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2. Schematic diagrams
4. Experiment tasks
The circuit was connected according to diagram. The optimal ranges were selected for
multimeters. During measurements for reverse direction of D2 they were 20V for voltmeter [1]
and 20 μA for amperemeter [2]. For the forward variant the voltmeter [1] range was set to 2V and
amperemeter [2] to 200mA. In case of D3 reverse direction the range of voltmeter [1] was set to
20V and amperemeter [2] to 200mA. For the forward variant the voltmeter [1] range was set to
2V and amperemeter [2] to 200mA. The power supply [3] was switched to serial mode and
adjusted the symmetrical voltage to 25V.
Diode D2
Table 1. Measurements for Diode D2 for forward and reverse
direction
forward direction
Symbol of diode U I ln I
[V] [mA] [mA]
0,783 71,40 4,27
0,78 68,60 4,23
0,778 61,40 4,12
0,776 58,00 4,06
0,773 54,00 3,99
0,771 50,80 3,93
0,768 47,70 3,86
0,766 44,00 3,78
0,763 40,60 3,70
0,759 37,10 3,61
D2
0,756 33,90 3,52
0,752 30,00 3,40
0,747 26,10 3,26
0,742 22,50 3,11
0,73 18,70 2,93
0,728 15,20 2,72
0,719 11,80 2,47
0,693 8,20 2,10
0,668 4,60 1,53
0,665 1,10 0,10
Figure 4. The graph of dependence of electric intensity on voltage
in Diode 2 for forward direction in semi-logarithmic scale.
Diode D3
Table 3. Measurements for Diode D3 for forward and reverse
direction
To determine the Zener voltage, the method of determining its voltage based on the
characteristic of diode D3 was used. The value of 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 read from Table 2 is -67.3 mA. The value
of 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 is calculated using the formula:
𝑈𝑧 = −3.25𝑉
From Fig. 4, we can infer that the slope of the line is constant for all voltages U in the forward
direction of diode D2. When analysing characteristics only in the forward direction, the
equation:
𝑒𝑈
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 ∗ [exp ( ) − 1] (2)
𝑚𝑘𝑇
simplifies to:
𝑒𝑈
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 ∗ exp ( ) (3)
𝑚𝑘𝑇
where I is the current flowing through the junction, U is the voltage across the junction, T is the
junction temperature) k is Boltzmann's constant), e is the electron, and m is a parameter.
T=300K
𝐽
𝑘 = 1.38065 ∗ 10−23
𝐾
𝑒 = 1.602176 ∗ 10−19 𝐶
After taking the natural logarithm of equation (3), we obtain:
𝑒𝑈
ln(𝐼) = ln(𝐼𝑆 ) + ( ) (4)
𝑚𝑘𝑇
The function from Fig. 5 has a linear form, so it can be represented using the equation y=ax+b,
where:
y = ln(I)
𝑒
𝑎= (5)
𝑚𝑘𝑇
x=U
b = ln(𝐼𝑆 )
The formulas of the least squares method can be used to calculate the parameters a and b.
𝑛Σ𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − Σ𝑥𝑖 Σ𝑦𝑖
𝑎= (6)
𝑛Σ𝑥𝑖2 (Σ𝑥𝑖)2
1
𝑏= (Σ𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎Σ𝑥𝑖 ) (7)
𝑛
The errors of the determined parameters a and b take the following form:
1
u(b) = √ ∙ 𝑆𝑛 2 Σ𝑥𝑖2 (9)
𝑛
By using the least squares method and a excel spreadsheet, values of parameters a and b along with
their errors were calculated for diode D2 in the semi-logarithmic circuit. The calculated values are as
follows:
1
𝑎 = (28.5619 ± 1.6120)
𝑉
𝑏 = (−18.0679 ± 1.2036)
To calculate the value of the coefficient m, the formula is transformed as follows:
𝑒
𝑚 = (10)
𝑎𝑘𝑇
1.602176 ⋅ 10−19
𝑚 = = 1.3542
28.56199 ⋅ 1.38065 ⋅ 10−23 ⋅ 300
∆𝑚 = ∆𝑚 𝑇 + ∆𝑚𝑎 (11)
𝑒
∆𝑚 𝑇 = | | ∗ ∆𝑇 (12)
−𝑎𝑘𝑇 2
𝑒
∆𝑚𝑎 = | | ∗ ∆𝑎 (13)
−𝑇𝑘𝑎2
∆𝑚 = 0.04514368646 + 0.076435695 ~ 0.1215
5. Conclusion
Comparing the characteristic curve of the diode to the datasheets. we can observe similarities
indicating the accuracy of the measurements. This accuracy could be improved if the
measurements were performed more quickly. resulting in less temperature difference across
the diodes during measurements. The calculated parameter m = (1.3542 ± 0.1215) is within
indicating the validity of the measurements. The remaining values of parameters a and b also
seem correct. Measurement errors could arise from both inaccuracies in measurement
equipment and human factors. Errors or slight deviations from theoretical predictions may
result from inaccuracies in measurements or too few measurements.
6. References
https://fizyka.p.lodz.pl/media/filer_public/a4/db/a4db01f6-6584-47ed-bf24-
953e105662a9/e02ife_2023v2.pdf [E02]
https://fizyka.p.lodz.pl/media/filer_public/93/ff/93ffd02e-e5c3-4581-9f9d-
f3953ccf092a/e01ife_v4g.pdf [E01]