Lesson 1: Hydrometeorological Hazards 1.

Ocean water temperature of more than 26°C to 27°C to a depth of

about 46 meters.
Hydrometeorological Hazards
2. At least 5° of latitude or a minimum distance of 480 km from the
- A phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic
Equator.
nature that may cause loss of life, injury, property damage, social
and economic disruption or environmental damage (UNDRR). 3. An atmosphere that cools fast as it increases in height.

- The Philippines is prone to different hydrometeorological hazards 4. Relatively moist air in the mid-troposphere about 4,900 meters
because of its geographic location. above sea level.

- The Philippines is in the Northern Hemisphere just above the 5. A pre-existing near-surface disturbance or low-level-cyclonic
Equator. This is an area where the ITCZ is located. circulation and a region of divergence above the surface
disturbance.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
6. Weak vertical wind shear (37 km/hr.) between the surface and the
- Area where trade winds from the Northern hemisphere and
upper troposphere
Southern hemisphere bring tropical air masses together.
Typhoon:
- The Philippines is part of the Western Pacific Basin. The most active
Tropical Cyclone Basin. Color-Coded Rainfall Advisories
Red More than Serious Evacuation Community
Different Hydrometeorological Hazards: Warning 30 mm rain flooding Response
1. Typhoon observed in expected in
1 hour and low-lying
- Severe weather disturbance characterized by strong winds and expected to areas
heavy rains which revolve around a central low-pressure area. continue in
the next 2
- The word “typhoon” was most likely derived from the Chinese hours
term “Tai Fung” – “ta” meaning big and “fung” meaning wind (Torrential)
Orange 15-30 mm Flooding is Alert for Community
- In Filipino typhoon is known as “bagyo”. Got its name in 1911 after
Warning rain threatening possible Preparedness
46 inches of water was accumulated after 24 hours of heavy rains in
observed in evacuation
Baguio.
1 hour and
Map of Pacific Category Five Typhoons: expected to
continue in
1. North Atlantic, Eastern north Pacific, and South Pacific Ocean the next 2
(Hurricane) hours
(Intense)
2. Water here is usually too cold for typhoons to form (Cyclone) Yellow 7.5-15 mm Flooding is Monitor the Community
3. Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, and Western South Indian Ocean Warning rain possible weather Awareness
(Cyclone) observed in condition
1 hour and
4. Western North Pacific Ocean (Typhoon) expected to
continue in
Typhoon Structure: the next 2
1. Eye hours
(Heavy)
- a region of mostly calm weather

- center of strong tropical cyclones Automatic Suspension Guidelines

Signal #1 Signal #2 Signal #3
- roughly circular area typically 30– 65 km in diameter. No classes in No classes in No classes in
2. Eye wall Kindergarten Kindergarten, Kindergarten, High
Elementary, and School, and College
- surrounds the eye High School (including graduate
school)
- where the most severe weather occurs
Reminder: The local government unit (LGU) has the authority to
3. Bands of clouds declare local suspensions in areas where there is no storm signal.

- spiral around the eye wall

Mitigating the Destructive Effects of Typhoons:
- heavy rains and winds
1. Determine areas prone to typhoon related disasters.
Coriolis Effect & Typhoons
2. Implementing legislation involving land use planning, zoning and
- the deflection of an object moving on or near the surface caused building standards.
by the planet’s spin
3. Weather forecasting and monitoring.
Northern Hemisphere: Counterclockwise
• PAGASA - Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Southern Hemisphere: Clockwise Services Administration
Typhoon Formation • Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC)
1. Warm, moist air rises into the atmosphere Tokyo – Typhoon Center of the Japan Meteorological Society
2. It cools and condenses, forming cumulonimbus clouds 4. Effective public typhoon warning systems.
3. The Coriolis effect causes incoming winds to swirl, creating a Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
cyclonic vortex Administration (PAGASA)
4. Formation of a central area of low pressure called the “eye” - National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHS) agency
Favorable Conditions in the Formation of a Typhoon of the Philippines (December 8, 1972)
- provide protection against natural calamities and to ensure the 2. Check if everybody in your family is okay. If there is an injury, seek
safety, well-being and economic security of all the people, and for medical help immediately.
the promotion of national progress by undertaking scientific and
3. Observe your surroundings if there are fallen trees, wrecked cars
technological services in meteorology, hydrology, climatology,
on the road, fallen electric posts, and live wires. Be sure to stay away
astronomy and other geophysical sciences
from them. Report these incidents to the Barangay Hall or the
- naming of tropical cyclones in the Philippine Area of responsibility Manila Electric Company (MERALCO) for electricity concerns.

- serves as one of the Scientific and Technological Services Institutes 4. Check for any damages in your house and do repairs when it is
of the Department of Science and Technology already safe.

Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) Tokyo – 2. Thunderstorm

Typhoon Center of the Japan Meteorological Society
• violent weather disturbance associated with cumulonimbus clouds
- provides information on tropical cyclones in the Western North
• caused by atmospheric imbalance and turbulence
Pacific and South China Sea
• often occur in the equatorial region
- was established at the headquarters of the Japan Meteorological
Agency (JMA) in July 1989, following a designation by the WMO • afternoon or evening during summer
Executive Council at its 40th session (Geneva, June 1988)
Three requirements for the formation of a thunderstorm:
- responsible in naming typhoons (Western North Pacific and the
South China Sea) 1. moisture (water vapor)

World Meteorological Organization 2. an unstable, rapidly rising mass of warm air

