UNIT 3 : LEARNER FACTORS IN SECOND

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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 1 -
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Age
3.3 Sex
3.4 Intelligence
3.4.1 What is intelligence?
3.4.2 Intelligence tests
3.4.3 Role of intelligence

3.5 Aptitude
3.5.1 What is an aptitude?
3.5.2 Aptitude measures
3.5.3 Review of research on aptitude

3.6 Let Us Sum Up

3.7 Key Words
3.8 Suggested Rqading

3.0 OBJECTIVES
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This unit will try to focus on the shift in secondlforeign language research from traditional
approaches to l a l l p g e teaching, which were largely teacher centred, to the current
approaches that value the creativity of the learner and treat the leanler as an active
participant in the process of learning t foreignhecond language. This unit will describe in
some detail the contribution of the following learner variables:
age
sex
intelligence
aptitude

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The e~nphasisof theory and practice of seco~ldlanguage leanling in the late nineteenth and
greater half of the twentieth century was mainly on the behaviourist ideas of association
between stimulus and response It viewed the human mind as il blank slate and considered
language learning as a lnechallical process of habit fonllation. The greatest advocate of this
view was the American psychologist B.F Skinner. This view was challenged by the
revolutionary ideas of Noarn Chornsky in 1959. He felt that hehaviourism siulplified the
learning process and u~lderestimatedthe role of creativity of the hullla11nlind. He asserted
the renlarkable capacity of the child to "generalize, hypothesize and process information in
a variety of very special, apparently highly complex ways...which may be largely innate, or
lnay develop through some sort of learning or through ~llaturationof the llervous syste~n
(p.158)". This shift had a tremendous impact 011 research in both the first and second
language lear~~ing. The learner, rather than the teacher or the materials, became the foci~sof
study. The learner began to be viewed as an active participant iu the process of leanliog. I11
 Learner Factors in Seccbud
Language Aeqakilion -I
Icachil~g,more aiid niore ernphasis began to be given to those exercises in teaching which
would help tlie leanler to induce tlie lauguage system and internalise the rules that goveni
tl~ctarget language. However, focus on the learner gradually led researchers such as
Widdowson, Morrow atid othefi to look beyond the linguistic needs to the communication
llccds of the learners. Another iniportant co1Lsequenc.e of the iticreasiiig focus 011 the learner
\\[;isthat tlie output of the learner began to bc cnl~sideredindepeildeiit of the leanier's first
or target language. This output began to be called 'transitional competence' (Corder 1971),
'apl)roxiiiiate systen~'(Nen~ser1971) and 'interlanguage' (Selinker 1972).
This shift froill the teacher and the teaching inaterials to the learner, hisher nee& aiid
hisher liiiguistic output has also led some researchers to look into the learner characteristics
in greater detail and identify those characteristics that appear to be more respomible for
success or failure iu second/foreigti language learning. Significant among the learner
charicteristics identified so far, include the learner's age, intelligence, aptitude, motivation,
attitude, personality atid cogliitive style.

