PRECISION PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS AN–104

FOR AIR DATA MEASUREMENTS

Larry Bashaw and Peter Nussbaum

This technical note briefly describes the fundamentals of

utilizing pressure measurements for aircraft air data
instrumentation, and the factors to be considered when
selecting a pressure transducer for these applications.

Modern air data instruments and modules provide primary

or backup capability to measure a number of critical part of the device deliberately exposed to an outside
parameters for aircraft flight and navigation. These include environment manifesting large temperature extremes,
altitude, airspeed, Mach number, rate of vertical change, humidity variations, ice, various aircraft fluids, dirt, and
ground speed, and air density, the latter important for other factors not conducive to high precision operation. The
determining take-off loads. The two fundamental pressure pressure transducer must operate accurately and reliably
measurements required to provide these parameters are in these conditions, and yet be reasonably priced to allow
static (barometric) air pressure, and the air pressure induced the product to be competitive in the marketplace; the
by the movement of the aircraft through the air, called pitot transducer is invariably the most expensive single
pressure . These measurements are coupled with component in the instrument and so is a major factor in
temperature readings and correction factors in air data determining manufacturing cost. Identifying a pressure
computers, which use algorithms of varying complexity and transducer which offers the necessary combination of
look-up tables to compute the parameters of interest. accuracy and reliability at an attractive price is a key task for
the designer. Honeywell’s Precision Pressure Transducer
Computing power is generally not an issue for air data (PPT) provides a powerful solution for air data applications,
instruments. Inexpensive but powerful silicon offering a high-value combination of accuracy, stability/
microprocessors and memory chips are readily available reliability and digital output at a very competitive price.
and provide key building blocks for high performance
designs. Rather, the challenge to the air data designer in Using Pressure Measurements for Air Data Parameters
the signal processing area may be to achieve systems
rugged enough to survive the spectrum of radiated and Altitude
conducted electromagnetic emissions encountered in It is commonly known that atmospheric pressure, the force
service. For instance, a lightning strike to an aircraft’s per unit area of the air in the Earth’s atmosphere, decreases
electrical system can induce a spike of many hundreds of monotonically with distance above the surface. The
kilovolts, which the air data instrument must survive. relationship of height above (or below) sea level to air
pressure is determined by the equation:
The largest challenge in the overall air data instrument
design, however, may be the selection of an accurate and d (loge p) = - (gWM /RT) dZ (1)
reliable pressure transducer. The transducer must be
capable of providing stable, highly-accurate measurements, in which p is free-stream static pressure, g is the acceleration
with high resolution, for long periods of time, with a primary due to gravity, WM is the molecular weight of air, R is the

Solid State Electronics Center • 12001 State Highway 55, Plymouth, MN 55441 • (800) 323-8295 • http://www.ssec.honeywell.com
AN–104
universal gas constant, T is absolute temperature, and Z is variant of an aircraft by the manufacturer to correct for these
the geometric height above sea level. Tables of US Standard plumbing-related errors.
Atmosphere, published in The Handbook of Physics and
Chemistry and in U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (2), Temperature must also be measured to accurately convert
provide full tabulations of pressure versus altitude which a static pressure reading to an altitude. This is performed
the air data designer can load into the memory of the by a total temperature probe, the measurement from which
instrument. These take into consideration the variation of also must be corrected for effects caused by the movement
the acceleration due to gravity, and tabulate “geopotential of the aircraft.
altitude”, H. This can differ significantly from the geometric
altitude. For example, at 16km, the difference between the Airspeed
geometric and geopotential altitude is 40m. An excerpt As with altitude, measuring air speed with a pressure
from an altitude/pressure table is shown in Table 1. transducer is conceptually straightforward. Bernoulli’s
formula for total pressure in a compressible flow gives us
Since barometric pressure varies locally as a function of a relationship between airspeed and “impact pressure” for
weather conditions, several altitude measurements are subsonic speeds,
defined from the static pressure reading. Pressure altitude q = p {(1 + ((γ - 1)/2γ)(ρ/p)V2) exp (γ/γ-1) - 1}
is the altitude referenced to a standard sea level pressure c

of 29.92 inHg. Pressure altitude baro-corrected, also called and for supersonic speeds
baro altitude, is referenced to the local barometric pressure.
q = ((1+γ)/2) (V/a )2 p (γ + 1)2 exp (1/γ-1) - p
Conceptually simple, the conversion of static air pressure to c
4γ - 2(γ - 1)(a/v) 2
altitude entails some real-world challenges. As the aircraft
moves through the air, errors relative to a still-air measurement In these equations, qc is the impact pressure pt - p, measured
are induced by the port and the “plumbing” in the aircraft by the transducer plumbed to the forward-pointing pitot tube, V
fuselage associated with the accessing the pressure the true airspeed, γ the ratio of specific heat of air at a constant
transducer to the ambient atmosphere. Static Source Error pressure to specific heat at a constant volume, ρ the mass
Correction (SSEC) refers to the factors supplied for each density of ambient air, and “a” the speed of sound in ambient air.

