Unit 7

Cryptography

Cryptography 7-1
4-Digit Combination Lock

Any two kids together can open the

lock, but any single kid obtains no
information (meaning that he/she
needs to try all 10,000 combinations).

How can it
be done?

Cryptography 7-2
Outline of Unit 7
 7.1 Cybersecurity Ethics
 7.2 Symmetric Key Cryptography
 7.3 Public Key Cryptography
 7.4 Secret Sharing

Cryptography 7-3
Unit 7.1

Cybersecurity Ethics

Cryptography 7-4
What is Ethics?
 Derived from the Greek word “ethos” (ἦθος),
which originally meant “custom” or “habit”.
 A branch of philosophy that is concerned with
human conduct.
 It studies what is morally right or wrong, just
or unjust.

Cryptography 7-5
Code of Ethics
 In work life, ethics is often formulated in formal
codes or standards to which all members of a
profession are held.
 e.g., code of ethics for lawyers, doctors, etc.
 It sets forth values and ethical principles to
which professionals aspire and by which their
actions can be judged.
 It is publicly available and addressed to anyone
with an interest in that organization's activities
and the way it operates.
Cryptography 7-6
The (ISC)² Code of Ethics
 The (ISC)² code of ethics is covered on the
CISSP exam.
 CISSP: Certified Information Systems Security
Professional – a certificate granted by (ISC)²
 Certification holders must adhere to its four
canons during their career.
 Code of Ethics Canons
 Protect society, the common good, necessary From
public trust and confidence, and the highest
infrastructure. standard
 Act honorably, honestly, justly, responsibly, (society) to
and legally. lowest (the
 Provide diligent and competent service to profession)
principals.
 Advance and protect the profession.
Cryptography 7-7
Cybersecurity Ethics
 Ethical issues are at the core of cybersecurity
practices.
 Example:
 Suppose you are a cybersecurity professional.
 You job is to secure a hospital’s network and critical
data from invasion and attack.
 Patients’ privacy, health, or even their survival can
hinge upon your success or failure.
 You are protecting their lives and well beings.

Cryptography 7-8
Hackers
 Black hat hackers
 criminals who break into computer networks with malicious
intent
 White hat hackers
 a.k.a. ethical hackers, penetration testers
 professionals who have permission to identify security flaws in
a system
 Grey hat hackers
 Not necessarily malicious but break into systems without
permission, thus violating laws or ethical standards.
 If vulnerabilities in a system are found, they may report them
to the owner, sometimes requesting a small fee to fix the
problem.
 Watch this (2 min):
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6S3-XGrZAE

Cryptography 7-9
Unit 7.2

Symmetric Key Cryptography

Cryptography 7-10
Secure Communications
 Bob & Alice want to communicate “securely”
 Trudy (intruder) may intercept, delete, add messages

Alice Bob
channel data, control
messages

data secure secure data

sender receiver

Trudy

Cryptography 7-11
The Language of Cryptography
Alice’s Bob’s
𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴 encryption 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 decryption
key key

plaintext encryption ciphertext: 𝑐𝑐 decryption plaintext: 𝑚𝑚

message: 𝑚𝑚 algorithm algorithm

 Encryption: 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚, 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴

 Decryption: 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑐𝑐, 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 ):

Cryptography 7-12
Symmetric Key Cryptography

𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆

plaintext encryption ciphertext decryption plaintext

Message: 𝑚𝑚 algorithm algorithm
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 ) 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑐𝑐, 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 )

 The encryption and decryption algorithms (i.e., the

functions 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔) are assumed known to the public.
 For many applications, it is difficult to keep the algorithms
as a secret.
 Alice and Bob share the same (symmetric) key: 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆
 The key is private (known only by Alice and Bob).