- maintains rotating lists of names appropriate for each Tropical 3. A strong upward current of air (updraft)
Cyclone basin. If a cyclone is particularly deadly or costly, then its Life Cycle of a Thunderstorms
name is retired and replaced by another one.
1. Towering Cumulus or Developing Stage
- the name list is proposed by the National Meteorological and
Hydrological Services (NMHSs) of WMO Members of a specific - cumulus cloud is being pushed upward by a rising column of air
region and approved by the respective tropical cyclone regional (updraft).
bodies at their annual/biennial sessions - little to no rain but occasional lightning
What to do BEFORE a Typhoon: - lasts up to 10 minutes
- Tune in to the radio or television for announcements and warnings 2. Mature Stage
about the typhoon.
- initiation of strong downward current of air (downdraft) and by
- Monitor the latest Severe Weather Bulletin of PAGASA. precipitation
- Get to know the typhoon, like when and where it will hit and how - usually last for 10-30 minutes
strong it is.
- produces heavy rains, frequent lightning and thunder, tropical
- Check the stability of your house to check if there is a need for cyclones and occasional hail
repair.
Final or Dissipating Stage
- Move or secure items that can easily be blown away by strong
winds. - updrafts are prevented by the cool air of the dominant downdraft

- Clear drainages of any blockage to prevent flooding. - rainfall decreases and the clouds dissipate

- Make a household evacuation plan and give particular tasks to - lasts less than an hour
each family member.
Thunderstorm (TSTM) Warnings:
- Familiarize yourself with Early Warning System and Evacuation
1.. Thunderstorm Advisory
Plan.
- This will be issued when there is an indication that a thunderstorm
- Write important emergency hotlines in your community
is threatening a specific area(s) within the next 2 hours
- Prepare an emergency go-bag
- Updates will be issued as frequent as necessary
- Charge your phones and keep them fully charged. Conserve your
- This will be disseminated via SMS, Social media, and website
batteries.
2. Thunderstorm Watch
- If you are in a low-lying area, go to higher ground for safety.
- This will inform he public that TSTM formation is likely within the
- Stay away from coasts and riverbanks.
next twelve (12) hours
- Cancel travels and outdoor activities
- This is more general than a warning
What to do DURING a Typhoon
- This will be disseminated thru Social Media and website
1. Stay tuned-in to the radio or television for latest news and
3. Thunderstorm Information
updates about the typhoon
- Issued when TSTM is less likely within the next twelve (12) hours
2. Close all doors and windows and stay inside the house
- This will be disseminated thru Twitter, Facebook, and website
3. Save your batteries so you can use them for emergencies
Hazards in Thunderstorms
4. If you are already in danger, call for rescue
- Heavy rainfall
What to do AFTER a Typhoon
- Lightning
1. Stay tuned-in to the radio and TV for latest news updates about
the typhoon - Strong winds
- Tornadoes Telemetered: Flood is threatening

2. Tornadoes: Non Telemetered: Moderate to Heavy Rainfall

• a narrow, funnel-shaped, intensely rotating column that forms Action/Response

during a thunderstorm
Non Telemetered: Advised to be alert for possible flood, flash flood
• twister, buhawi or ipo-ipo and landslides

• waterspouts - moves over a body of water Description

Safety Tips: 3. Flood Warning

1. Get in Telemetered: Water level is above critical level

- when outdoors, immediately seek shelter Non Telemetered: Flood is occurring immediate action is
recommended
- when inside, go to the innermost portion of the structure you are
in Forecast

2. Get down Telemetered: Flood is occurring

- go to the lowest level of the structure you are in (basement)) Non Telemetered: Heavy to intense Rainfall

3. Cover-up Action/Response

- protect yourself from debris- use pillows, thick blankets, thick Non Telemetered: advised to take appropriate action
coats, helmets, or anything that can protect your entire body
Description
3. Flood:
4. Severe Flood Warning
- presence of excessive water on a supposedly dry land
Telemetered: Water level is continuously rising above critical level
- caused by the abnormal rise of water level in rivers, coastal areas
Non Telemetered: Flood is persisting force evacuation is
and other bodies of water
recommended
- caused by continuous rains or poor drainage
Forecast
Natural causes of flood:
Telemetered: Flood is persisting
- Intense or prolonged rainfall
Non Telemetered: Intense to Torrential Rainfall
- Storm surge
Action/Response
Manmade causes of flood:
Non Telemetered: Advised to force evacuation
- Deforestation
Description
- Increased urbanization and coastal development
5. Final
- Failure of levees, sea walls, and dams
Telemetered: Slow recession of water level
- Informal settlers and indiscriminate dumping of garbage
Non Telemetered: Light rains
Types of Floods
Forecast
- Riverine/River floods
Flood is no longer possible
- Estuarine and Coastal Flooding
Mitigation of Flood Hazards
- Urban Flooding
1. Flood risk assessment and mapping
- Catastrophic Flooding
2. Telemetering System
- Flash Flooding
3. Flood control
Description
- Sea walls
1. Flood Monitoring
- Levees
Telemetered: Slow rise in water level but still below alarm level
- Dams
Non Telemetered: Monitor for possible flooding area
- Diversion Canals
Forecast
4. Flood advisories
Telemetered: Flood is possible
What to do BEFORE a Flood:
Non Telemetered: Light to Moderate Rainfall
1. Keep tuning in to the news on TV and radio.
Action/Response
2. Be familiar with the frequency of floods in your area.
Non Telemetered: Advised to take Precautionary Measures
3. When evacuating, go to higher grounds for safety.
Description
4. Know where the flood warning systems are in your area (like
2. Flood Alert floodmarkers).

Telemetered: Water level is continuously rising but still below critical 5. Know the evacuation plan in your barangay.
level
6. Keep all important documents, cellphones, and other electronic
Non Telemetered: Alert for possible flash floods and landslides gadgets inside waterproof bags.

