Educational Implications of Transfer of Learning

The mechanism of transfer of learning has wide educational implications as follow.

1. Curriculum should be based on the principles of generalization and identical elements.
This would help the students to gain the experience and these experiences are applied
to the new learning.
2. Positive transfer is ensured by avoiding of negative transfer in learning situation.
3. The students are trained in such a way to identify association, similarities and
dissimilarities among the learning situations. This will help them to transfer the
previous knowledge to the new one.
4. Teacher should train the students to use insight in learning a new task.
5. The learner is provided multi-media and sensory aids for proper understanding and
gaining of the required knowledge and skills.
6. Ideals possess a great transfer value. Therefore, the curriculum should have the ideals
to teach the learners which will enable them to transfer it in all activities of life.

Check your progress

Notes: a. Write your answer in the space given below.

b. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.

5. What is transfer of learning?

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6. What are the types of transfer?

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2.9 THEORIES OF LEARNING

Psychologists put forth various theories to explain the process of learning. How the learning
takes place is answered through various approaches of learning. The theories of learning
can be classified under two major systems.
A. Associationists’ Theories
Other names of the Associationist theories are Behaviorist theories, Connectionist theories
and S-R Bond theories. They interest learning in terms of connection on association
between stimulus and response. The important Associationist theories are discussed below.
2.9.1. Thorndike’s Connectionism
Other names for this theory are Trial and error learning and S-R Reinforcement theory.
The American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) put forth the theory of trial

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and error earning after conducting the experiments with animals. According to him,
earning is a connection between stimulus and response. It is a bond between S and R. the
S-R connection is through trial and error and hence this process is called trial and error
learning.

Theories of Learning

Connectionist or Associationist Cognitive or Field or Gestalt or

or Behavior or S-R theories of Organism or Central theories of
Learning learning

1. Pavlov’s classical conditioning

1. Gestalt Theory
2. Thorndike’s connectionism Theory
2. Lewin’s Field Theory
3. Watson’s learning Theory
3. Tolman’s Sign Theory
4. Skinner’s operant conditioning
5. Guthrie’s contiguous Theory
6. Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory

Figure 2.1 Theories of Learning

The comparison between these two major systems of theories is presented as follows:
Table 2.1: Differences between S-R theories and Cognitive theories

S-R Theories Cognitive Theories

Learning is strengthening the bondage Learning is the perception whole and
between S and R. parts.
Learning proceeds from simple to complex. Learning does not proceed from simple to
complex.
They are mechanistic in their interpretation. It is perception of the whole.
Will and practice are emphasized. Interpret human behavior as cognitive
and purposeful.
Transfer of learning is explained by the The emphasis is on insight.
principle of identical elements.
Objective in approach as the emphasis is an Transfer is effective when the perception
overt behavior. is clear.

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Suitable for reaction type of learning and habit Subjective in approach as behavior
formation. involves purpose, perception, insight
rather than physical movement.
Teacher-centered. Suitable for concept formation, problem
solving, creative thinking child-centered.

Thorndike’s experiment
Thorndike established the trial and error earning by his experiment with cat a hungry cat
was put inside a cage. Food-apiece of fish was kept outside the cage. In order to come out of
the cage, the cat had to pull out a string. The cat made random movements like jumping,
hitting, dashing, and pushing the bars. After several such trial and error activities, the cat
succeeded in pulling the string to open the door and came out of the cage. Every time when
the cat came out of the cage, it was again put inside the cage. On subsequent trials, the cat
took shorter and shorter periods of time, and committed less and less number of errors.
Finally, the cat learnt to come out easily by pulling the loop of string.
Features of Trial and Error Learning
The following characteristics of learning were observed in the experiment.
• With the increase in the number of trials, random activities decrease.
• Learning by trial and error is gradual.
• There is learning when there is motive. (The cat was hungry).
• The learner makes random and varied responses (Cat claws, scratches, dashes and hits
the cage).
• Satisfying responses become better learned because they lead to the attainment of goal.
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
Thorndike, on the basis of his experiments, postulated three laws of learning. They are the
law of readiness, law of exercise and law of effect.
1. Law of Readiness. Readiness refers to the preparedness of the organism in a certain
manner the law stresses the essentiality of readiness as a factor in learning. Readiness
depends on both maturation and experience of the learner sufficient physical and
mental maturities are required for learning any type of activity.
2. Law of exercise. The law of exercise is known as the law of habit formation. The law
implies the strengthening of S-R connections with practice and their weakening when
practice is not continued. So, the effect of learning is improved by continued practice.
This law has two sub-laws (a) Law of use and (b) Law of disuse.
a) Law of use. The S-R connection is strengthened by practice.
b) Law of disuse. When practice is discontinued, connection is weakened.
3. Law of Effect. The law explains the importance of effect or consequence in
strengthening and weakening of connection. If the results of learning are satisfying to
the learner, learner gets stamped in when the results are not satisfying, learning is