3.2 AGE
Most people, including some psychologists and linguists, believe that children are better at
leanung second lai~guagesthan adults. Penfield (1953) argued that the human brain loses
, its plasticity after puberty. He stressed that children relearn their language after injury or
disease. Lebleberg (1967) suggested that lateralization made the brain functiol~sbecome
specialized in the early teens. Another explanation for this apparent decline in adult
language acquisition wils that the adult's abstract mode of thinking interfered with natural
language leanling process. Yet another explanation for the decline in adult learners is that
they ge.nerally do not have the sarile peer group pressure, the i11temit.y of motivation and
attitude towards the target language and culture that children have. Seliger (1978) points
out that there is niuch evidence to show that children acquire the phonological systeiii of
another language much better than adults, aiid proposes the concept of 'multiple critical
periods' correlating with localization and the gradual loss of plasticity. It appears that
language acquisition abilities are not lost at once. There is oilly a gradual reductioti of such
abilities. Whitaker (1978) p i n t s out that though there is evidence that under uiiusual
circunlstances language acquisition may occur after puberty, possibly through the right
helllisphere of the brain, it is neither as rapid nor as successful as iiorinal acquisition.
However, several researchers have shown that adults are actually better learnem than
children. Cook (1991) refers to the research carried out on the English-speaking adults and
cliildren who had gone to live.in Holland. He reports that Sliow & Hoefilagel-Hohle (1978)
found at the e.nd of three nlonths that the older learnem were better at all aspects of Dutch
except pronui~ciation.
To quote Cook (1991)
The sum up, if children aiid adults are coinpared who are leanling a
secoiid langdage in exactly the same way,'whether as immigmnts to
Holland, or by the sairie niethod in the Classroom, adults are better.
The apparent superiority of adults in such controlled research nlay mean
that the typical situations in which children find themselves are better
suited to L2 leanling than those adults encounter. Age itself is not so
important as the different intemction that learnersof different ages have
with the situations and with other people.
(Cook, 1991 : 84)
He flither adds
Adults start more quickly and Iheii slow dowu. Tliough childre15 start
niore slowly, they finis11 up at a 11igllcrlevel.
(Cook, 1991 :85)
Thus, the researchers working on the in~partanceof age in sec.t)nd language leanling have
shown that age is a n important learner characteristic and therefore it cannot he ignored in
deciding when to start teaching a second language. It is equally important to find out what
T h e Language LCamer
iiiateriah and teaching styletstrategies would be suitable.for a particular age group in a
specific leanuiig situatiou.
Check Your Progress 1
1. Why accortliilg to some researchers, should a second/foreigii language he taught at an
early age?

2. I11 what aspects of language are children fou~ldto excel illore that1 adults?
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3. Does language acquisition after puberty always occur through the left heiilisphexe of
the brain? Yes/No. In what circumstances does it take place through the right
hemisphere?

4. Who is the long run pe.rfoms better, a child or an adult?

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5. In what way is the research on 'age' relevant for the classroom teacher?
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3.3 SEX
-- -

Several studies of firstlsecond language acquisition have shown girls to he better learnen
than boys. Tmdgill(1974) showed that woinen used the prestige li~ipisticfoni~sxilore
frequently than men, and related this phenomenon to fr~nialesocial insecurity. Trudgill
argued that wonlen are sc~iallyand economic;llly less secure than Illen and compelsate for
it linguistically. Society expects wornen to be Inore correct, discrret, quiet alld polite a ~ l d
increases the pressure on them to use more 'correct' and prestigious linguistic forms than
men. In a study of Panjahi migrant children in England leanzing English as a second
 Learner Factors in Second
-
h g u a g e Acquisition I
la~lguage,Agilihotri (1979) showed that girls assimilated the prestige linguistic variants
faster than the boys while resisting the stignlatised variants. Another researcher, Satyanath
(1 982) found that Kannadiga women in Delhi showed a higher percentage of assinlilation of
li~lguisticfeatures associated with Hindi (the lailguage of the host society) and a higher
degree of usage than men. He found that younger women assimilated the host society's
language and culture maximally. Unlike Trudgill (1974) who considered social insecurity
to be respo~~sible for higher use of prestige fonns, Satyanath explai~ledthis in ternls of the
sociocultural aspects of the Kannadiga community in which women negotiate a greater part
of the interaction with the host society.
However, i ~the i field of fonilal foreign language leanling there are only a few studies
investigating sex ils a variable. Even in these studies, several investigators generally found
girls to be better learners. Bulstall(1975) pointed to an interesting possible relationship
between sex differences and socioeco~lo~nic status. NFER study revealed that the nlost
marked sex differences occurred in the secondary schools where the students were
predonlinantly from the lower socioeconomic strata.
Check Your Prugress 2

1. Who, according to research, are better language learners, boys or girls? Why ?

2. Have you ever consciously tried to notice any difference in language learning habits of
girls and boys? Make il list of the differences. If you have nut noticed these things
before, observe 2-3 boys and 3-3 girls in your class for a inonth or so, aid make a list
of differences in their learning habits. Also take a note of what language features each
of the sexes tries to lean1 fi~sterthan the other.

