TITLE: THE CAUSES OF URBAN POVERTY IN

MALAYSIA AND POLICY SOLUTIONS

SEA 302: ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION IN

NAME: ESHAA JIT KAUR DHALIWAL

MATRIC NUMBER: 162465

DATE: 05.07.2024
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Executive summary………………………………………………………..………………………1
1.0: Introduction……………………………………………………………………….…………..2
2.0: Conceptualizing Urban Poverty in Malaysia………………………………………...……..3-4
3.0: Causes of Urban Poverty in Malaysia………………………………………………….…5-10
3.1: Urbanisation………………………………………………………………….…….5-6
3.2: Lack of good governance…………………………………………………………..6-7
3.3: Exclusion of certain demographics…………………………………...……………7-8
3.4: Foreign workers……………………………………………………………………8-9
3.5: Inflation………………………………………………………………………...…9-10
4.0: Suggestions For Economic Policies To Overcome Urban Poverty…………………...…11-15
4.1: Higher minimum wage……………………………………………………...………11
4.2: Affordable housing……………...……………………………………….………12-13
4.3: Introducing compulsory savings for informal workers….………………………13-14
4.4: Creating equity for women………………………………………………………14-15
4.5: Infrastructural development... ………………………………………………………15
5.0: Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..…16
References……………………………………………………………………………………17-20
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Urban poverty in Malaysia has increased from 1.0% to 4.5% in the span of ten years from

2012 to 2022. Urban poverty in Malaysia is caused by factors such as urbanisation, lack of good

governance, exclusion of certain demographics, foreign workers and inflation. This issue needs

to be addressed before it gets worse. Economic policies that can be implemented by the

government to solve the issue of urban poverty are higher minimum wage, affordable housing,

introducing compulsory savings for informal workers, creating equity for women and

infrastructural development. By implementing these policies, the government can reduce the

poverty rate and develop better human capital as well as encourage economic growth.

1
1.0: INTRODUCTION

Poverty is the situation or circumstance in which individuals or groups lack the financial

resources and other necessities for a basic level of living. As a result, they cannot meet their most

basic human requirements. Poverty leads to poor conditions and lack of necessities for the poor.

This includes food insecurity, limited employment opportunity, unequal opportunity for

education, poor housing, no access to quality healthcare as well as general insecurity, exclusion

and discrimination (Chung, 2012). Each country has its own specified criteria for setting the

poverty line and calculating how many people live in poverty. Based on the United Nations

Development Programme Trends Report, approximately 1.1 billion people are living in acute

multidimensional poverty over the span 110 countries in 2024.

Poverty itself is not just an individual problem but also represents a broader, structural

problem. High rates of poverty in a country can lead to other problems such as slow economic

growth, high mortality rates, violence, crime, mental illness and many other issues. This is why

institutions like the government need to intervene by taking calculated measures in an effort to

eradicate poverty. This will ensure the economic growth of a country as well as social welfare of

its people.

This paper aims to explore the concept of urban poverty and explain its relevance in the

context of Malaysia. This paper also discusses the multifaceted causes that contribute towards

the perpetuation of urban poverty. Lastly, it suggests policy solutions that can be implemented by

the government in order to overcome urban poverty.

2
2.0: CONCEPTUALIZING URBAN POVERTY IN MALAYSIA

Urban poverty refers to the set of economic and social difficulties that are found in

industrialised cities and that are the result of a combination of processes such as the

establishment of comfortable living standards, the increase of individualism, processes of social

fragmentation, and the dualization of the labour market, which translates into social dualization

(Cano, 2019). Urban poverty shares all the same basic characteristics as regular poverty with the

only main difference being that it happens in an urban setting. Therefore for the purposes of this

essay, urban poverty will be defined as the condition in which people or families in urban areas

endure substantial economic hardship and deprivation, as well as a lack of vital resources and

chances to sustain a basic quality of living due to insufficient household income.

In Malaysia, household incomes are separated into three different income groups which

are T20, M40 and B40. B40 refers to the bottom 40% of household incomes, M40 being the

middle 40% and T20 is the top 20% of household incomes. According to the Household Income

& Basic Amenities Survey Report 2022 released by the Department of Statistics Malaysia

(DOSM) , the average household size was 3.8 persons with average income recipients being 1.8

persons. The mean income for B40, M40 and T20 were RM3,401, RM7,971 and RM19,752

respectively. Therefore, households in the B40 range are the ones who are most likely to

experience urban poverty in Malaysia. The report also stated that in 2022, the average poverty

line income (PLI) had experienced an increase to RM2,589 from RM2,208 in 2019. This

increase results in more households being classified as living under the poverty line.