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 stamped out. Satisfying results strengthen the bond between stimulus and response.
Thus the law emphasizes the role of rewards and punishments in the process of
learning.
Educational Implications of Thorndike’s Theory
Thorndike’s theory focuses the following educational implications:
1. According to Thorndike, motives play vital role in learning. So learning should be
made purposeful and goal directed.
2. Law of readiness emphasizes to understand the learner’s entry behavior by
administering interest inventories, aptitude and ability tests.
3. Law of exercise focuses the classroom application of repetition and review of learned
material. Drill strengthens the bond between S and R.
4. Law of effect uses rewards. In a classroom application the teacher can use praise and
encouragement that would bring learning.
2.9.2 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
Other names for this theory are Conditioned response theory, Respondent conditioning, and
Pavlovian conditioning. Conditioning means modification of a natural response. It is the
acquisition of a new stimulus-response relationship. This theory was developed by a
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlovin 1904. He got the Nobel Prize on his research ‘digestive
system of dogs’ in the same year 1904.
• Classical conditioning is defined as a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is
paired with a stimulus that elicits an emotional or physiological response. After
repeated pairings the previously neutral stimulus alone will elicit a similar response
(Wool folk, 1990).
• Classical conditioning is a process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the
capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a
similar or related response (Wade and Tavris, 1998).
Pavlov’s Experiment
Pavlov conducted number of experiments in dogs to study how the stimuli and responses
are associated. By simple surgical operation, the flow of saliva from a dog’s mouth was
transferred to a glass tube. The hungry dog salivated when food was presented. Food was
used by him to stimulate the secretion of saliva in dogs. Then, at the sight of food plate, dog
started salivating. After that, immediately before giving food to the dog, a bell was rung.
This experiment was repeated for seven days after seven days; he rang the bell only, but
did not give any food to the dog.
Still the dog secreted saliva in the same measure as before. Thus, the response of salivation
at the mere sight of food (unconditioned response) was now transferred to the sounding of
the bell (conditioned response. Salivation a sound of bell is an acquired response, and this
acquired response is called as conditioned reflex. The process of strengthening a conditioned
response through reinforcement is called conditioning. The conditioned response is acquired

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by pairing the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus repeatedly. Classical
conditioning is diagrammatically explained as follows.

Figure 2.1 Classical Conditioning

Thus, in classical conditioning, there is a formation of association between a conditioned
stimulus (bell) and a response (salivation) through the repeated presentation of conditioned
stimulus (bell) along with the unconditioned stimulus (food) that evoked a response
(salivation).
Principles of Classical Conditioning
a. Reinforcement: The salivary response to the bell was strengthened as a result of the
food being repeatedly presented just after the bell rang.
b. Extinction: When the bell was rung without the food being presented many times, the
response of salivating was stopped by the dog. This is known as extinction.
c. Spontaneous recovery: When the dog was brought again to the laboratory after some
rest the dog started salivating on hearing the bell. This is known as spontaneous
recovery.
d. Generalization: The dog tended to respond to any sound roughly similar to the ringing
of the bell.
e. Differentiation: If two sounds (stimuli) are sufficiently distinguished by the dog, it
responds to only one stimulus-bell sound which fetches food.
Educational Implications of Pavlov’s Theory
The following are the educational implications of Pavlovian Classical conditioning theory.