3.4 INTELLIGENCE
3.4.1 What is intelligence?
Intelligence is usually conceived of as the ability to understand, to learn and think things out
quickly, especially co~iiparedwith other people, and consistq of verbal ability, reasoning
ability, concept foniiatio~iability, etc. Carroll (1965) conceived of intelligeiice as the
la~mer's~ i p a c i t yto understand instructions, and to understand what is required of himlher
in the leaniiiig situation. It is a talent for not getting sidetracked or wasting one's efforts.

3.4.2 In tklligence Tests

Most of the intelligence tests measure a number of abilities simultaneously. The most
conllnonly used individual iiltelligence tests i~~clude
Stanford-Binet test, Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Wec.hsler Intelligence S a l e for Children (WISC). Some of the
group tests of intelligence are Arnly Beta Test, Arnly Alpha Test, Army General
Tbe L.ngruge Learner
Classification Test (AGCT'),etc. The Sta~lford-Billet test is used for children fro111two to
sixteen years of age a ~ l dputs heavy stress upo~lverbal ability. It can't be used with children
who are illiterate. Wechsler Adult I~itelligenceScille (WAIS) cc>nsistsof the following
verbal and perfon~lance(non-verbal) subtests.
Verbal Subtests Performance(non-verb 1)Subtests
Information Picture arrangement
Genera 1 Comprehension Picture Co~llpletion
Memory Span Block design
Arithmetic reaso~ling Object assen~bly
Similarities Digit syn~hol
Vocabulary
The group test, The Army Beta Test, meant nlainly for illiterates and foreigners not
proficient in English, emphasizes non-verbal problenls for which simple instructions ciln be
given orally.
The Army Alpha Test designated for the typical individual who can read and write, include
some of the problem like the following :
A. If 5 112 tolls of bark cost $33, what will 3 112 cost? ( )
B. A train is harder to stop than an automobile because
( ) it iq longer, ( ) it is heavier, ( ) the brakes a r t not so good
C. If the two words of a pair mean the same or nearly the same thing, draw a line under
same. If they mean the opposite or nearly the opposite, draw a line under opposite.

comprehensive restricted same opposite

allure attract same opposite
talent hidden same opposite
deride ridicule same opposite
D. If, when you have arranged the following words to nuke a sentence, the sentence is
true, underline true; if it is false, underline fake.
pe,ople e~lellliesarrogant lllatly 111ake true false
never who heedless those. stu~nbleare true false
never man the show the deeds true faLse
E. Underline which
The pitcher has an important place in tennis football
baseball handball
F. Underline which
Dismal is to dark as cheerful is to laugh bright house @oomy

3.43 Role of Intelligence

All these tests may be useful as measures of mental ability of either an individual or il group
of individuals. But these scores cannot be treated as sure predictors of success in a
foreig~dsecondlanguage. Nor call they be co~~sidered as a retlectioll of abilities to acquire
language. Pimsleur et a1 (1 962) =ported on a large number of studies examining the
relationship of intelligence with foreign language learning. Though some of the studies
gave evide~~ce for the positive relationship between illtellige~lceand success in a foreigl~
language, most of the studies were skeptical of such relatiomhip. Cirroll and Sapon (1959)
 L e m e r Factors in Srctmd
Laay~uageAcquisitiou - I
noted that very few of the abilities measured in an intelligence test were found relevant to
foreign language leanling, and it was for this reasotl that there was very itlsignificallt
relationship between the scores 011 at1 iiltelligetlce test and a foreign language test. More
research is needed to identify those abilities that match significantlywith foreign languagc
scores. hlcidentally, these abilities have been called by nxiny researchers as language
aptitude abilities. We shall look into the-se abilities iu the next section.
Check Your Progress 3 -
1. What is intellige~lce?List five of its major comnpollents.

2. How are verbal tests different from non-verbal (performance) tests?

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3. Why have intelligence tests not proved to be predictors of success in foreignlsecond

language leanling?