Cryptography 7-13
Caesar Cipher (~58 BC)
 Named after Julius Caesar, who used it in
his private correspondence.
 Each letter in the plaintext is (cyclically)
shifted by a fixed number of positions
down the alphabet.
 e.g. if the shift is 3, a→d, b→e, …, z→c
 The symmetric key 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 is the number of Julius Caesar,
arguably the
shift positions. greatest of the
dictators of
 Decrypt it without knowing 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 !
Rome, ruling
k ecog k ucy k eqpswgtgf from 49 BC to
44 BC.
i came i saw i conquered Cryptography 7-14
Substitution Cipher
 Substitution cipher: replace one thing by another.
 Caesar cipher is a special case of substitution cipher.

 Example: (replace each letter by another)

 plaintext: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

 ciphertext: mnbvcxzasdfghjklpoiuytrewq
 The symmetric key 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 is the mapping.
 Decrypt the ciphertext below using the above key:
nkn s gktc wky mgsbc
bob i love alice
you Cryptography 7-15
Cryptanalysis
 Some English letters
occur more often
than others.
 Monoalphabetic
ciphers are
vulnerable to
frequency analysis
attacks, since the
language feature is
preserved after the Relative frequencies of
substitution. letters in text

Cryptography 7-16
The One-Time Pad (OTP) (1882)
 Motivation:
 In the substitution cipher, every occurrence of an
object is replaced by the same object, which is easy
to break (via statistical analysis) for long messages.
 History:
 First described by Frank Miller in 1882.
 Re-invented by Gilbert Vernam (of AT&T
Corporation) in 1917 and later patented in 1919.
 Its theoretical significance was recognized and
proved by information theorist Claude Shannon in
the 1940s.
Cryptography 7-17
Encryption
 Let n be the length of the plaintext.
 The symmetric key 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 is a list of
𝑛𝑛 random shifts.
 Encryption is by addition mod 26.
 Example:
 number theory is the queen of mathematics
 354123 ...... .. ... ..... .. ...........
 qzqcgu ...... .. ... ..... .. ...........
Note: only the first word is shown.

Cryptography 7-18
Perfect Secrecy
OTP is perfectly (or information-theoretically) secure if
the following four conditions are met:
1. The key is at least as long as the plaintext.
• A major drawback of the scheme. How can sender and receiver
exchange the key (with very long key size)?
2. The key is truly random.
• Hard to achieve in practice. Practical schemes are usually
based on pseudo-random numbers.
3. The key is not reused in whole or in part.
• That’s why it’s called one-time.
4. The key is a secret known only by the sender and
the receiver.
• A condition obviously needed.

Even a quantum computer cannot break it!

Cryptography 7-19
OTP: Binary Implementation
 Suppose the plaintext 𝑚𝑚 is a bit sequence of
length 𝑛𝑛.
 The symmetric key 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 is a bit sequence of the
same length generated randomly.
 Ciphertext 𝑐𝑐 is obtained by bitwise-XOR between
𝑚𝑚 and 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 , i.e.,
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚 ⊕ 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆
 Example:
 𝑚𝑚 = 10011101
 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 = 01100101
 𝑐𝑐 = 11111000 (obtained by 𝑚𝑚 ⊕ 𝐾𝐾𝑆𝑆 )
Cryptography 7-20
Hill Cipher (1929)
 A polygraphic substitution cipher,
invented by Lester S. Hill.
 Substitution is performed block by
block (instead of letter by letter).
 A vector of 𝑛𝑛 letters is encrypted
by multiplication with an 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛
invertible matrix (mod 26), which
is the secret key.
 Decryption is done by
multiplication with the inverse of
the encryption matrix.
Cryptography 7-21
Example: Encryption Matrix
The plaintext is “ACT”. The encryption matrix.

To ensure decryption
can be done, this
matrix must be
invertible.

