23/01/2025

CSEC (HUMAN & SOCIAL) BIOLOGY

KEISHA S LEWIS | ‘THE BIOSPECIALIST’ CC2022

 [6.9] relate the internal structures of the eye to their

functions;
 [6.10] explain how images are formed in the eye;

 [6.11] explain accommodation in the eye;

 [6.12] discuss the causes of, and corrective measures for

eye defects and diseases;

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 A man is sitting in the shade of a coconut tree on the

bench, reading a book. He looks up to observe a ship
passing by on the horizon.
 Describe the changes that take place in his eye to
allow him to do this .[4]
 Give two (2) reasons why individuals may have to
wear eye glasses (spectacles) and explain, with
diagrams, how these help them to see better. [10]
 Explain why wearing sunglasses may be beneficial
and suggest any possible disadvantage to this
practice. [4]

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SECTION 1 | SYLLABUS SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE B6.9

EXTERNAL vs INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

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STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Eyelid ● Protects the eye

● Blinking keeps
surface of eye and
conjunctiva moist

Conjunctiva ● Thin, transparent

epithelium covering
the eyeball
● Secretes mucus to
lubricate, clean and
maintain moisture

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STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Iris ● Pigmented, has radial

and circular muscles
that regulate the
amount of light
entering the eye.

Pupil ● Round hole at the

centre of the iris,
through which light
enters

Sclera ● Tough, opaque, non-

elastic layer on the
outside of the eyeball
● Helps to maintain
shape of eyeball

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STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Cornea ● Transparent,
curved layer
bends light to
converge at lens

Lens ● Soft, transparent,

elastic
● Focuses light on
the retina

Ciliary body / ● Muscle which

muscle help the lens to
alter its shape for
focusing

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STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Aqueous humour ● Transparent watery liquid in

front of cavity
● Medium for diffusion of oxygen
and nutrients
● Refracts light and maintains
shape of eyeball

Vitreous humour ● Transparent jelly, at the rear of

the eye
● Refracts light and maintains
shape of eyeball

Retina ● Light-sensitive layer of the eye

● Has photoreceptor cells (rods
& cones)

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STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Yellow spot / ● High cone density for night

Fovea centralis vision

Blind spot ● Where nerve fibres

connecting rods and cones
leave the eye
● Has no photoreceptor cells

Choroid ● Middle layer with black

pigments
● Prevents internal reflection of
light

Optic nerve ● Made of sensory nerve fibres

● Transmit information from eye
to brain

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SECTION 2 | SYLLABUS SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE B6.110 – B6.11

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Light enters the

eye through the
cornea

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The pupil adjusts

in response to the
light

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The lens focuses the

light onto the retina.
The retina is a light-
sensitive layer of tissue
at the back of the eye.
When light hits the
retina, special cells
called photoreceptors
turn the light into
electrical signals.

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RODS AND CONES

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Cones and rods are two types of photoreceptors

within the retina.

This means that they are responsible for receiving

signals (or images), processing them, and sending
them to the brain.

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The RODS are more The 6 to 7 million CONES provide

numerous, some 120 million the eye's color sensitivity

They are more sensitive than They are much more

the cones. concentrated in the central
yellow spot known as the macula.
They are, however, not • In the center of that region is the " fovea
centralis ", a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free
sensitive to colour area with very thin, densely packed
cones.

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The rod is responsible for your ability to see in low light levels.

The rod is more sensitive than the cone.

It is also the better motion sensor

• it is more sensitive,
• there are more individual receptors than the cone.
This motion sensor is most predominant in your peripheral vision

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The cone is made up of three different types of receptors that allow you to see color.

It is more light-sensitive than the rod,

• It requires more light to enter it in order to send signals to the brain.

• This is the reason that you are unable to differentiate colors in dim light conditions.

Since the cone requires a high level of light in order to send signals, the cones are
primarily responsible for your visual acuity (your ability to see objects in fine
detail).

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These electrical
signals travel from
the retina through
the optic nerve to
the brain.
Then the brain turns
the signals into the
images you see.

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The adjustments made by the

lens to view distant vs nearby
objects.

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FOCUSING ON NEAR OBJECTS FOCUSING ON DISTANT OBJECTS

Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax

Tension in suspensory ligament reduces Tension in suspensory ligaments increases

Lens becomes more convex Lens becomes more concave

Pupil size reduced Pupil size increased

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Radial Muscle Circular Muscle

RESPONSE TO LIGHT
CONTRACTS CONTRACTS

 The pupil controls

the amount of light
entering the eye
 Light enters as a
stimulus to
regulate the size of
the pupil
 Both eyes adjust
the same way to
the light
conditions.

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SECTION 3 | SYLLABUS SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE B6.12

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NORMAL VISION

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NORMAL VISION

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USE OF LENS
Myopia
(nearsightedness)and
hypertropia
(farsightedness) can be
fixed using lenses, in eye
glasses.

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SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS & CORRECTION

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FAR-SIGHTEDNESS & CORRECTION

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ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism is an imperfection in
the curvature of your eye’s cornea
or lens.
With astigmatism, the eyeball has
an egg or oval shape, instead of a
rounded shape.
As a result, vision for BOTH near
and far objects is blurry or
distorted.

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GLAUCOMA

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GLAUCOMA
Glaucoma is a disease that damages
your eye’s optic nerve. It usually
happens when fluid builds up in the
front part of your eye. That extra fluid
increases the pressure in your eye,
damaging the optic nerve.
Glaucoma is a leading cause of
blindness for people over 60 years old.
But blindness from glaucoma can
often be prevented with early
treatment.

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GLAUCOMA
Glaucoma is usually controlled
with eyedrop medicine.
Used every day, these eye drops
lower eye pressure.
Some do this by reducing the
amount of aqueous fluid the eye
makes.

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CATARACT
A cataract is a clouding of the normally
clear lens of the eye.
For people who have cataracts, seeing
through cloudy lenses is a bit like
looking through a frosty or fogged-up
window.
Most cataracts develop when aging or
injury changes the tissue that makes up
the eye's lens.
Proteins and fibers in the lens begin to
break down, causing vision to become
hazy or cloudy

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CATARACT
At first, stronger lighting and
eyeglasses can help you deal with
cataracts.
But if impaired vision interferes with
your usual activities, you might need
cataract surgery.
Fortunately, cataract surgery is
generally a safe, effective procedure.

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HOW DIABETES CAN

AFFECT YOUR
EYESIGHT…

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