4. What do you understand by the following?

"The scores on intelligence tests are postively related to the scores on foreign language
tests".

5. What do most intelligence tests measure?

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The Lnngnnge Learner
6. Wliy do you think I Q tests are not very commonly used these days for predicting
success in a foreign lauguage?
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3.5 APTITUDE
3.5.1 What is Aptitude?
Aptitude for a particular job or skill is the ability to lean1 it quickly and easily alld to do it
well. Wlmt people geuerally call a 'knack for lauguages' is llothillg but aptitude for
languages. But it is very difficult to detenniue what this knack is. It is certaillly nlore than
'having an ear' for languages because everyone leanls hisher first language.
It is popularly believed that some people have more aptitude for leanlillg secolid lallguages
than othew. This observation has generally been made in comection with classroom
learning, and not learning in real-life situations.

3.5.2 Aptitude Measures

The two best kliowll lueasuws of FL (foreign language) aptitude for native speakers of
English are the Modem Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) developed by Carroll and Sapon
(1959) and the Pilnsleur Linguage Aptitude Battery (LAB) (1 966). MLAT incoq~orates
four nlaili factors that predict a studeut's success in the classroom. Tllis col~$ist$of

(i) phonenlic coding ability: student's ability to use phonetic scripts to distinguish
phonemes in the language.

(ii) gralnmatical sensitivity: student's ability to pick out gralnuatical functiol~siu a

sentence.
iii) inductive language learning ability: student's ability to generalise patterns fro111one
selltetlce to another.

iv) rote learning: student's ability to remember vocabulary lists of foreign words pired
with trilnsliitions.
These componeilts were eventually measured in the following five sub- tests of MLAT:
Part one: Number Learning :T l ~ respondent
e is taught, on tape, the Kurdish iiunlber
system from 1to 4, plus the 'tens' and hundred' fonu~sof these numnbers, theti tested by
hearing numbers which are colnbitmtio~lsof these elemellts, e.g. 31% 122,41, etc. The test
aims at measuring associative memory.
Part Two: Phonetic Script: This sub-test measures phonemic coding ability. The
respo~ldentleanls a system of phonetic notation for some English phonemes. S/he is then
tested on this, e.g. 'Underline the word you hear: Tik ;Tiyk ;Tis ;Tiys'.
Part Tlltte: Spelling clues : This is a speed test that measures both ~iativelanguage
vocabulary and phonemic coding ability. The respondent is given clues to the
pronunciation of a word, e.g. 'luv' for 'love' and is then asked to choose a synonynl from a
list of altenlatives :
A. cany
B. exist
C. affection
D. wash
E. spy
In this case C. affection cclrresponds mclst nearly in meaning to 'luv'.
 Learner Factors in Sectbud
Language Acquisition I-
Part Four :Words in a sentences: This tests grammatical sensitivity. The respondent is
given pairs of senteuces. I11 the first sentence (key sentence) in each pair a certain word or
phrase is underlined, and the respo~ldentis asked to tick (\/ ) one of the five underlined
words or phmses in the second sentence that functions most nearly like the word or phrase
in the key selltellce in the pair. As you call see, in the followi~~g
pairs of sentellce:
Lo11do11is the capital of England,
. .
HE likga 10 10
. flshlns in Ma&

the word 'he' in the second sentence performs the same function as 'London' in the key
sentence.
Part V :Paired Associates :The nspondent studies a written Kurdish - English vocabulary
list, practices the stimulus - response pairs seen, and is then tested by means of
multiple-choice ite~t~s. This is a test of associative mnemnory. For i~~stauce, the r e s p o ~ ~ dise ~ ~ t
asked to decide which word of English has the s a ~ n ~ ~ i i e a nasi ~the.Kurdish
ig word e.
Example :
r s
a. art
b. draw
c. mri
d. ask
e. camel
The correct choice is ;1
There are several slightly different forrns of MLAT available. The MLAT itself is for use
with people of 14 years of age and above. There is also an ele~nei~taryfont1 (EMLAT) for
use with children between the ages of eight and eleven. There is also a short fonn of the
test for use when the time is limited.
Pitt~sleurLanguage Aptitude Battery (LAB) is appropriate for children aged 13 to 19. It
e n ~ p ~ s i s inductive
es language learning capacity and auditory ability. Pimsleur et. ah (1966)
suggested that 20 to 30 per cent of children undenchieve in foreign language learning
because they have poor auditory ability.