Acceleration Pressure Mean

due to scale Number Particle Collision free Molecular Sound Dynamic Kinematic Thermal
Altitude gravity height density speed frequency path weight Temperature Pressure Density speed viscosity viscosity conductivity
µ η
Z(m) H(m) g(m/s2) Hp(m) n(m-3) V(m/s ν(s-1) L(m) M(kg/kmol) T(K) P(mb) ρ(kg/m3) C(m/s) (N.s/m2) (m3/s) (J/m.s.K)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4500 4497 9.7928 7589.7 1.6156(+25) 435.05 4.1602(+9) 1.0457(-7) 28.964 258.921 5.7752(+2) 7.7704(-1) 322.57 1.6448(-5) 2.1167(-5) 2.3028(-5)
5000 4996 9.7912 7495.7 1.5312(+25) 432.31 3.9180(+9) 1.1034(-7) 28.964 255.676 5.4048(+2) 7.3643(-1) 320.55 1.6282(-5) 2.2110(-5) 2.2765(-5)
5500 5495 9.7897 7401.8 1.4502(+25) 429.56 3.6871(+9) 1.1650(-7) 28.964 252.431 5.0539(+2) 6.9747(-1) 318.50 1.6116(-5) 2.3107(-5) 2.2500(-5)
6000 5994 9.7882 7307.8 1.3725(+25) 426.79 3.4671(+9) 1.2310(-7) 28.964 249.187 4.7217(+2) 6.6011(-1) 316.45 1.5949(-5) 2.4161(-5) 2.2236(-5)
6500 6493 9.7866 7213.8 1.2980(+25) 424.00 3.2577(+9) 1.3016(-7) 28.964 245.943 4.4075(+2) 6.6431(-1) 314.39 1.5781(-5) 2.5278(-5) 2.1970(-5)
7000 6992 9.7851 7119.8 1.2267(+25) 421.20 3.0584(+9) 1.3772(-7) 28.964 242.700 4.1105(+2) 5.9002(-1) 312.31 1.5612(-5) 2.6461(-5) 2.1703(-5)
7500 7491 9.7836 7025.8 1.1585(+25) 418.37 2.8689(+9) 1.4583(-7) 28.964 239.457 3.8299(+2) 5.5719(-1) 310.21 1.5442(-5) 2.7714(-5) 2.1436(-5)
8000 7990 9.7820 6931.7 1.0932(+25) 415.53 2.6888(+9) 1.5454(-7) 28.964 236.215 3.5651(+2) 5.2579(-1) 308.11 1.5271(-5) 2.9044(-5) 2.1168(-5)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 1—Excerpt of altitude versus pressure table from “U.S. Standard Atmosphere.”

I mpa c t P re s s ure q c I n I nc he s of Me rc ury f or V a lue s of Ca libra t e d Airs pe e d V c in Mile s

P e r Hour
Calibrated
Airspeed, Vc, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
mph
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
100 .363029 .370347 .377736 .385239 .392785 .400406 .408111 .415888 .423736 .451639
110 .439637 .447433 .455874 .464097 .472391 .480772 .489213 .497731 .506328 .515008
120 .525742 .532566 .541464 .550443 .559480 .568606 .577797 .587070 .596414 .605837
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .

Table 2—Excerpt of airspeed versus impact pressure, form NASA Technical Note D-822.