Forecast 7. Fully charge your phones and power banks. Keep extra batteries.
8. Assign tasks to family members for evacuation.9. Prepare your - A natural climatic phenomenon characterized mainly by A
survival kit and emergency lights. prolonged unusual warming of sea surface temperature in the
central and eastern equatorial Pacific
What to do DURING a Flood:
- Spanish word that literally means “Christ Child” or Jesus
1. Keep calm, be alert and keep away from steep areas prone to
landslides - 9 months to 2 years

2. Stay updated on news and public announcements Effects of El Niño

3. Don’t attempt to swim across flowing streams and flooded areas 1. Low water levels

4. Watch out for snakes and other wild animals in the flood 2. Drought

5. Drink only boiled water and eat only clean food. Never eat food 3. Forest fires
that is already contaminated with flood water
4. Coral bleaching
6. Stay away from electric and telephone cables
La Niña
7. Listen only to reliable people when getting information and
- Involves prolonged unusual cooling of sea surface temperature in
updates
central and eastern equatorial Pacific that may last for 1-3 years.
What to do AFTER a Flood:
- Spanish for “the girl”
1. Stay tuned in to the news.
- Opposite of El Nino
2. Report structural damages like cables, water, and gas lines.
- My last for 1-3 years
3. Don’t plug appliances that were submerged in flood water.
Cause of La Niña:
4. Avoid flooded areas.
- Strong Trade Winds
5. Return home only if the area is already safe
Effects of La Niña:
4. Storm surge
- Tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, storm surge, and flooding
- Daluyonng ng Bagyo
Landslides caused by Rainfall:
- Abnormal seawater level rise over and above the normal predicted
• an outward and downward movement of soil, rocks, and mud
astronomical tides
from an elevated area like a mountain
Factors that Influence the Build-up of Water:
• induced by prolonged or heavy rainfall
1. Storm intensity (wind speed)
What to do before a Landslide?
2. The pressure effect
1. Assess the property for its proneness to landslides before buying.
3. Size
2. Do not build a house near steep slopes, near the foot of a
4. Storm forward speed mountain.

5. Angle of approach to coast 3. Learn about the emergency response and evacuation plans in the
area.
6. The effects of the Earth’s rotation
4. Plant trees and other plants to cover slopes to prevent soil
7. The rainfall effect
erosion.
8. Timing
5. Stay away from slopes and risk zones.
9. Geometry of coastline
6. Prepare a survival kit that includes a whistle.
- Narrow shelf with steep slope
7. Participate in Local or National drills organized by authorities.
- Wide shelf with gentle slope
8. Stay alert and observe your surroundings for possible warning
Storm Surge Risk Reduction Measures signs.

1. Hazard map preparation What to do during a Landslide?

2. Storm surge barriers 1. Stay calm, alert, and awake.

3. Wetland protection 2. Listen for any unusual sounds that indicate the movement of soil
and debris downslope.
Storm Surge Safety Measures: What to do?
3. Evacuate immediately if the area is at risk of landslides and go to
1. Keep listening to official warnings of storm surge issued by the safest area away from the landslide.
PAGASA
4. When driving, always be alert. Watch out for collapsed pavements
2. Find the nearest high ground where you can evacuate and fallen rocks, mud, and debris.
3. When evacuating, bring with you only what is important and 5. If a landslide can no longer be avoided, lie in a fetal position and
essential protect your head.
4. Your planned route of evacuation should avoid streams, drainage What to do after a Landslide?
channels and any other conduits of water as flashfloods can occur
and can be life-threatening. 1. Tune in to local news and public announcements about the
landslide.
4. El Niño
2. Don’t go back to the landslide area without the permission of
- El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) authorities.

3. Watch out for flooding, which may occur after a landslide.

4. Check if any people are injured or trapped near the landslide - directly above the focus- where an earthquake or underground
without entering directly into the area. explosion originates

5. Report broken electric or utility lines, damaged roads, or bridges • Fault Line:
to proper authorities for immediate response.
- a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault
6. When allowed to return to your house, check for any damages
• Fault Plane:
and repair them as soon as possible.
- the flat surface along which there is a slip during an earthquake
7. Seek advice from authorities or geotechnical experts if you can
still occupy the affected space or not. • Fault Scarp:
Sinkholes - a steep slope or cliff formed by movement along a fault
• depressions or holes on the ground that resulted from the collapse • Hanging Wall Block:
of the surface layer of the soil
- the rock material which lies above the fault plane
• are common in areas called “karst terrains”
• Footwall Block:
• limestones, salt beds, gypsum, and other carbonic rocks
- the rock material which lies below the fault plane
• the ground also has no external drainage on the surface
What is a FAULT?
Signs of Impending Sinkholes
• primary cause of an earthquake
1. Structural cracks on floors, walls, and foundations of houses and
buildings. • a break or fracture in the Earth’s crust which usually occur along
plate boundaries
2. Cracks and depressions in the ground.
• slabs of crust slips past each other in response to stress (compress,
3. Doors and windows become difficult to close or open. pull, or shear)
4. Electric or utility poles, fences, and walls are tilted or about to fall. • Types of Faults:
5. Cloudy or muddy groundwater or well water. a. Dip-Slip Faults
6. Wilted or dead vegetation because the sinkhole draws away water - Normal Faults
from the plants.
• caused by tension forces where plates diverge or separate
7. Unusual appearance of a hole in the ground
• the hanging wall slips downward
Precautionary Measures in case of a Sinkhole:
- Thrust or Reverse Faults.
If there is a suspected sinkhole forming nearby:
• caused by compression forces along convergent plate boundaries
1. Inform the proper authorities immediately so they can assess the
situation. • the hanging wall is displaced upward or where the footwall is
displaced downward
2. Stay away from a possible sinkhole area.
b. Strike-Slip Faults
3. If the suspected sinkhole is inside your house, do not enter your
house until authorities confirm that it is safe to do so. - Left lateral strike-slip fault (sinistral)