3.5.3 Review of Research on Aptitude

Most research in language aptitude since then has been either in validation of the existing
tests, or developi~igaptitude batteries for use in particular countries. For instance, the York
Language Analysis Test has been developed and has been widely used in Britain. The most
inlportarit research aimed at the production of a new test battery has bee11 carried out by the
Anlerican Arnled Forces. This Was the result of dissatisfi~ctionfelt with MLAT for not
being able to discriminate at higher levels. Another type of research has exanlined the
co~npolle~lt for aptitude in greater depth. Skehalt (1980 - 1982) examined the memory
c o ~ ~ ~ p o nin
e ndetail.
t He hypotliesi~dthat an ahility to ar~alysetext, to extract its
propositional content and reinenlber such content would be related to greater foreign
language leanling success (Skel~au1989 : 31). Jakobovits (1970) suggested that
sub-co~~teuts of FL aptitude lnay be exploited usefully in foreign language teaching. The
teacher who has the i~lfor~llation about the aptitude of hisher students can modify hisfher
i~~structional materials accordingly. This i~ifonnationcall also be used to strean1 students
into different classes with diffrrent goals. It can also help to advise students whether s h e
should set a particular target in a given time fnme.
Check Your Pn~g-ess 4 -
1. What shnilarity do you notice between intelligence and aptitude? How are they
different?
Tbe Language Learner

2. How is MLAT different from LAB ?

3. What are the implications of aptitude research for classroom teaching?

3.6 LET US SUM UP

After reading this unit, do you get a better idea of the factoe which affect the language
learning potential of your students ? Because, in this unit, we have cited research on some
learner variables which affect language lean~inglacqui~ition. Thk iilcludes factors such as
age, sex, it~telliger~ce
and aptitude. Does your experience in the classroon~corroborate the
research findings ? Do write and tell us at IGNOU.

KEY WORDS
aptitude The ilatural ability to lean1 a language which does riot it~clude
intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.
Language aptitude is thought to be a corr~birlatio~l of various
abilities, such as the ability to recognize the different gratn~rutical
functio~~ of words iu sentences, the ability to recognize sound
patterns in a new language, the ability to infer language rules.
A person with a high language aptitude ciln learn a secoild/foreign
lailguage more quickly and easily that1 a petsol1 with a low language
aptitude, all other factors bei~lgequal.
auditory related to hearing
behnviourist theory a theory of psychology which states that human behaviour should
be studied in tenw of physical processes oilly. It led to theories
of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus)
caused a change in the individual (a response). This theory had it
tr~~neridous impact on language Iean~ing.

cognitive style the particular way in which a leanler tries to lean1 something.
I11 second or foreign language leanliilg, different leanlem may
prefer different solutions to leanling problems. For example,
some learners may want explanations for gnmmatical rules,
others may not need them.
 Lemma Factors iu Sect~nd
L qnguage Acqsisiti~w- I
interlanguage / transitional the type of language pn~ducedby second/foreign language
competence / approximate leanlers who are in the process of leanung a language.
system
the theory in child development that says that there is a
period during which language cat1 be acquired
with greater ease than at any other time.

I
I
I
inductive Inng~ab- learning learners are not taught grammatical or other
types of rules directly but are left to discover or
inc!uce rules fmtn their experience of using
the language.
the develop~t~e~itof control over different
functions in different parts of the brain.

I
!
phonological

phoneme
the establishment, description and arrangement
of distinctive sound units of a language.
the smallest unit of sour~din il language

i phonemic the study or description of the distinctive sound

ullits (photiemes) of a language and their relationship
to each other.

r
phonetic notation special symbols which express the sounds of an actual
spoken utterance. A transcription of such an utterance
in phonetic sy~nbolsis said to bc in phonetic notation
or phonetic script.