3
Table 1: Incidents of poverty based on percentage of households in urban and rural areas

Year Rural Urban

2012 3.4% 1.0%

2014 1.6% 0.3%

2016 17.5% 4.8%

2019 12.4% 3.8%

2022 12.0% 4.5%

According to the DOSM, the rates of urban poverty in Malaysia have been inconsistent. It

experienced a decrease from 2012 to 2014 but then increased substantially from 2014 to 2016

followed by a slight drop in 2019. The urban poverty rate then increased from 3.8% in 2019 to

4.5% in 2022 which shows an increase of 0.7% in the span of 3 years. Based on the table, we can

see that from 2012 to 2022, the percentage of rural poverty is always higher than urban poverty.

Despite this being the case, the amount of people experiencing urban poverty is higher than that

of those experiencing rural poverty. This is because over 70% of Malaysia’s population is

located in cities. Based on statistics provided by DOSM for 2022, it can be seen that over 1.1

million people in Malaysia experience urban poverty compared to over 900 thousand who

experience rural poverty.

4
3.0: CAUSES OF URBAN POVERTY IN MALAYSIA

3.1: URBANISATION

In the context of Malaysia, the recent process of rapid urbanisation has led to an increase

of urban poverty (Mok & Gan, 2007). Urbanisation is the process by which huge numbers of

people are permanently concentrated in relatively small regions, resulting in cities. This rapid

urbanisation which is caused by economic development and industrialization leads to migration

of Malaysians from rural areas into urban areas in search for better opportunities. People

typically move to urban areas as they assume that there are better job opportunities and better

ways to make a living.

As urbanisation increases, more people travel to cities for better quality of life, leading to

a rise in population. According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia, the urban population

rate in Malaysia as of 2023 is 77.7% . This means that the majority of Malaysians live in urban

areas. As urban populations grow, the cost of living rises due to increased demand for urban

commodities, which are becoming increasingly scarce (Olotuah & Adesiji, 2000). The

opportunities in urban areas are not able to keep up with the increasing migration of people. In

the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (2015), it was estimated that the urbanisation rate would increase to

80% by 2030.

Therefore , with the increasing flood of migrants into urban areas, this will increase the

competition for economic opportunities like jobs. With the government not taking any

substantial steps to cater to this, it will cause infrastructure in urban areas to be inadequate and

unable to keep up with urbanisation. The oversaturation and highly competitive nature of the job

5
market also results in joblessness or underemployment which traps urban residents in the cycle

of poverty.

3.2: LACK OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

In instances of poverty, a government's action or inaction typically results in the

perpetuation of this cycle. In terms of Malaysia, the government has constantly been criticised

for its lack of effective governance to solve the poverty issue. Even when they do take action, it

always comes across as haphazard and not fully thought through.

Firstly, in terms of a social safety net. Social security involves protecting people from

economic and social uncertainty that may be caused by disease, injuries, invalidity, maternity,

old age and many other reasons through government policies or programmes. While the

government does have some policies in place like the Employees' Provident Fund (EPF) and

Social Security Organization (SOCSO), they are still not enough. Roughly one third of

employees are not covered by EPF or SOCSO and the rest of the employed population including

self-employed people and informal sector workers are not covered by either (Mansoor & Awang,

2002). This is particularly unfair as informal sector workers are predominantly low-income

earners.

In addition to that, the public housing provided by the government is severely lacking. In

1998, the government introduced a public housing program called “Program Perumahan Rakyat”

(PPR). Over the recent years, the Malaysian property market was not balanced in terms of supply

and demand, where the demand is exceeding supply especially for low-cost housing. (Mohd-

Rahim et al., 2019). The increased urbanisation over the last few years have resulted in lack of

6
affordable housing for the urban poor. The government is incapable or just not putting enough

effort into creating easily accessible and affordable public housing which further exacerbates the

issue of poverty. Therefore, households with incomes that are already low have to now spend

additional money for overpriced housing.

3.3: EXCLUSION OF CERTAIN DEMOGRAPHICS

The exclusion or abandonment of certain demographics also plays a role in perpetuating

poverty. Two main demographics that are excluded will be explored which are women and the

elderly.

Firstly, women face discrimination in the form of the gender wage gap. Despite having

higher enrolment rates than men in all three tiers of primary, secondary and tertiary education,

women still get paid significantly less than men entirely on the basis of gender. According to the

DOSM in the year 2022, for every RM100 of salary and wages received by men, women only

received RM66.67 comparatively. The average pay for men was RM63,117 while women only

received RM42,080, showing an almost 1:1.5 ratio. The DOSM also stated that in 2022, the rate

of unemployment for men was 3.8% while women’s was 4.1%. This highlights a clear structural

issue which must be addressed. The opportunity and income disparity between men and women

in Malaysia is clearly a problem and contributes towards poverty rates.

Besides that, those in old age who are unwell and no longer employed are among the

demographics thought to be most susceptible to poverty in Malaysia (Ahmad et al., 2016). The

elderly in Malaysia which is being referred to are individuals over the age of 65 who are retired.