4. Find refuge in stable ground or an open area away from the • Where the side opposite the observer moves to the left
possible sinkhole. - Right lateral strike-slip fault (dextral)
5. If the sinkhole is outside your house, fence or rope off the area to • Where the side opposite the observer moves to the right
warn people
c. Oblique-Slip Faults
After a sinkhole appears:
Major Causes of Earthquakes
6. Stay away from the sinkhole.
1. Surface cause:
7. Do not throw anything in the sinkhole. This can contaminate
groundwater. • bomb explosions, landslides, slips on steep coasts, dashing of sea
waves, avalanches, railway trains, heavy trucks, some large
8. Monitor the growth of the sinkhole. If it becomes too close to engineering projects cause minor tremors
your house, evacuate immediately.
• some are man made, other are natural

2. Volcanic cause:
Lesson 2: Earthquake
• may precede, accompany and frequently follow volcanic eruptions
Earthquake
• caused by sudden displacements of lava within or beneath the
• the result of a sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust that earth crust
creates seismic waves
3. Tectonic cause:
• weak to violent shaking of the ground due to the sudden
movement of soil and rocks below the surface of the Earth • most of the disastrous earthquakes belong to this category

• usually occur in areas along tectonic plate boundaries and active • occur in areas of great faults and fractures
faults Seismic Waves
Terms to Remember - produced due to earthquake
• Focus (Hypocenter): - two major types”
- where rupture occurs or seismic waves are released • Body Waves
• Epicenter:
- travels through the interior (body) of earth as they leave the focus - quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface,
humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale
- further divided into the following types:
from I(not felt) to XII (total destruction)
(1) Primary (P) waves
- depend upon the distance from the earthquake
(2) Secondary (S) waves
- data gathered from people who have experienced the quake are
Waves Produced due to Earthquakes used to determine an intensity value for their location

Primary Waves (P-waves) Secondary Waves (S-wave) Potential Earthquake Hazards

- High frequency - High frequency
• Ground Shaking
- Shorth Wavelength - Shorth Wavelength
- Longitudinal waves - Transverse waves - caused by the passage of seismic waves
- Pass through solids and liquids - Cannot move through liquids
- Move forwards and - Move in all direction from - intensity depends on the ff:
backwards their source
(a) Geologic makeup of the ground
- P-wave is faster - S-wave is slower than P-wave
- First P-wave arrive - After P-wave, S-wave arrives (b) Duration and intensity of the earthquake
• Surface Waves
(c) Proximity of the are to the epicenter
- travels parallel to the earth’s surface
• Ground Rapture
- slowest and most damaging
- occurs when the ground happens on a fault line and breaks
- divided into the following types: through to the surface
(1) Love waves - most of the time, fault rupture follows a preexisting faults known
(2) Rayleigh waves as zone of weakness

Waves Produced due to Earthquakes - structures built on or along the fault are likely to experience severe
damage
Love Waves Rayleigh wave
- Guided waves - Guided waves • Liquefaction
- Displacement is parallel to the - Displacement is perpendicular - occurs when seismic shaking causes loose materials in the soil to
free surface to love-wave displacement mix with groundwater or soil saturated with water
- Love wave is faster - Rayleigh wave is slower
- Causes horizontal shifting of - Ground move in circular - the soil behaves like a quicksand that has lost its strength to hold
the earth surface motion and support objects on top of it
How are Earthquakes Measured & Recorded?
- structures on the ground slowly sinks
- Seismograph
• Earthquake-induces ground subsidence
- Seismometer
- lowering of land due to various causes, one of which is the
- Seismogram earthquake on a fault line
Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquakes: - one of the areas broken up by the movement may be lowered
making the general elevation of the land uneven
• Magnitude
• Tsunami
- measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake
- the word “tsunami” is a Japanese word that means “harbor wave”
- expressed by the Richter Scale
- series of waves that are generated by an earthquake
• The Richter Scale (Charles Richter, 1900-1985)
- cause giant waves on the surface of water to pickup speed that
- American seismologist and physicist from California, USA in 1935
may exceed 500 miles per hour
- inventor of the Richter Scale- the Richter Scale categorizes
- height and strength of the waves depend on the duration and
earthquake based on the energy released
intensity of ground movement under the water
•
• Earthquake-induced landslide

- may happen during or after an earthquake when a weakened

section of the land falls off primarily due to gravity

- weak land may be due to its composition of frail rocks or soft soil
foundation

- can also be due to deforestation, excavation, mining, quarrying,

thunder or other vibrations

Intensity What to do BEFORE an Earthquake?

- measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a • Prepare survival Kit
certain location
• Avoid placing breakables on high shelves or cabinets
- determined from effects on people, human structures, and the
• Check regularly the stability of hanging objects such as ceiling fans
natural environment
and chandeliers.
• The Mercalli Intensity Scale (Giuseppe Mercalli, 1850-1914)
• Fasten heavy furniture to the walls or floor.
- Italian priest and volcanologist between 1884and 1906
• Know the emergency numbers of the police, rescue and fire
- created the Mercalli Intensity Scale- this scale is used for departments
measuring the intensity and the effects of an earthquake
What to do DURING an Earthquake?
• Stay calm. • as magma is released at the surface of the Earth’s crust in the form
of lava, it can form different types of volcanoes
• Duck under a sturdy table and protect your head.
Types of Volcanoes
• Remember the DCH (Drop, Cover, and Hold) method.
1. Fissure Volcano
• Stay away from glass windows and doors and heavy furniture.
- has no central crater
• Watch out for falling debris or objects.
- has a linear fracture or crack where volcanic materials are released
• Never use an elevator to get out of the building
- eruption is not explosive
Outdoors:
- lava spreads and accumulates along the fracture forming a volcanic
• Stay clear of buildings, trees, light posts, power lines and other
pile
structures that could fall or collapse on you.
- mostly basalt to basaltic andesite lavas, although lavas type can
• If you are in a mountainous area, be alert for falling rocks and
erupt from fissures
other debris.
• Kilauea Volcano
• If you are in a coastal area, move to a higher ground in case a
tsunami follows after the earthquake • Bardarbunga volcano

While Inside a Bus or Train: 2. Composite Volcano

• Hold tightly to the strap or handrail. - also known as Stratovolcano

• Stay inside and listen to the instructions of the train staff - tall and symmetrical in shape with sides that are relatively steep

• Wait until it is safe to go out of the vehicle. - formed from viscous lava that does not easily flow

While Driving or Inside a Car: - made up of alternating layers of lava flow, ash, and cinders

• Slow down and turn on the hazard lights to alert other drivers. - can rise to over 2,500 meters or even higher

• Stay inside the car until the shaking stops. • Mt. Fuji

• Avoid pulling up near or under bridges, overpasses and power • Mayon Volcano
lines that may fall or collapse
• Mt. Pinatubo
What to do AFTER an Earthquake?
3. Shield Volcano
• Tune in to local radio stations and listen for any news and danger
- are tall and broad with gentle slopes and a large crater in the
reports.
summit
• Expect aftershocks, so remain calm.
- lava flows from a central summit vent or group of vents, forming a
• Check yourself and others for injuries. dome that looks like a warrior’s shield

• Check for damaged electrical wiring or power lines and stay away - eruption is usually nonexplosive because of the low viscosity of its
from them• Inspect gas tanks for leaks. basaltic magma

• Stay out of damaged buildings and areas with broken glass and - size of shield volcanoes can be hundreds of kilometers across and
debris. 3,000 meters high

• Follow the emergency plan or instructions of building personnel if • Mauna Loa

you are inside a building.
• Mount Kitanglad

4. Cinder Cone Volcano

Lesson 2: Volcano Hazards
- are the simplest type of volcano
Volcano
- made up of loose, grainy cinders of basaltic and andesitic materials
• formed by the accumulation of volcanic materials such as lava,
- during an eruption, molten rocks, ash, and gas are ejected from a
rocks, and ash after repeated volcanic eruptions
single vent, cool, and break into smaller pieces called cinder
• have vents that allow magma to reach the surface of the Earth,
- cinder falls and accumulates in the vent creating a bowl-shaped
while mountains do not have one
crater at the summit
Mountain
- are steep and small, only about a kilometer across and 300 meters
• formed by folding, crumpling, or uplifting as the Earth’s crust move high

• 300m above its surroundings. However, not all volcanoes have • Paricutin Volcano
higher elevations than their surrounding area
• Mount Smith
Formation of a Volcano:
Other Types of Volcanoes:
Magma chamber
1. Lava Dome
• 30 km below the Earth’s surface
- also called volcanic dome
Mantle
- contains lava that is too viscous to be ejected out of the volcano
• 80-160 km below the Earth’s surface vent

Volcanic Eruption - viscous lava accumulates around the vent and forms a large, dome-
shaped mass of materials within the crater
• sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of steam and volcanic
material (ash, lava, toxic gases, pyroclastic flow, etc.) - can attain a height of several hundreds of meters and about
thousands of meters across
• Colima Volcano 5. Plinian

• Mount Amorong - largest and most violent type of volcanic eruption

• Mt. St. Helen - have a high rate of viscous magma discharge that can happen for a
few minutes or for hours
2. Caldera
Why are there many volcanoes in the Philippines?
- formed when composite or shield volcanoes explode and collapse,
leaving a large depression in their crater called a caldera • It sits on a unique tectonic setting ideal for volcanism and
earthquake activity – the Pacific Ring of Fire
- it will, later on, be filled up with water forming a lake that is often
acidic • It is situated at the boundaries of two tectonic plates – the
Philippine Sea Plate and the Eurasian plate
- can vary in its size from 1 to 100 km in diameter
Potential Volcano Related Hazards:
• Mount Pinatubo
1. Lahar
• Taal Volcano
- Indonesian term for volcanic mudflow or debris flow
Classifications of Volcanoes:
- formed when heavy rainfall occurs after an eruption
1. Active
- composed of a slurry of water, rock fragments, and pyroclastic
- are currently erupting or have erupted in the last 10,000 years and
materials
are considered likely to erupt again in the future
- can move downslope at a speed that can exceed 200km/hr
- based on the analyses of materials from young volcanic deposits
- brings with it anything in its paths, can also partially or completely
• Mt. Etna
bury infrastructures, valuable lands vegetation, and even livestock
• Mt. Kilauea
2. Volcanic Ash & Tephra
2. Dormant/Inactive
• Tephra – fragmented volcanic particles
- also called “Sleeping Volcanoes”
• Ash – fragmented volcanic particles less than 2mm in diameter
- has not erupted in a long time, but there is a possibility that it can
- can cause health problems related to the respiratory system and
erupt anytime in the future
can irritate the eyes
- has been intensively weathered and eroded, bearing deep and long
- decrease visibility, cause damage to buildings, contaminate water
gullies
supply, and damage or kill vegetation and livestock
• Mt. Kilimanjaro
- can accumulate on roofs, causing them to collapse
• Mt. Pelee
3. Pyroclastic Density Currents (PDC)
3. Extinct
- mixtures of hot, fast-moving clouds of fragmented volcanic
- have not erupted in the past 10,000 years and are considered particles (pyroclastics), gases, and ash
unlikely to erupt in the future
- can travel rapidly down the slope (700 km/hr)
• Udine
- temperature as high as 1,000°C
• Capulin Volcano
- most pyroclastic flows consist of two parts: pyroclastic flows
Types of Volcanic Eruption: (denser) and pyroclastic surges (more dilute)