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1. Bad habits can be broken by reconditioning. Many fears, phobias and prejudices are the
results of conditioning.
2. Repetition and habit formation is to be strengthened in the process of learning.
3. Children should be awarded immediately when they do well. The delay of awarding
causes no effect.
4. Most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning from the beginning.
Thus, the teacher is to develop the good reading habits through conditioning.
2.9.3 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
Other names for his theory are Instructional conditioning, Reinforcement conditioning and
Reward learning. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) introduced the concept of operant
conditioning in 1930.
• Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which voluntary behaviors are
strengthened or weakened depending upon their consequences or antecedents.
• Operant conditioning is a form of conditioning in which a desired response occurs and is
subsequently reinforced to increase its probability of more frequent occurrence.
In Skinner’s operant conditioning, a response occurs spontaneously in the absence of any
specially correlated stimulus. The term operant means that behavior operates upon the
environment to generate its own consequences.
Skinner explains two kind of behaviors-‘respondent’ and ’operant’ behavior. Responses
elicited by specific stimuli are called respondent behavior. Responses which need not be
correlated with any known stimulus, but are emitted by the organism are called operant
behavior.
Skinner’s Experiment
A hungry rat is placed in a box called ‘Skinner-box’. This box contains a lever and device for
delivering a pellet of food. The hungry rat moves around restlessly and b chance presses the
lever. The rat gets a pellet of food immediately after pressing the lever. The rat eats and
soon presses the leer again. The food ‘reinforces’ lever pressing. It the pressing no longer
delivers food, the rate of lever pressing will diminish here behavior and appropriate
responses are important factors. If reward is withheld repeatedly, the behavior
extinguishes.
Skinner gives great importance to operant behavior, which is more concerned with
responses (R), than with stimuli (S). He calls it R-type conditioning. Skinner used R-S
formula instead of S-R formula. According to R-S formula, when a desired response is
emitted, a reinforcing stimulus is presented. Thus a desirable response is conditioned by
constantly reinforcing it.
In short, Operant conditioning refers to increasing the probability of a response in a
particular stimulus environment by following the response the response with
‘reinforcement.

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Reinforcement
The concept of reinforcement is vital to the theory of operant conditioning. A reinforce in
operant conditioning is any stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the chance of
occurrence of a response. The application of removal of a stimulus to increase the strength
of behavior is called reinforcement. Skinner distinguished between positive and negative
reinforcements.
1. Positive reinforcement. It is a stimulus which increases the probability of desired
response. The positive reinforcement is a positive reward. Praise, similes, prize, money,
etc., are the examples of positive reinforcement.
2. Negative reinforcement. The desired behavior is more likely to occur if such stimulus
reinforcement is removed. For example, we can close windows and door to avoid hearing
loud noise. Here noise is a negative reinforce. Thus a negative reinforces is a negative
reward-the avoidance of which gives us relief from unpleasant state of affairs. Skinner
did not equate negative reinforcement with punishment.
Schedule of Reinforcement
The term ‘schedule’ suggests the particular pattern according to which rein forcers follow
responses. Skinner has experimented with different schedule. They operate in developing
and shaping individual behavior.

Figure 2.2 Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement schedule. In this type we give reinforcement after every
response. In linear programming we give continuous reinforcement to the learner.
• Fixed interval reinforcement schedule. In the fixed or periodic interval schedule,
the reinforcement is presented after a prescribed interval of time.

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• Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule. The reinforcement is given after a fixed
number of responses. For example, a rat gets a pellet of food only after pressing the
lever, to say 5 or 6 times.
• Variable reinforcement schedule. When reinforcement is given at varying intervals
of time or a varying number or responses, is called a variable reinforcement schedule.
Educational implications of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
The following educational implications emerged from the theory of operant conditioning.
1. As theory suggests, the learning objectives should be defined very specifically in terms
of behavior.
2. Learning subject should e arranged in order of simple to complex.
3. The most significant contribution of the operant conditioning theory in educational
practice is the concept of programmed learning and introduction of teaching machines
in teaching-learning process. Both the concepts are briefed as below.
4. Programmed instruction. It is a system of teaching-learning within which subject
matter is broken into small steps in sequential order. These small steps can be learnt
rapidly. Each step builds upon previous one. Reinforcement is given after each step.
There is a provision to check the progress. Thus, programmed instruction is highly
individualized instructional strategy and is an effective innovation in the teaching –
learning process. It is found quite useful for classroom as well as self-learning.
5. Teaching machine. Teaching machines are automatic devices which present items in
an essentially predetermined sequence, permit the students to respond and give
immediate feedback. Thus teaching machines can also be used for self-learning.
Comparison between Classical and Operant Conditioning
The following table presents the comparison between Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning.
Table 2.3 Classical Conditioning verses Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Developed by Ivan P. Pavlov Developed by B.F. Skinner
Reinforcement comes first. Dog salivates Reinforcement is provided after the response
on seeing the food is made
The emphasis is on Stimulus. So this is ‘S’ The emphasis is on Response. So this is
type of conditioning known as ‘R’ type of conditioning
Responses are elicited Responses are emitted
The chain is from S to R The chain is from R to S
The conditioned response and the The conditioned response and the
unconditioned response are the same unconditioned response are different

