -

in outer level - -
-
Non-Metals
Location
• Most found to the right of
the zigzag line/staircase on
the periodic table 17
Cl

Chemical Properties
35.453

• Most have almost full outer

energy levels, thus they tend
to gain electrons; some have Image taken from:
completely full outer level http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptable/cl.htm

Physical Properties
• not ductile or malleable, not
shiny, poor conductors, most
16
S
are solid, but some are gas
32.066

at room temperature Image taken from:

https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndgs/rockandmineral/sulfur.asp
Atoms with Full or Almost Full
Outer Energy Level
8

- - O
Notice: 2
15.999 -

electrons in
-
+
outer level – + -
++ +
- + + + - FULL
+ +
- 2
-
He
- 4.003
- - -

-
Notice: 6
electrons in +++
outer level – + + +
Notice: 7
-

almost full
++ +
electrons in
- outer level –
9 - -
almost full
F
18.998
-
Metalloids

Location
• Border the zigzag
line/staircase on the 14

periodic table Si
28.086

Chemical Properties
• Most atoms have ½ (≈) Image taken from:
complete set of electrons http://library.thinkquest.org/C0113863/bios.shtml

in outer level
Physical Properties
• have properties of both
metals and non-metals
5
B
10.811

Image taken from:

http://library.thinkquest.org/C0113863/bios.shtml
Polar and Non Polar Molecules

Molecules of compounds
are formed by chemical
bonds.
 Polar Covalent Bond

• A Polar Covalent Bond is unequal sharing

of electrons between two atoms (H-Cl)
• In a polar covalent bond, one atom
typically has a negative charge, and the
other atom has a positive charge
 Nonpolar Covalent Bond

• A Nonpolar Covalent Bond is an equal sharing of

electron as between two atoms (Cl-Cl, N-N, O-O)
 Classification of Bonds
You can determine the type of bond between two atoms by calculating the
difference in electronegativity values between the elements.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to draw shared electrons toward itself.
The bigger the electronegativity difference the more polar the bond.

Type of Bond Electronegativity Difference

Nonpolar Covalent 0 → 0.4

Polar Covalent 0.5 → 1.9

Ionic 2.0 → 4.0
 Practice
What type of bond is HCl? (H = 2.1, Cl = 3.1)

Difference = 3.1 – 2.1 = 1.0

Therefore it is polar covalent bond.

Your Turn To Practice

⚫ N(3.0) and H(2.1) ⚫Mg(1.2) and O(3.5)
⚫ H(2.1) and H(2.1) ⚫ H(2.1) and F(4.0)
⚫ Ca(1.0) and Cl(3.0)
Naming Ionic Compounds
(Metals with Non-metals)

The names of ionic compounds are written by

listing the name of the positive ion followed by
the name of the negative ion.
Naming Ionic Compunds

Negative ions that consist of a single atom

are named by adding the suffix -ide to the
stem of the name of the element.

F- fluoride O- oxide
Cl- chloride S- sulfide
Br- bromide N- nitride
I- iodide P- phosphide
H- hydride C- carbide
 Practice
Name the following ionic compounds:

• NaO

• CsBr

• K2S
Naming Covalent Compounds
(Non-metals with Non-metals)

The names of covalent compounds

are written by using prefixes.
Prefixes-stand for the amount of atoms
present

•1-- mono • 6-- hexa

•2-- di
• 7-- hepta
•3-- tri
• 8-- octa
•4-- tetra
•5-- penta • 9-- nona
• 10-- deca
2 Steps to Naming Covalent Compounds

•Name the •Examples:

first non- CO2
metal. Carbon
2 Steps to Naming Covalent Compounds

•Name the
second
non-metal using •Examples:
the correct CO2
prefix and an
-ide ending Carbon
Dioxide
You try . . .

Cl2O
You try . . .

Cl2O
Dichlorine
monoxide
CO Carbon Monoxide
PCl3 Phosphorus
Trichloride
CI4 Carbon
Tetraiodide
Name the following covalent compounds:
1. H2O
2. NH3
3. SO2
4. CO
5. N2O4
6. SO3
7. P2O5
8. OF2
9. BF6
10.BI3
Name and draw Lewis diagram of the
following compounds:

1. H2O
2. NH3
3. H2Se
4. CS2
5. KCl
Drawing Lewis Structures
Writing Lewis Dot Structures
 Lewis Dot Structures

•Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots

to represent valence electrons around
an atomic symbol.
Know how to determine the valence
electron for all elements.

Example:
H has 1 valence electron
F has 8 valence electrons
Carbon has 4 valence electrons
 PRACTICE:
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for
each element?

•Ca
•O
•P
•Cl
•S
•Be
 What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for
each element?