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 AN-104
NASA’s Technical Note D-822 provides extensive “Reduced Vertical Separation Measurement” (RVSM). This
tabulations of impact pressure in inches of mercury and will allow higher density of aircraft on well-traveled air
pounds per square foot for values of airspeed in miles per routes, for example, over the North Atlantic between the
hour and knots. A short excerpt from these tables is shown U.S. and Europe. RVSM requirements call for tighter
in Table 2. tolerance bands. For example, at 50,000 ft, the RVSM
tolerance is +/- 50 ft, requiring higher transducer accuracies.
Pressure measurements for airspeed are analogous to
altitude in that several types of measurement are possible, Selection of a pressure transducer which supports the
and error sources must be considered. For example, minimum accuracy standards is, of course, a prerequisite
airspeed indicators are calibrated for standard sea-level for air data instrument design. It is possible to pay several
conditions, and the measured air speed is the true airspeed. thousand dollars for a highly-accurate transducer, however,
Pressure and density vary under other conditions, and a and achieving the necessary accuracy at a reasonable cost
correction factor to yield true air speed from the “calibrated” allows a competitive instrument price.
air speed must be utilized:
Measurement Resolution, Linearity
V = Vc (f/ fo) √ρo/ρ Sufficient resolution to support the absolute accuracy of the
pressure measurement is a basic requirement for the
In this equation, V is true airspeed, Vc is calibrated air speed, transducer. For a transducer offering 0.05% accuracy,
f and fo are compressibility factors at the actual reading point resolution of a factor of ten smaller, 0.005% or better, is the
and sea-level, respectively, and ρ and ρo are mass density of typical “rule of thumb.”
air at the actual reading point and sea-level.
A minimum resolution is also necessary for vertical speed
calculations. SAE AS8002 (3) specifies a 0.003 inHg
Pressure Transducer Selection for Air Data Instruments
threshold for transducers measuring vertical speeds. This
is .0087% of 17 psi full scale transducer.
Selecting a pressure transducer which is suitable for modern
air data instruments requires that the designer consider the Another important consideration for making vertical speed
parametric specifications for the measurements, transducer measurements with digital output is the “localized linearity”
interface to the system, and the suitability of the transducer of the transducer. Linearity specifications typically deal
for the environmental conditions of the aircraft.
Altitude
Accuracy (arbitrary
Error Band Limit
scale)
Air data instruments are used in the full range of aircraft
types; commercial and military, large commercial
transports to small general aviation, experimentals,
Error Band Limit
helicopters, UAVs, and other vehicles. There are also
primary and secondary air data systems. Tabulating the
accuracy specifications for all of these possibilities is = Pressure readings
beyond the scope of this note, but a brief discussion of
some of the requirements is useful.
1.0 2.0 3.0
Time (sec)

The SAE defines a minimum performance standard for Figure 1a—Ideal linear pressure characteristic for vertical speed
primary air data computer accuracy (3), as measured at measurements.
room temperature. At 50,000 ft, the allowable tolerance is
+/-125 ft, which converts to 0.010 psi (0.020 inHg). For a 17
psi full scale transducer, this is 0.059% of full scale. At Altitude Inaccurate vertical speed
extrapolations
(arbitrary
5,000 ft, the allowable tolerance is +/- 25 ft; equivalent scale)

accuracy is 0.012 psi (0.024”Hg), or 0.068% of 17 psi.

Note that the SAE standard specifies the total error allowed
in the altitude measurement. This error budget must be Error Band Limit

divided between the basic transducer accuracy, residual

= Pressure readings
uncorrected SSEC, and signal processing errors, and Error Band Limit

consider the change with time, or drift, of these parameters

(see below, “Long Term Stability”). The ideal air data 1.0 2.0 3.0
Time (sec)
pressure transducer should therefore achieve higher
accuracies than those stated above on the assumption that
Figure 1b—Local nonlinearities cause vertical speed computation
the rest of the system is not error-free. errors even with resolution and absolute accuracy within specification.
An emerging standard for air data instruments is called