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Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
There is a definite connection between The conditioned response cannot be correlated
stimulus and response with any know stimulus
Respondent behavior is internal. Operant behavior is external
The essence of learning is stimulus The essence of learning is response
substitution modification
It is controlled by automatic nervous It is controlled by central nervous system
system

B. Cognitive Theories
Other names of the cognitive theories are Gestalt theories. Cognitive theorists’ viewers are
different form behaviorists. They emphasized more importance on mind in learning than
stimulus-response mechanism. Their concern with mental events is reflected in topics such
s memory, attention, perception and concept learning. The cognitive psychologists recognize
individual difference in cognitive development some cognitive theories are discussed below.
2.9.4 Learning by Insight Theory
Wolfgang Kohler, a German Gestalt psychologist, postulated the theory of learning by
insight. This gestalt theory is based on the concept of “whole is meaningful than sum of its
parts”. Similarly, learning is taking place not as a part but as a whole.
Insightis learning that appears to occur in a flash and that involves the solving of a
problem. It is a form of problem solving that appears to involve the (often sudden)
understanding of how elements of a situation are related or can be recognized to achieve a
solution (Wade, 1998).
Kohler’s Experiment
Kohler (1925) put the Chimpanzee inside a cage. A bunch of bananas were hung from the
roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the cage. The Chimpanzee tried to get the bananas
by jumping but could not get due to height. The Chimpanzee finally used the box placed
below the hanging banana and climbed on the box and got the bananas.
In another experiment, the Chimpanzee required two or three boxes to reach the banana.
The Chimpanzee namely Sultan was able to learn placed of one box on the other and
succeeded in getting the banana.
In another experiment, a bunch of bananas were kept outside the cage. Two sticks were
placed inside the cage. After several trials, the animal joined the two sticks and pulled the
bananas in with a stick.
Characteristics of Insight Learning
The following are the characteristics of insight learning.

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1. Insight is the sudden grasping of the solution for a problem.
2. Insight alters the perception of the essential relationships in total situation.
3. Insight is facilitated by the previous experience.
4. Insight is related to intellectual ability of the learner.
5. Insight learning involves understanding and reasoning about the problem.
6. Insight poses alternative mode of trial suddenly to solve the problem.
Steps in Insight Learning
According to Kohler, certain steps are involved in learning which are discussed below.
1. Identifying the problem. The motivated learner identifies the problems involved in
attaining the goal.
2. Understanding the problem. The learner analyses the situation and perceives he
nature of the problem
3. Initial efforts. Initial efforts are in the form of simple trial and error mechanism.
4. Incubation of ideas. It involves a period of hesitation or pause towards the
problematic situation. During this period, mind keeps the task alive.
5. Insight development. A flash of lightening comes in mind to solve the problematic
situation.
6. Repetition and Generalization. After obtaining an insightful solution for the
problem, the individual applies in another situation which requires a similar type of
solution. The individual generalizes that the similar problems require the same type of
solution.
Educational Implications of Kohler’s Theory
The following are the educational implications of Kohler’s theory of insight learning.
1. The teacher should present the concept as a whole to facilitate insight learning.
2. The theory focuses the motivational part also. So the teacher should try to arouse the
motivation among the learners to learn.
3. The theory observes that understanding is essential for solving the problem the teacher
should encourage the students to understand the task by avoiding of rote learning and
mere mechanical repetition.
4. The intellectual capacity of the learners is also contributing for the insightful learning.
The learning tasks are to be graded bases on the intellectual capacity of the children.
2.9.5 Hull's Reinforcement Theory
Biological motives are those that are "wired into the nervous system." They include hunger,
thirst, the pursuit of pleasure, and the avoidance of pain. Most living creatures do what
they must to obtain food and water. That is why these are termed primary reinforcers.
Hull's theory was one of the first systematic attempts to explain motivation.

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