1. Rb
2. Mg
3. Kr
4. As
5. Al
6. Sn
7. Br
Drawing Lewis Diagrams for Compounds

Step 1 Draw each element separately, showing the

valence electrons.
Step 2 Choose the least occurring atom as the
central atom (or the least electronegative). Except
hydrogens or Oxygens.

Find the central atom for the

following:
1) H2O a) H b) O
2) PCl3 a) P b) Cl
Drawing Lewis Diagrams for Compounds

Step 3 Add next frequently occurring atoms

around the central atom keeping symmetry
in mind.
Step 4 Add all the electrons
Step 5 Never leave an unpaired electron
Step 6 Circle your 8’s starting with the
central atom
Name then draw the Lewis diagram of
the following compounds:

1. H2O
2. CO2
3. PCl3
4. CS2
5. KCl
Name then draw the Lewis diagram of
the following compounds:

1. SO2
2. NH3
3. H2Se
4. HF
5. CH4
Formation of Cations

• A positively charged ion

Na → Na+ + e-
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
 Formation of Anions

• Negatively charged particles

Cl + 1e- → Cl -
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each
ion?

• Ca2+
• O2−
Solution
•Having lost its two original valence
electrons, the Lewis electron dot diagram is
just Ca2+.
Ca2+
•The O2− ion has gained two electrons in its
valence shell, so its Lewis electron dot
diagram is as follows:
 SUMMARY

•Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots

to represent valence electrons around
an atomic symbol.
•Lewis electron dot diagrams for ions
have less (for cations) or more (for
anions) dots than the corresponding
atom.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each

element.
• bromine
• gallium
2. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each ion.
• Mg2+
• S2−
Lewis Structures: Examples
• Example

• a) CH2ClF b) SO2
Cl
H C F O S O

• c) H SO42- d) H3PO4

O O
O S O H O P O H
O O
H
Molecular Geometry
 Molecular Geometry

•Geometry of a molecule influences the physical,

chemical, and biological properties of a
substance.
 Molecular Geometry

A. AB2 molecules which are

either linear or bent.
 Molecular Geometry

A. AB3 molecules which can be trigonal

planar, T-shaped, or trigonal pyramid.
Molecular Geometry
(Activity)
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
Model 6
3
7
Why is this needle floating?
adultpurple
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
The physical properties of melting point,
boiling point, vapor pressure, evaporation,
viscosity, surface tension, and solubility are
related to the strength of attractive forces
between molecules.

These attractive forces are called

Intermolecular Forces. The amount of "stick
togetherness" is important in the interpretation
of the various properties listed above.
3
9

Intermolecular Forces:
(inter = between) between molecules
and the temperature (kinetic energy) of the molecules.

What determines if a
substance is a solid,
liquid, or gas?
4
0
4
1
Phase changes:

solid  liquid (melting  freezing)

liquid  gas (vaporizing  condensing)

solid  gas (sublimation  deposition)

4
2
Gases: The average kinetic energy of the
gas molecules is much larger than the
average energy of the attractions between
them.
Liquids: the intermolecular attractive forces
are strong enough to hold the molecules
close together, but without much order.

Solids: the intermolecular attractive forces are

strong enough to lock molecules in place (high
order).
Are they temperature
dependent?
4
3
The strengths of intermolecular forces
are generally weaker than either ionic
or covalent bonds.
IONIC FORCES

•The forces holding ions together in ionic

solids are electrostatic forces. Opposite
charges attract each other.
•These are the strongest intermolecular
forces. Ionic forces hold many ions in a
crystal lattice structure.
A small representative bit of a sodium chloride lattice
exploded version of a sodium chloride lattice
NaCl(s)
4
8
Types of intermolecular forces
(between neutral molecules):

• dispersion forces,
• dipole-dipole interactions,
• hydrogen bonds,
• Ion-dipole interaction
Dipole - Dipole Interactions
Forces that act between polar molecules.
 Hydrogen Bonding
Occurs only between molecules that contain
hydrogen.
5
1 Hydrogen bonding is a weak to moderate
attractive force that exists between a hydrogen
atom covalently bonded to a very small and
highly electronegative atom and a lone pair of
electrons on another small, electronegative
atom (F, O, or N).
5
2
 Dispersion Forces

• - attractive forces between gases like oxygen

and nitrogen which can be liquefied under
correct conditions of pressure and
temperature.
 Ion - Dipole Interactions

Polar molecules can interact with ions

 ACTIVITY:

•Show the uses of some common

materials used in our daily life
depend on their properties.

( Refer to Lesson 3.3 page 44)

ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
 Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds: Compounds that contain
carbon and make up living organisms

Carbon is the backbone of life!!!

