Nuclear Physics Lecture Seven

Lecture Seven
Nuclear detectors
Nuclear detectors typically measure secondary products from radiation interactions
rather than detecting ionizing radiation directly. Charged particles like alpha and beta
radiation create electron-ion or electron-hole pairs, generating an electrical pulse or
current. Indirectly ionizing radiation, such as gamma photons and neutrons, first
interact with the detector material to produce charged particles, which then ionize the
medium.
Radiation detection can involve simply counting ionization events (radiation counters),
measuring pulse magnitude to determine energy distribution (energy spectrometers), or
assessing ionization current to quantify radiation dose (dosimeters). Due to the
stochastic nature of radioactive decay and radiation interactions, statistical fluctuations
must be considered in measurements.

Gas-filled radiation detectors

Gas-filled radiation detectors, dating back to the 19th century, utilize ionization in a gas
volume to produce an electrical current. A common design includes a coaxial geometry
with a central wire anode and an outer cathode tube containing the gas. These detectors,
such as ionization chambers, are calibrated to measure radiation intensity.

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Figure (1) Basic elements of a gas-filled radiation-detector tube. The cathode is often
used to seal the gas cavity from the ambient environment. The output voltage pulse is
produced across the load resistor.
Radiation interacts either in the chamber wall or directly in the filling gas.
Electromagnetic radiation primarily undergoes photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering, or pair production in the chamber wall, releasing electrons that may enter
the gas volume and cause ionization. The electric field between the anode and cathode
directs positive and negative charges in opposite directions, generating a current. For
beta radiation detection, a thin window allows particles to enter the chamber.
Gas-filled detectors include ionization chambers, proportional counters, and Geiger-
Mueller counters, each differing in ion pair collection. Effective operation requires
preventing ion recombination. In the recombination region (Region I), an insufficient
electric field leads to ion loss, making detectors in this region ineffective.

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Figure (2) Operational regions for gas-filled radiation detectors.

As the potential difference increases, the detector enters different operational regions.
In Region II (ionization chamber region), the output current, known as the saturation
current, remains stable. In Region III (proportional counter region), electrons gain
enough energy for secondary ionization, leading to multiplication (M > 1), where the
output current remains proportional to the initial ion pairs.
Beyond this, a limited proportionality region follows, which is generally not useful. In
Region IV (Geiger-Mueller region), avalanches spread across the anode, making the
charge collected per interaction independent of the initial ion pairs, preventing energy
discrimination. If the voltage is too high, the detector enters Region V (continuous
discharge), leading to uncontrolled avalanches and potential failure.

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Ionization Chambers
Ionization chambers are widely used as radiation monitors, capable of detecting alpha,
beta, gamma, x-rays, and neutrons. As the simplest gas-filled radiation detector, they
operate without gas multiplication and typically measure output current directly. When
functioning at saturation current (Region II), the output current is proportional to
radiation intensity, enabling direct exposure rate measurement.
In parallel-plate ion chambers with a uniform electric field, individual current pulses
can be registered for energy spectroscopy. However, in the more common cylindrical
design, pulse amplitude varies with ionization location, making energy spectroscopy
impractical.
Proportional Counters
Proportional counters operate in Region III, where internal gas multiplication amplifies
the original ion-electron pairs by a factor of 10 to 10,000. This multiplication occurs
near the central wire, resulting in an output voltage pulse that is both amplified and
proportional to the ionization energy deposited in the detector.
This property enables proportional counters to function as spectrometers, using pulse
amplitude to determine radiation energy. Additionally, since ionization is proportional
to the type of incident radiation, these detectors can differentiate between charged
particles, such as distinguishing beta particles from alpha particles in gas-flow counters.
Geiger-Mueller Counters
Developed in 1928 by Geiger and Mueller, the Geiger-Mueller (GM) detector remains
a widely used, robust tool for detecting ionizing radiation. Operating in Region IV, GM
detectors produce pulses whose size is independent of the ionization energy deposited,
preventing them from distinguishing radiation types or measuring energy.
Despite this limitation, GM detectors can detect both charged particles (alpha and beta)
and electromagnetic radiation (x-rays and gamma rays). Their sensitivity to charged
particles depends on the entrance window thickness, which must prevent gas leakage.
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Once a charged particle enters the active volume, detection is nearly 100% efficient, as
a single ion-electron pair is sufficient to initiate pulse formation.
Operating Voltage
A key step in optimizing a gas-filled radiation detector is determining the correct
operating voltage. GM counters have a broad operational range but should be used near
the center of their plateau in Region IV to ensure stable long-term performance. At this
voltage, small fluctuations in applied voltage have minimal impact on pulse amplitude.
If the voltage is too low, gas multiplication is insufficient, making the counting rate
highly sensitive to voltage variations.
Applications
GM counters are ideal for measuring radiation field intensity and are commonly used
in handheld survey meters. They are not suitable for identifying radiation type or energy
but are valued for their low cost, high efficiency, and adaptability in size and shape.
They effectively detect beta particles, x-rays, and gamma rays, especially at low
radiation levels where dead time losses are minimal.
While rarely used for neutron detection, GM counters can be made sensitive to thermal
neutrons with a cadmium cover. However, due to their poor energy response and
inability to distinguish radiation types, prior knowledge of the radiation field is essential
for accurate measurements.
Scintillation Detectors
Scintillation detectors are classified into two types: (1) inorganic crystal scintillators
and (2) organic scintillators (plastics and liquids). While their excitation mechanisms
differ, both emit fluorescence when charged particles transfer energy to them. The
number of emitted light photons is proportional to the energy lost by the particle.
The development of the photomultiplier tube (PMT) enabled widespread use of
scintillators. A PMT amplifies light signals by converting photons into electrons, which
are then multiplied through a cascade process, producing a measurable voltage pulse.
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A typical scintillation detector consists of a hermetically sealed scintillator, a PMT, a

voltage divider, and a preamplifier. The detector outputs voltage pulses proportional to
the energy deposited in the scintillator. Gamma rays interact via photoelectric effect,
Compton scattering, or pair production, and if all energy is deposited, the number of
scintillation photons corresponds to the gamma-ray energy. By analyzing pulse height
distribution (PHD), scintillation detectors enable gamma-ray spectroscopy, making
them crucial for energy measurement of gamma radiation.
NaI (Tl) Scintillation Detectors
The most widely used inorganic scintillator is NaI(Tl), available in various sizes and
shapes. It emits light at 415 nm, making it compatible with commercially available
PMTs. Despite its relatively long decay time, its high efficiency for x-rays and
gamma-rays makes it an excellent choice for radiation detection.
The 3×3 inch cylindrical NaI(Tl) detector is the most extensively characterized and
widely used for gamma-ray field measurements. Due to its high efficiency, NaI(Tl)
detectors are commonly used for x-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy, including low-
energy x-ray detection with thin entrance windows.
A key advantage of NaI(Tl) detectors is their ability to operate without cooling,
making them suitable for field applications in warm and humid environments. They
also tolerate moderate mechanical shock and radiation exposure. For applications
requiring high gamma-ray efficiency and modest energy resolution, NaI(Tl) is an
optimal choice.