SageMath code
R = IntegerModRing(26)
E = Matrix(R,[[6,24,1],[13,16,10],[20,17,15]])
E.is_invertible()

You can use SageMath to verify that the matrix is invertible.

https://sagecell.sagemath.org/
Cryptography 7-22
Example: Encryption
The ciphertext is obtained by

SageMath code

R = IntegerModRing(26)
E = Matrix(R,[[6,24,1],[13,16,10],[20,17,15]])
m = vector(R,[0,2,19])
E * m

Cryptography 7-23
Example: Decryption Matrix
The decryption matrix.

SageMath code

R = IntegerModRing(26)
E = Matrix(R,[[6,24,1],[13,16,10],[20,17,15]])
E.inverse()

Cryptography 7-24
Example: Decryption
The plaintext is obtained by

SageMath code
R = IntegerModRing(26)
E = Matrix(R,[[6,24,1],[13,16,10],[20,17,15]])
m = vector(R,[0,2,19])
c = E * m
D = E.inverse()
D * c

Cryptography 7-25
Remarks on Hill Cipher
 Encryption matrix, 𝐸𝐸, must be invertible.
 According to Cramer’s rule, matrix inverse is
computed by “division by determinant”.
 𝐸𝐸 ≠ 0 (division by zero is undefined)
 𝐸𝐸 is co-prime with the modular base (which can be
guaranteed if the base is chosen as a prime number).

 Matrix multiplication alone is not very secure.

 Vulnerable to known-plaintext attack because a
system of linear equations is easy to solve.
 It is still useful when combining with other non-
linear operations.
Cryptography 7-26
The Enigma Machine (1918) (optional)
 Invented by Arthur Scherbius in 1918,
right at the end of World War I.
 Early models were used commercially
from the early 1920s.
 Adopted by Nazi Germany before and
during World War II.
 Alan Turing, a mathematician, cracked
the code, which shortened the war by
more than two years.
 Enigma machine (12 min):
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2_Q9
FoD-oQ
Cryptography 7-27
Unit 7.3

Public Key Cryptography

Cryptography 7-28
Symmetric Key vs Public Key
Symmetric key crypto Public key crypto
 radically different
 requires sender and
approach [Diffie-
receiver know a shared Hellman76, RSA78]
secret key  sender, receiver do not
 Q: how to agree on the share secret key
key in the first place  public encryption key
(particularly if never known to all
“met”)?  private decryption key
known only to receiver

Cryptography 7-29
Public Key Cryptography
𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵+ Bob’s public
key

𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵− Bob’s private

key

plaintext encryption ciphertext decryption plaintext

Message: 𝑚𝑚 algorithm algorithm 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑐𝑐, 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵− )
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵+ )

Additional requirement:
 Given the public key 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵+ , it should be (almost)
impossible to compute the private key 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵− .
Cryptography 7-30
Practical Use
 The following two-step approach is commonly
used (e.g., in HTTPS):
1) Use public key to privately share a session key
(i.e., a symmetric key)
 Public key crypto has a lot of overhead.
 This step is done only at the beginning of a
communication session.
2) Use symmetric key to encrypt data
 Symmetric key crypto is quicker and uses less
resource.

Cryptography 7-31
RSA Cryptosystem
 By Rivest, Shamir, Adleman
of MIT in 1977.
 Best known and widely used
public-key scheme.
 Use large integers (e.g., 1024
bits) Is factorization
 Security due to the difficulty difficult?
of factoring large numbers.

Cryptography 7-32
RSA Challenge
 Can you factorize the following number
(which has 617 digits, or 2048 bits)?
2519590847565789349402718324004839857142928212620
4032027777137836043662020707595556264018525880784
4069182906412495150821892985591491761845028084891
2007284499268739280728777673597141834727026189637
5014971824691165077613379859095700097330459748808
4284017974291006424586918171951187461215151726546
3228221686998754918242243363725908514186546204357
6798423387184774447920739934236584823824281198163
8150106748104516603773060562016196762561338441436
0383390441495263443219011465754445417842402092461
6515723350778707749817125772467962926386356373289
9121548314381678998850404453640235273819513786365
64391212010397122822120720357
Cryptography 7-33
RSA: Getting Ready
 Message: just a bit pattern
 bit pattern can be uniquely represented by an
integer
 thus, encrypting a message is equivalent to
encrypting a number.
 Example:
 𝑚𝑚 = 10010001 . This message is uniquely
represented by the decimal number 145.
 To encrypt 𝑚𝑚, we encrypt the corresponding
number, which gives a new number (the ciphertext).