1. Phreatic or Hydrothermal - can destroy everything in its path

- a steam-driven eruption that occurs when underground water - can cause death and serious injuries to people and livestocks due
comes in contact with hot rocks and other volcanic deposits (except to incineration and asphyxiation
magma)
- can destroy and bury infrastructures, forests, and farmlands.
- it can be an onset for a more violent eruption
4. Ballistic Projectile
2. Phreatomagmatic
- Large tephra or volcanic bombs ejected straight into the air and out
- a violent eruption caused by the contact of water and magma of the volcanic vent

- produces a column of steam, very fine ash, and side-way emission - can travel as far as 2 km of the vent or further, depending on the
of pyroclastic fragments magnitude of the eruption and weight of the volcanic bombs

3. Strombolian - can cause serious damage and injuries to vegetation, livestocks,

and people
- weak to a violent eruption that usually occurs every few minutes
- can cause death
- characterized by small lava lakes and a fountain of lava that can
reach hundreds of meters high - can destroy infrastructures

- it can also produce fluid lava and other volcanic materials 5. Volcanic Gas

4. Vulcanian - dissolved in molten rocks or magma and released during a volcanic

eruption
- violent, small to moderate eruptions that can repeatedly happen
and last for days, months or years - principal gases: water vapor (most abundant), sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, CO2 , CO, hydrogen fluoride, and hydrogen
- characterized by ash columns that can reach a height of up to 20 chloride
km, tephra (rock fragments), ash, and pyroclastic materials
- minor gases: argon, helium, nitrogen, & methane
- lava is viscous
- can contribute to the depletion of the ozone
- acidic volcanic gases can damage the eyes, skin, and respiratory • Pack all important and essential items in light and waterproof
systems of animals and humans containers.

- can destroy vegetation and contaminate water • Secure livestock in enclosed shelters.

- can corrode infrastructures, damaging facades of buildings and • Listen to public safety announcements of local authorities
causing metal structures to rust
Precautionary and Safety Measures DURING an Eruption:
6. Lava Flow
• Follow evacuation orders issued by local authorities and follow a
- molten rocks flowing out of a volcano disaster plan. Stay in evacuation centers until further instructions
are given.
- speed of the movement of lava depends on its viscosity, while
viscosity depends on its composition and temperature • Place dump cloth over windows and doors (other openings as
well).
a. Fluid flow
• Wear a long-sleeved shirt and long pants.
b. Sticky flow
• Use goggles to protect your eyes.
- extremely hot (between 1,000-2,000°C)
• Use a dust mask or damp cloth over the face to prevent inhalation
- can cause extreme burns to anything that is on its path
of ashes.
7. Lateral Blasts
• Avoid low-lying regions and rivers near the volcano.
- laterally-directed thrusts of hot gas and ash that can be generated
• Listen to the radio for the latest emergency information
from an exploding dome
Precautionary and Safety Measures AFTER an Eruption:
travel at subsonic speeds, flattening everything in their paths
• Wait for an announcement from local authorities that it is safe to
8. Volcanic Tsunami
return to your house.
- large waves generation is associated with volcanic eruption
• Inspect your house carefully for any damage before you enter it.
commonly through the following:
• If you or a family member has a respiratory ailment, stay away
a. violent explosions from underwater volcanoes could disturb and
from volcanic ashfall areas.
displace water
• Wear a dust mask, gloves, and goggles while cleaning the debris
b. voluminous pyroclastic materials flowing downslope and into the
and ashfall on the roof of your house to avoid further damage.
sea displacing the water, causing large waves
• Check electrical wiring, appliances, and gas tanks before using
c. Landslides – when an eruption causes preexisting slopes to move
them.
into a body of water and displaces it.
• Boil water before drinking.
9. Debris Avalanche
• Stay informed and listen for emergency updates and news.
- mass failure of the flanks of a volcano edifice due to magma
intrusion, a strong earthquake, or the movements of faults beneath
the edifice
Lesson 3: Fire
- form a horseshoe-shaped scar (amphitheater)
Fire
- are extremely hazardous when they do occur, endangering
• The process of rapid oxidation of any material resulting in burning.
localities far beyond the usual extent of more frequent volcanic
hazards • The rapid oxidation of a fuel evolving heat, particulates, gases and
non-ionizing radiation.
Signals of Impending Volcanic Eruption:
• Produced when a substance undergoes rapid oxidation involving
• Occurrence of tremors and increase in the frequency of small
heat and light.
earthquakes
Oxidation
• Deformation in the ground - changes in ground elevation (tilting)
and formation of cracks or openings (ground fissuring) • oxygen molecules interact with different substances in the
environment making it unstable and thus creating a reaction.
• Increase in volcanic gases and in temperature, which may indicate
that the magma has gone closer to the surface. - Brown color of an apple or a potato a few minutes after it has been
cut
• Glow of volcanic crater due to the presence of magma.
- Tarnishing of silver utensils and jewelry
• Increase in steam emission coming from volcanic openings,
fissures or hot springs. - Corrosion of iron
• Thermal changes within the surrounding of the volcano. Fire Triangle/Tetrah
• Changes in the color of nearby vegetation and lakes due to the • A model that shows the three essential components that when
dissolution of minerals and other acidic chemicals from the volcano. present together can start a fire
• Landslides and falling rocks that are not due to heavy rainfall. 1. Fuel
• Drying up of springs and freshwater sources around the volcano - Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance that can be burned and
converted to gaseous state for combustion
Precautionary and Safety Measures BEFORE an Eruption:
• Pyrolysis – chemical decomposition of solid fuels which produces
• Stay updated with the local news.
gas fuel
• Learn about your community warning system and emergency plan.
• Vaporization – production of gas fuel from liquid fuel.
• Prepare an emergency supply kit
2. Heat
- Combustion happens when flammable vapor (fuel) mix with air Wildfires
(oxygen) and is ignited by a spark or flame
- uncontrolled fire in remote areas
3. Oxygen
- burning of vegetation and organic material like forest, grassland,
- Reacts with flammable vapors given off by fuels, and the reaction shrub lands, brush lands and peat lands.
releases heat.
- can spread out from the source of ignition very quickly and can
Oxygen Sources: change direction unexpectedly