 Three Types Of Carbon Molecules
1. Straight Chain:

2. Ring:

3. Branched Chain:
 Macromolecule
Large molecules that make up living things. They are
large chains of smaller molecules. It means “giant
molecule”.

http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:55aWKrNBBIHHfM:http://chsweb.lr.k12.nj.us/mstanley/outlines/organicAP/glucose.gif
 Monomers
All macro organic molecules are made up of
smaller subunits called monomers. This is just
the base unit that repeats over and again. The
monomers can be identical or different.
 Polymers
Organic macromolecules are made up of
repeating monomers.These chains of monomers
are called polymers.
4 Groups of Biological Macromolecules
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids
4. Nucleic Acids
 Carbohydrates
*Carbohydrates are composed of C, H, and O.
*Ratio: 1C:2H:1O
*Function:
1. Main source of energy.
2. Plants and some animals use it for
structural purposes.

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

glucose
Carbon Oxygen
Water
dioxide
 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of monomers called
monosaccharides.
Examples of monosaccrharides:
1.glucose: plant produce during photosynthesis
2.Galactose: found in milk and diary
3.Fructose: sugar in many fruits

GLUCOSE!
Fructose
 Carbohydrates
Two monomers of monosaccharides together are
called disaccharides. Maltose is a examples of a
disaccharide.
MALTOSE
 Carbohydrates
A polysaccharide is a long chain of monosacchrides
Joined together.
Examples of polysacchrides:
1.glycogen:stored energy
2.Starch: plant stored energy
3.Cellulose: cell walls

STARCH!!!
 Lipids
DEFINE: Large groups of organic compounds
not soluble in water.
Mostly made up of C and H with very little O.
Functions:
1.Store energy for long term.
2.Waterproof covering
come from the word
“lipos” which means
“greasy”
Non-polar in nature or
insoluble in water.
 4 main categories of Lipids
1. Fats
2. Oils
3. Waxes
4. steroids FAT!!!
 Lipids
Saturated vs. Unsaturated
Saturated means that all the carbon bonds are taken.
They are solid at room temperature and bad for you.
Unsaturated means that there is at least one double
bond with the carbon. They are liquid at room temp.
and are better for you.
 Lipids
All lipids are not soluble in water. That is why
they are placed together.
Trans fat

• Unsaturated fats with straight chains.

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

 Proteins
Macromolecules that contain N, C, O and H.
Functions:
1.Rate of cell processes.
2.Cellular structures
3.Controls substances in and out of cell.
4.Fight disease.
The name comes from
the Greek word
“proteios” meaning “to
take first”.
proteins in the human diet

Valine
proteins in the human diet
proteins in the human diet

Histidine
proteins in the human diet

Isoleucine
 Other Examples of Proteins
1. Hemoglobin in blood
2. Collagen
3. Enzymes
4. insulin
Protein Deficiency and
Dietary Imbalance

• fatigue
• insulin resistance
• hair loss
• loss of hair pigment
• loss of muscle mass
• low body temperature
• hormonal irregularities
• loss of skin elasticity
• Kwashiorkor
Excessive Protein Intake

•Liver dysfunction
•Loss of bone density
 Proteins and Amino acid formation
Proteins are made up of monomers of amino
acids help together by peptide bonds.
3 parts of an amino acid:
1.Amino group
2.Carboxyl group
3.R group
The R – Group(functional group)
Functional Groups
• Most of the useful behavior of organic
compounds comes from functional groups
attached to the carbons. A functional group is a
special cluster of atoms that performs a useful
function.
 Nucleic acid

Any of various macromolecules composed of

nucleotide chains that are vital constituents
of all living cells.
 Nucleic acids
Macromolecules containing H, N, C, O and P.
Made up of monomers of nucleotides.
 Nucleotides
3 parts of a nucleotide
1.Phosphate
2.Deoxyribose sugar
3.Nitrogen base
 Function of a Nucleic Acids
1. Carry genetic material
2. Carries codes to make proteins
 2 Examples of Nucleic Acids
1. RNA – ribosenucleic acids
2. DNA – deoxyribosenucleic acid
 Function of DNA
1. Carry codes to make proteins.
2. Carry genetics code(genes).
 Function of RNA

1. Function of RNA is to make proteins

from the code DNA carries.
Chemical Changes
Rate of Reactions
 Learning Outcomes
• I can explain what ‘reaction rate’ means andhow to
measure the rate of reaction
• I can explain how reactions happen due to collisions
between particles
• I can explain how surface area, concentration and
temperature affect the reaction rate using collision theory
Rate of Reaction

the speed at which a chemical reaction occurs.

Some reactions are quick Some are not

The rate of a reaction can be altered

Collision Theory

“For a reaction between two particles

to occur, the particles must collide and
the collision must be effective”
Collision Theory

“The greater the frequency

of collisions, the higher the
rate of reaction.”
 Effective Collisions
•When the particles collide with enough kinetic
energy and the correct orientation to break the
bonds between particles so new bonds can
form.