Cryptography 7-34
Key Generation
 Bob generates two large distinct random primes,
𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞.
 Compute 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 and 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝 − 1 𝑞𝑞 − 1 .
 Choose at random 𝑒𝑒 (with 1 < 𝑒𝑒 < 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 ) which
is co-prime with 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 .
 Solve the following equation to find d:
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ 1 (mod 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 )
 The inverse of 𝑒𝑒 exists, since 𝑒𝑒 and 𝜙𝜙 𝑛𝑛 are coprime.
 Bob publishes his public key 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵+ : (𝑁𝑁, 𝑒𝑒).
 He keeps secret his private key 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵− : (𝑁𝑁, 𝑒𝑒).
 Note: 𝑁𝑁 is known by everybody.

Cryptography 7-35
Encryption and Decryption
1. To encrypt message 𝑚𝑚, Alice uses Bob’s public
key 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵+ : 𝑁𝑁, 𝑒𝑒 to compute
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 (mod 𝑁𝑁)
 Note that 𝑚𝑚 must be smaller than N (break down
into blocks if necessary).
2. After receiving the ciphertext, Bob uses his
private key 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵− : 𝑁𝑁, 𝑒𝑒 to compute
𝑚𝑚′ = 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 (mod 𝑁𝑁)
magic
𝑚𝑚′ = 𝑚𝑚
happens!
Cryptography 7-36
RSA Toy Example
 Bob chooses 𝑝𝑝 = 5, 𝑞𝑞 = 7.
 Then 𝑁𝑁 = 35, 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 = 24.
 Suppose 𝑒𝑒 = 5 is chosen (so 𝑒𝑒, 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 are co-prime)
 Compute 𝑒𝑒 = 5 (by xgcd so that 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ 1 (mod 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 ) )
 Encrypt 8-bit message
e e
bit pattern m m c = m mod N
encrypt:
00001100 12 248832 17

c d d
c m’ = c mod N
decrypt:
17 1419857 12
In practice, the numbers are very large.
Fast exponentiation is used instead! Cryptography 7-37
Why does RSA work?
 We want to show that
𝑚𝑚′ ≡ 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 mod 𝑁𝑁 ,
or
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 mod 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 .

 By the corollary of CRT, it suffices to prove that

𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 mod 𝑝𝑝 ,
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 mod 𝑞𝑞 ,
for all 𝑚𝑚.

Cryptography 7-38
 To prove:
Case 1: 𝑚𝑚 ≡ 0 (mod 𝑝𝑝) 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 mod 𝑝𝑝 ∀𝑚𝑚
 It implies 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 0 (mod 𝑝𝑝).
 Hence, 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 (mod 𝑝𝑝).

Case 2: 𝑚𝑚 ≢ 0 (mod 𝑝𝑝) ⟹ 𝑝𝑝 ∤ 𝑚𝑚

 Since 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ 1 (mod 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 ), we can write
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1 + 𝑘𝑘𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 for some integer k.
 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚1+𝑘𝑘𝜙𝜙 𝑛𝑛 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝−1 𝑘𝑘(𝑞𝑞−1) (mod 𝑝𝑝).
 Since 𝑝𝑝 ∤ 𝑚𝑚, by Fermat’s Little Theorem,
𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝−1 ≡ 1 mod 𝑝𝑝 .
 Hence, 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 (mod 𝑝𝑝).

Similarly, we can show that 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑚𝑚 (mod 𝑞𝑞).