- Approximately 16% Required normal air contains 21% O2 - can easily spread by strong winds

- Some fuel materials contain sufficient oxygen within their makeup Types of Wildfires:
to support burning
1. Ground Fire
Heat Sources:
- also known as underground fire
- To reach ignition temperature
- burning of buried decomposed organic matter and extensive tree
- Open Flames (Sun), Hot surfaces, Sparks and Arcs, Friction root system
(Chemical Action), Electrical Energy, Compression of Gases
- can ensue for days or months underground and can resurface again
Common causes of fire:
2. Surface Fire
- Electrical Wiring
- most common type of wildfire
- Kitchen Fires
- burning of fuel scattered in the surface - fallen leaves, branches,
- Cigarettes bark, stems, tree cuttings and dried-up low-lying vegetation like
grass and shrubs
- Chemicals at home
- not as intense as ground fire
- Gasoline leaks from vehicles
3. Ladder Fuels
- Arson
- combustible materials found between the ground and the treetops
Stages of Fire:
which allow fire to climb up all the way to the canopies
1. Ignition/Incipient
- small trees, tall grasses, tree branches, downed tree, vines, ferns
- Point wherein the fire starts and other plants that span the length of the tree trunk

- There is plenty of oxygen, little heat and smoke - can cause crown fires

- Fire is still small and generally confined to the fuel that initially 4. Crown Fire
ignited
- burn tree canopies, other higher parts of trees and suspended
2. Growth materials like vines

- Temperature and smoke level increases - spreads rapidly because of strong winds which can supply more
oxygen
- Oxygen level decreased and the fuel is already dried out
How Fire Spread?
- Hot gasses rise to the ceiling and spreads outward to the walls
1. Direct Heat Transfer
- The smoke layer is getting thicker and fire is starting to spread to
nearby furniture - transfer of heat from one body to another through direct flame
contact
3. Flash Over
2. Radiation
- Transition between growth and fully developed stage
- refers to the emission of energy in rays or waves
- Presence of huge smoke which indicates the rapid change of
situation - heat that one feels when sitting in front of a campfire or while
standing under the sun
- Increasing level of smoke with decreased visibility
3. Convection
- Gases are generated by heat
- transfer of heat by the physical movement of hot masses of air
4. Filly Developed
- heated air expands and becomes lighter than the surrounding air
- All combustibles materials present are continuously burning thus it rises
- Maximum amount of heat is released 4. Conduction
- Unburned gases begin flowing to adjacent spaces and ignite once it - transmission of heat from one body to another
enters a space where air is more abundant
Classifications of Fire:
5. Decay
1. Class A
- Intensity of fire decreasing due to lack of available fuel
- Ordinary combustibles or fibrous material, such as wood, paper,
- Most of fuel consumed cloth, rubber and some plastics
Backdraft 2. Class B
- An explosive fire that happens due to sudden introduction of - Flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline, kerosene,
oxygen into an enclosed structure. paint, paint thinners and propane
- Oxygen may enter into a house on fire when a window beaks or 3. Class C
when a door is opened.
- Energized electrical equipment, such as appliances, switches, panel • a Class K extinguisher for commercial cooking operations
boxes and power tools
• may be used on Class A fire in commercial kitchens
4. Class D
6. Dry Powder
- Certain combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium,
• separates the fuel from the oxygen element or by removing the
potassium and sodium.
heat element of the fire triangle
- They may react violently with water or other chemicals and must
• dry powder extinguishers for Class D or combustible metal fires
be handled with care
only.
5. Class K
How to Use a Fire Extinguishers:
- Fires involving combustible cooking fluids such as oils and fats.
1. P – Pull
How to Extinguish a Fire:
- Pull the pin to allow the extinguisher to discharge. Hold the hose or
The principles of fire extinction consist of the elimination or removal nozzle ready for use.
of one or more of the four elements.
2. A – Aim
These principles are:
- Aim at the base of the fire to hit the fuel.
1. Cooling
3. S – Squeeze
• removing HEAT
- Squeeze the top handle to release the pressurized extinguishing
• use something that absorb heat agent

• use water being the best cooling agent 4. S – Sweep

• use foam which contains 94% water - Sweep from side-to-side until the fire is completely out