Collisions can occur and yet result in no

reaction if there is insufficient energy
or incorrect orientation.
In order for particles to react,
1. They must collide
2. They must collide in the correct orientation to
form the activated complex
How do reactions occur?

Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain amount of

energy.

Not enough energy – no reaction

How do reactions occur?

Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain amount of

energy.

Incorrect orientation – no reaction

How do reactions occur?

Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain amount of

energy.

Enough energy and correct orientation –

reaction!
Activation Energy

•The minimum amount of energy needed for

the particles to react is called the activation
energy, and is different for each reaction.

•If particles collide with less energy than the

activation energy, they will not react.
Collisions and Rate

To change the rate of reaction we can:

• Change the concentration of reactants

• Change the temperature of the reaction
• Change the surface area of reactants
• Use a catalyst
Concentration
•Increasing the concentration of a reactant
increases the number of particles per
volume .
 Surface Area
•Increasing the surface area of a reactant
increases the number of particles available to
react.
 Temperature
• Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the kinetic energy of
the particles.
Physical and Chemical
Changes
What is a Physical Change?

• A physical change alters the form of a substance,

but does not change it to another substance.

Example:
Making Orange Juice
What is a Chemical Change?

•When a substance undergoes a chemical

change, it is changed into a different
substance with different properties.

Example:
Baking a
Cake
 5 Signs of a Chemical Change

1. Color Change
2. Precipitation
Precipitation
•Precipitation – the solid that forms from
a solution during a chemical reaction.

•It looks like a cloudy solid in an

otherwise clear solution.
 5 Signs of a Chemical Change

3. Gas Production
4. Temperature Change
5 Signs of a Chemical Change

5. Changes in Characteristic Properties (odor, light

given off)
 Signs of Chemical Reactions
There are five main signs that indicate a chemical reaction has taken place:

release
input
change in color change in odor production of new input or release difficult to reverse
gases or vapor of energy
 Chemical or Physical Change?

•Cutting paper?
•Physical
 Chemical or Physical Change?

•Ice melting?
•Physical
 Chemical or Physical Change?

•Toast burning?
•Chemical
 Chemical or Physical Change?

• Rocket fuel burning?

• Chemical
 Chemical or Physical Change?

•Sawing wood?
•Physical
 Chemical or Physical Change?

•Metal rusting?
•Chemical
What is a chemical equation?

• Chemical equation - Describes a chemical change.

• Parts of an equation:

Reactant Product

2Ag + H2S Ag2S + H2

Reaction symbol
Subscripts and Coefficients

•Subscript - shows how many atoms of an

element are in a molecule.
• EX: H2O
• 2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
• 1 atom of oxygen (O)
•Coefficient - shows how many molecules there
are of a particular chemical.
• EX: 3 H2O
• Means there are 3 water molecules.
A Chemical Reaction

•2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Characteristics of Chemical Equations

•The equation must represent known facts.

•The equation must contain the correct

formulas for the reactants and products.

•The law of conservation of mass must be

satisfied.
Additional Symbols Used in Chemical Equations

“Yields”; indicates result of reaction

Used to indicate a reversible reaction

A reactant or product in the solid state;

also used to indicate a precipitate
(s)
Alternative to (s), but used only to indicate a precipitate

A reactant or product in the liquid state

(l) A reactant or product in an aqueous solution

(dissolved in water)
A reactant or product in the gaseous state
(aq)

(g)
Showing Phases in
Chemical Equations

H2O(s) H2O(l) H2O(g)

Solid Phase – the substance is relatively rigid and has a definite volume
and shape. NaCl(s)

Liquid Phase – the substance has a definite volume, but is able to change
shape by flowing. H2O(l)

Gaseous Phase – the substance has no definite volume or shape, and it

shows little response to gravity. Cl2(g)
 Reactants → Products

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

carbon oxygen carbon dioxide

Reactants Product
1 carbon atom 1 carbon atom
2 oxygen atoms 2 oxygen atoms
Balancing Chemical Equations

•Write the correct formulas for all reactants

and products.

•Determine the coefficients that make the

equation balance.
 An Unbalanced Equation

• CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

1 carbon 1 carbon
atom atom
4 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
atoms atoms
 A Balanced Equation
⚫ CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

1 carbon 1 carbon
atom atom
4 hydrogen 4 hydrogen
atoms atoms
Unbalanced and Balanced Equations

Cl Cl H H
Cl H
H Cl Cl Cl
Cl
H
H

H2 + Cl2 → HCl (unbalanced) H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl (balanced)

reactants products reactants products

H 2 1 H 2 2
Cl 2 1 Cl 2 2
 Balancing Chemical Equations

Balanced Equation – one in which the number

of atoms of each element as a reactant is
equal to the number of atoms of that element
as a product.

Determine whether the following equation is balanced.

2 Na + H2O → 2 NaOH + H2
Answer:
2 Na + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2