Q.E.D.
Cryptography 7-39
Why is RSA secure?
 Given the public key (𝑁𝑁, 𝑒𝑒), how hard is it to
determine the private key (𝑁𝑁, 𝑒𝑒)?
 If 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 is known, 𝑒𝑒 can be determined by solving
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ 1 mod 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 .
 Is it hard to determine 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 from 𝑁𝑁?
 It is well known that factorizing 𝑁𝑁 into 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 for large 𝑁𝑁 is a
very hard problem.
 Suppose 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 can be determined easily from 𝑁𝑁.
 Then 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 can be obtained by solving the following two
simultaneous equations:
• 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞,
• 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝 − 1 𝑞𝑞 − 1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 − 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞 + 1.
 Hence, it is hard to determine 𝜙𝜙 𝑁𝑁 from 𝑁𝑁.

Cryptography 7-40
Exercise
Use the RSA algorithm to encrypt the message 𝑚𝑚
represented by the decimal number 32 with 𝑁𝑁 = 85
and 𝑒𝑒 = 61.
a) Compute the ciphertext, 𝑐𝑐. me ( mod N )
-

b) Factorize 𝑁𝑁 and check your answer in (a) by

decryption. c

• In practice, N is a very large number, so factorization is

extremely time consuming.

Cryptography 7-41
Solution

(a) Encryption (b) Decryption

𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 mod 𝑛𝑛 = 3261 mod 85 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝 × 𝑞𝑞 85 = 5 × 17.
322 ≡ 4 mod 85 ϕ 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝 − 1 𝑞𝑞 − 1
324 ≡ 16 mod 85 = 4 × 16 = 64.
328 ≡ 1 mod 85 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ 1 mod 64
61𝑒𝑒 ≡ 1 mod 64 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 = 21.
3216 ≡ 1 mod 85
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 mod 𝑛𝑛
3232 ≡ 1 mod 85
= 221 mod 85
= 25 4 2 mod 85
3232 3216 328 324 32 mod 85
= (324 ) 2 mod 85
= 16 × 32 mod 85 = 2.
= 16 × 2 = 32
Cryptography 7-42
Unit 7.4

Secret Sharing

Cryptography 7-43
 4-Digit Combination Lock

Key Idea: Two points determine a line.

Suppose the lock’s

combination is 6965.

slope = 6965, y-intercept (generated randomly)

Cryptography 7-44
 Secret Sharing Scheme
 Let 𝑝𝑝 = 10007 (any prime number greater than 10,000)
 Pick a random number from 0, 1, … , 𝑝𝑝 − 1 .
 Define the line 𝐿𝐿 by
𝑦𝑦 ≡ 6965𝑥𝑥 + 30 (mod 10007)

 Give the kids the following points on 𝐿𝐿:

 Alice: (1, 6995)
 Bob: (2, 3953)
 Claire: (3, 911)
 Daniel: (4, 7876)

Cryptography 7-45
」
How to Open the Lock?
 Suppose Alice and Claire want to open the lock.
 Alice: (1, 6995), Claire: (3, 911)

 The slope of the line through their point is

911 − 6995 −6084
≡ (mod 10007)
3−1 2

 Note that 2−1 ≡ 5004 (mod 10007).

 Hence,
−6084 × 5004 ≡ 6965 (mod 10007)
They can open the lock!
Cryptography 7-46
Recommended Reading
 Chapter 11, J. H. Silverman, A Friendly
Introduction to Number Theory, 4th ed.,
Pearson, 2013.

 Section 8.2, J. Kurose and K. Ross,

Computer Networking: a top-down
approach, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2010.

 Chapter 7, J. S. Kraft and L. C.

Washington, Elementary Number
Theory, CRC Press, 2015.

Cryptography 7-47
Supplementary Materials on Enigma
(optional)

 Flaw in the Enigma (11 min):

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=V4V2bpZlqx8

 The Imitation Game

 A movie based on the biography of
Alan Turing
 Trailer (2.5 min):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=aG4-C4bGAw4

Cryptography 7-48