2. Smothering Remember: Start using the extinguisher from a safe distance away,
say 2-3m, and then slowly move forward. Once the fire is out, keep
• removing OXYGEN
an eye on the area in case it reignites.
• closing the door
Do not fight a fire if:
• displacement or diluting oxygen by means of CO2
• It is bigger than a waste paper bin
• blanketing- using wet blanket as foam
• One extinguisher is not enough
3. Starvation
• Smoke is affecting your breathing or there is any risk to yourself
• removing FUEL
• You cannot see the way out
• shut off fuel supply
• Gas cylinders or chemicals are involved
• relocate flammable/ combustible materials
• Your efforts are not reducing the size of the fire
4. Stop chain reaction
• The fire is spreading beyond the immediate area in which it
• stop or interrupt the chain reaction between the fuel, heat and started, or if it is already a large fire.
oxygen the fire will be extinguished
• The fire could block your escape route.
• use a fire extinguisher
• You are unsure of the proper operation of the extinguisher.
Types of Fire Extinguisher:
• You doubt that the extinguisher you are holding is designed for the
1. Clean Agent type of fire at hand or is large enough to fight the fire.

• RA 8749 (The Philippine Clean Air Act) compliant If you discover a fire:

• for Class A, B and C fires • Raise the alarm

2. Dry Chemical • Fight the fire if you are competent and you consider it safe to do
so (generally only to facilitate escape)
• most widely used type of fire extinguisher
• Evacuate as per normal fire procedure
• for Class A, B and C fires
• Inform the Fire Warden or Responsible Person
3. Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
In the event of a fire, your personal safety is your most important
• foam blanket blocks oxygen supply to the fuel concern.
• water content of the foam produces a cooling effect for additional Remember – you are not required to fight a fire.
fire suppression
Burns
• for Class A and B fires
• tissue injuries caused by heat, electricity, radiation or chemicals
4. Carbon Dioxide
• can cause pain, swelling, blistering, scarring and in severe cases,
• a non-flammable gas that removes oxygen even death
• CO2 is very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher, so it cools the • can lead to infections because the damage skin can no longer act
fuel as well as a barrier against harmful microorganisms
• for Class B and C fires 1st Degree
5. Wet Chemical • affects only the outer layer of the skin – epidermis
• removing the heat and prevents reignition • person is still able to function well with tolerable pain.
• area that is burned is red and dry without any blister • Do not soak or immerse burns in cold water, apply ice or ice water
or apply any ointment.
2nd Degree
• Check for vital signs
• depth of burn has reached the dermis
Bureau of Fire Protection
• blister will appear
• Through the enactment of the RA 6975,also known as the DILG Act
• skin can no longer retain fluid and heat
of 1990, the Fire Service was separated from the PC-INP as a
• skin can no longer block infection separate and distinct agency as Bureau of Fire Protection on August
2, 1991.
• can reach nerve endings thus it is painful
• BFP is mandated to prevent and suppress destructive fires,
3rd Degree conduct investigation, provide emergency medical and rescue
• the epidermis, dermis and underlying fat tissue are damaged services and enforce the Republic Act 9514

• muscle and bone may be affected Fire Tragedies:

• many nerve cells die such that the victim may no longer feel 1. Ozone Disco
anything - 19 MARCH 1996
• burnt area may appear white or charred - 160 persons killed
Be prepared for a fire emergency: - 83 persons injured
• Check the location of fire alarms and know how they work. Learn - P 15M in damages
also how it sounds.
2. Baseco Compound
• Learn your building evacuation plan. Know where your two
nearest exits are located. Learn how doors swing and where stairs - 12 JANUARY 2004
lead. Plan your escape route.
- 12,500 families left homeless
• Make sure nothing blocks fire extinguishers and emergency exits.
- 6,000 homes burned to the ground
• Post emergency numbers (including security and first aid) near
- P40M in damages
your telephone.
3. Q.C. Manor Hotel Fire
Basic response procedures:
- 75 deaths
• Find an area where smoke has not reached. If there is a lot of
smoke, stay low and crawl on your hands and feet. - damage was estimated to about 10 million pesos

• Do not panic as this will keep you disoriented and make you lose CAUSE OF FIRE:
your focus.
Overloading that led to heating of wiring and electrical short circuit.
• Evacuate the area or room by going to the nearest exit. Follow
Testimonial evidence of Ronilo Pacinos Y Ritual, hotel guest at room
signs. Do not use the elevator.
306 who noticed the fire at the ceiling of the stockroom at the 3rd
• While evacuating a room, leave it closed to prevent the entry of floor.
smoke but do not lock to allow others to escape.
4. Asosasion de Damas de Filipinas Inc (PACO Settlement House)
• If you can, assist people with special needs, but do not carry them
- December 3, 1998
• Do not attempt to go back inside the building until declared safe. If
- 27 persons killed (22 children and 5 adults)
a person or pet is trapped inside, alert the fire department
immediately. - P10M in damages
• Fire spreads rapidly. In some instances, you and your household Give the following details:
may have as little as two minutes from the time the smoke alarm
sounds to escape safely. • Type of Emergency

• If your clothes catch fire, do not panic or run. • Location / Landmarks

• Do the stop, drop and roll method. • Name • Phone Number Used

• Running will make the fire worse as the fire will grow with added • Other Data Asked By Operator
oxygen. *Be the last to hang up*
• Drop to the ground and cover your face with your hands.

• Roll over back and forth until the fire has been put out

Basic Response Procedures:

R – Rescue: Remove persons in immediate from danger

A – Alarm: Alert others and Emergency Services

C – Contain: Contain fire and smoke (close doors)

E – Extinguish: Extinguish or Evacuate

• In assisting people who are burnt, do not attempt to remove the

clothing. If clean cotton cloth or gauze is available, use it to carefully
cover the burned area.

• Do not attempt to treat 3rd degree burns. Bring the victim to a

hospital or call for medical assistance.