3.8 SUGGESTED READING

Burstall, C. 1975. 'Factors affecting foreign language learning : a co~siderationof some
recent research tindings'. Latzguage TeucAirlg andlinguistics :Al~structs8.1 : 5-21.
Chomsky, N. 1959. 'Review of Skinner's verbal behaviour'. In Jakobovits, L.A. and
I Miron, M.S. eds. 1967. Readitzgs it1 rlre Psychology ofLattguage. New Jerxey : Prentice
Ha11 (originally published in Lnngurige 35 : 26-58)
Cook, V. 1991. Second Language Lenwiitig nridlnngriage tenclting. b n d o n : Edward
Arnold
Jakobovits, L.A. 1970. Foreign latiglmge Learning: a Psycholingui~ticAnalysis of t / ~ e
Issues. Rowley, Mass : Newbury House.
Len~ieberg,E.H. 1967. The Biologicul Foundation of L~nnguage.New York : Wiley
Seligr, H.W. 1978. 'Implication of nlultiple critical hypothesis for second language
leanling'. I11 Ritchie, W.C. ed. Second Lat~guageAcqukition Research. New York :
Academic Press.
Skehau, P. 1989. Itidivitiuol Differences it1 Second-lartguage Letmtirtg. London :Edward
Aruold.
Whitaker, H.A. 1978. 'Bilingualisnl : A neuro-ling~iisticperspective'. hi Ritchie, W.C. ed.
Second Latlgunge Acquisition Resenr-ch :Issues aiid Iimplicatic>ns.New York :Academic
Press.

3.9 ANSWERS
Check your Progress 1 -
1. Read 3.3 for the answer. However, here are some suggcstiot~s:
The h g u a g e Learner
- greater plasticity of the brain associated with small c h i l l ~ which
n nlakes them
better language learners than older people (Penfield, 1953) '
- latenlization makes the brain function to bscoiile specialized in early teens,
therefore, language learning is best ca.nicd out before the outset of puberty.
- the adult's abstract thinking process interfers with uatural lauguage leanling
process.
- adult's lack the same pressure, motivations and attitudes that children have with
regard to second language acquisitio~u'leanii~ig.
2. Pronunciatio~iof tlie s e c o ~ ~language.
d
3. Yes, In case there is an in-jury to the left hemisphere.
4. Evidelice sliows that adults start ciare quickly and tlia~lslaw down. child re^^ start
lllore slowly, but finish up at a higlier level.
5. For finding out suitable miiterials and teachingflear~lingstrategies for each age group.
Check yotar Progress 2 -
Look at 3.3 for the answer. Here are some points which you could consider.
1. Generally girls are better language learners than boys. Because of
- social insecurity which increases the pressure on them to use the more correct
forms. (Trudgill, 1974; Agnihotri 1979)
- greater interaction with the host society (Satyaiiath, 1982)
Check your Progress 3 -
1.- Read 3.4.1 for the answer
Five components of intelligeilce are:
- verbal ability
- reasoning abi!ity
- conce,pt fomatio~iability
- learner's capacity to understand instructions
- ability not to get side,tracked
2. Verbal tests require the ability to read or write, non-verbal tests rely on simple
i~lstructionsorally given.
3. Read 3.4.3 for the answer.
4. This statement means that a person needs to score well on an intelligence test in order
to score well in a foreign language test. In other words, one needs intelligence in
order to be good at foreign languages.
5. Read the whole of section 3.4 for the answer.
6. Because research has shown that intelligence tests are not good predictors of success
in a foreign/second language.
Check you Progress 4 -
1. Read sections 3.4 and 3.5 before answering the question.
2. Read the entire section 3.5 for the answer.
3. The teacher who has sotrle infcnnatioil on the aptitude of her stude,nts call
- modify instructional materials accordingly
- stream students illto different clrsses with different goals.
- advise stude~ltson their goals a ~ i dthe time-frame they would require to achicvc it.