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AN–104
with the entire span of the transducer, from lowest pressure guidelines, tests and conditions necessary to demonstrate
to highest pressure. Vertical speed measurements require a satisfactory design. (See “References”) Air data instrument
that short duration changes in altitude produce consistent design test results are submitted to the FAA and approved
pressure reading deltas, since these readings are via a “Technical Standard Order” (TSO), which then enables
continuously averaged and extrapolated to a rate of ascent the manufacturer to sell the product to aircraft makers.
or descent. While a transducer may have a satisfactory
The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA)
overall linearity and be operating well within its error band,
provides two documents related to the design and verification
digitization errors may cause local nonlinearities which
of airborne equipment. Document RTCA 628-95/SC180-047,
result in incorrect extrapolations of vertical speed. This
“Design Assurance Guidance for Airborne Electronic
concept is shown in Figures 1a and 1b. In the Honeywell
Hardware,” describes design guidelines. Document RTCA/
PPT, the digitization algorithm has been specifically tailored
DO-160C, “Environment Conditions and Test Procedures for
to insure that the local linearity is sufficient to support
Airborne Equipment,” defines the test procedures and
vertical speed accuracy requirements.
conditions necessary to demonstrate suitability for the airborne
environment. The list of conditions which must be evaluated,
Long Term Stability
each covered by a section of DO-160C, is extensive:
Stability refers to the change in the accuracy with time.
Typically, long term stability is defined in percent of full
scale drift per year. A low rate of drift can be of equal Temperature and Altitude
importance to small “time zero” errors. While it is extremely Magnetic Effect
unlikely that an unstable transducer could cause a failure, Temperature Variation
since most critical aircraft systems are redundant and Power Input
repeatedly cross-checked, unstable transducers can result Humidity
in excessive maintenance costs, unacceptable periods “on Voltage Spike
the ground”, and increased pilot workload. Shock
Audio Frequency Conducted Susceptibility
When selecting a pressure transducer, it is necessary to
Vibration
assess the effect of the specified accuracy drift per year on the
Induced Signal Susceptibility
overall system performance. It is also desirable to know the
Explosion Proofness
environmental conditions under which that drift was evaluated.
Radio Frequency Susceptibility
Water proofness
Electrical Interface Emission of Radio Frequence Energy
As noted earlier, the availability of high performance, low cost Fluid Susceptibility
microprocessors and memory gives the instrument designer Lightning Induced Transient Susceptibility
the building blocks for a digital air data computer. However, Sand and Dust
the transducer world still deals largely with analog output Lightning Direct Effects
signals, and analog-to-digital conversion is required. A Fungus Resistance
transducer such as the Honeywell PPT with a direct digital Icing
output offers several advantages: Salt Spray
• Accuracy is not lost converting analog to digital signals.
A/D converters have temperature, voltage and other
environmental sensitivities which can degrade signals.
Conclusion
Conversion errors of +/- 0.02% or more are possible,
The following points summarize some of the key messages
even with careful design.
presented in this note:
• A digital output in standard ASCII decimal format simplifies
• Deriving important aircraft navigation and flight parameters
the programming interface to the signal processing
from pressure measurements is conceptually
electronics.
straightforward. As with many design challenges, the
• Some digital output transducers, such as the PPT, allow “devil is in the details.” Careful attention must be paid to
selection of the pressure units for the digital output, e.g., errors caused by the effects of the aircraft moving through
inches of Hg, psi, millibar, etc. This reduces downstream the atmosphere, its physical configuration, and the change
processing for converting the measurement. of key physical parameters with altitude and temperature
such as air density, air compressibility, and gravity.
Environmental Compatibility • The availability of powerful, low cost microprocessors and
Designing an air data instrument to function reliably for memory has eased the task of designing the signal processing
many years is a primary challenge for systems designers. necessary for high performance air data computers.
The Federal Aviation Administration and several
professional bodies have issued standards and guidelines
which should be referenced to understand the design

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 AN-104
environmental conditions encountered in aircraft operation.

• Digital output pressure transducers, all else being equal,

provide higher performance and easier integration into
air data instruments.

• The overriding challenge to today’s air data designer is

to design a high performance, reliable, appropriately–
featured instrument which can be profitably sold at an a
price attractive to the marketplace. Again, the focus is on
the pressure transducer as the major contributor to the
cost of the instrument. The transducer must offer high
Figure 2—Honeywell Precision Pressure Transducer. Available in
value—the right combination of high performance and
absolute, gauge and differential models with pressure ranges suitable for attractive price. Honeywell’s Precision Pressure
altitude, airspeed and other air data measurements. Transducer (Figure 2) is flying today in air data instruments
from major manufacturers. It offers the cost-effective
• Even with the sophisticated digital signal processing
provided by the microprocessors, the performance of air
data instruments is still strongly dictated by the pressure
transducer characteristics; basic accuracy, resolution,
long term stability, and reliability in the spectrum of

solution that avionics engineers seek for air data requirements.

REFERENCES

(1) All equations are taken from NASA Technical Note D-822, “Tables of Airspeed, Altitude and Mach Number Based
on Latest International Values for Atmospheric Properties and Physical Constraints”, Aug. 1961, NASA, Washington.
Available from NTIS, US Dept. of Commerce.
(2) “US Standard Atmosphere, 1976”, NOAA/NASA, NOAA-S/T 76-1562, Washington, D.C., 1976.
(3) “Air Data Computer - Minimum Performance Standard,” SAE Aerospace Standard AS8002, Rev A, Sept. 1996.
(4) “Design Assurance Guidance for Airborne Electronic Hardware,” RTCA Paper #628-95/SC180-047, Dec. 1995.
(5) “Software Considerations In Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification,” RTCA Document # DO178-B, 1992.
(6) “Environment Conditions and Test Procedures for Airborne Equipment,” Document No. RTCA/DO-160D, July. 1997.

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