An early retirement age, early EPF withdrawals, low salaries, rising cost of living and a flat

7
pension all raise the possibility that older Malaysians will not have enough funds and be driven

into poverty (Caraher, 2003). Most of the elderly rely on fixed amounts of money like pensions

or EPF saving which may not keep pace with inflation. With the cost of everything increasing

and the inability to work, the elderly face financial strain and a substantial risk of being in

poverty.

3.4: FOREIGN WORKERS

Malaysia has always been a hub for foreign workers to come and seek employment at.

Migration of foreign workers to the urban areas of Malaysia has become commonplace and has

its benefits to the economy as a whole but has a drawback too.

The entry of foreign workers, especially illegal migrants in large numbers, has caused a

negative outcome towards the wage structure from continuously increasing because most foreign

workers are willing to accept any amount of wage and work any amount of long, flexible hours

compared to the locals (Ajis et al., 2014). Foreign workers are typically in more desperate

situations and are more easily exploited by corporations. They are more willing than their

Malaysian counterparts to accept low wages and poor working conditions. As a result, they are

more likely to be hired. Over time, this can also lead to declining wage rates for local workers

particularly in the field of low paying jobs.

Without a doubt, the entrance of foreign labour was originally meant to cover gaps in the

plantation, construction, agricultural, services, and domestic worker sectors but as a result of

strong demand from regional companies, they are now beginning to control the local

employment market too (Hamzah et al., 2020). The market in urban areas is already

8
 oversaturated by rural migrants within the country. The addition of foreign workers further

worsens this problem as the job opportunity to job seeker disparity becomes worse. Therefore,

local workers are less likely to gain employment and further susceptible to falling into the cycle

of poverty.

At the end of the day, migration of foreign workers into Malaysia can contribute towards

the increase in poverty rate. However, this is no fault of these workers themselves as they are

being exploited too. Due to the fact that they have lower wages and less legal protections to keep

them safe, companies hire them in an attempt to lower cost and increase profitability at the

expense of the worsening poverty in Malaysia.

3.5: INFLATION

Inflation refers to the rise of prices of goods and services over a certain period of time.

Inflation is a key component that contributes towards poverty as it affects a consumer's

purchasing power and can disproportionately affect households with low incomes. Inflation rates

in urban areas are also increasing at higher rates than rural areas.

Table 2: Inflation rates based on level of urbanisation in 2016

Products / Services Average Inflation (%)

Highly Semi-urbanised Less urbanised

Food and non-alcoholic beverages 4.6 3.6 2.9

Alcoholic beverages and tobacco 17.0 18.0 17.4

Clothing and footwear -0.7 -0.4 -0.5

Housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels 2.8 1.8 1.9

9
Furnishings, household equipment and routine 3.0 2.1 1.6
household maintenance

Health 2.7 2.4 2.5

Transport -4.1 -5.2 -5.5

Communication -1.0 -1.4 -2.3

Recreation services and culture 2.7 1.7 1.6

Education 2.3 0.9 2.1

Restaurants and hotels 2.9 2.1 2.1

Miscellaneous goods and services 3.2 2.8 2.3

TOTAL 2.5 1.6 1.4

Based on the statistics provided by BNM above, it can be seen that the total rate for

inflation in highly urbanised states is higher at 2.5% compared to semi-urbanised states and less

urbanised states at 1.6% and 1.4% respectively. Therefore, the cost of living in these urban states

are relatively higher due to the price of goods and services increasing at higher rates. It can also

be seen that the inflation rate for essentials such as food and non-alcoholic beverages, health,

housing and education were all on the rise.

The highest of them all being food and non-alcoholic beverages at 4.6% for highly

urbanised states. Lower income, especially B40 groups are impacted most by higher prices of

food and food inflation resulting in reduced purchasing power and higher cost of living among

these groups. (Ismail et al., 2022). This is because low income households spend a high portion

of their wages on food. When the price of food increases, more of their already limited amount

of money has to be spent on food. This leaves them with less and less money as inflation

continues to increase. Therefore, increasing their likelihood to be stuck in poverty.

10
4.0: SUGGESTIONS FOR ECONOMIC POLICIES TO OVERCOME URBAN

POVERTY

4.1: HIGHER MINIMUM WAGE

Minimum wage refers to the minimum amount of compensation that an employer must

provide to wage earners for work completed within a specific time frame. This compensation

cannot be decreased and is typically enforced by the government.

Currently, in Malaysia, the minimum wage set by the government is at RM1,500 for

companies with over 5 employees. With rising cost of living and inflation particularly in urban

areas, this is not enough for most low-income households to cover the cost of essentials such as

food and housing. For a single income household, this is not even close to the PLI determined by

the DOSM of RM2,589 in 2022. According to a report by the United Nations Children’s Fund

(UNICEF) Malaysia in 2024, taking into consideration key factors such as cost of living, the PLI,

median wage and productivity, their calculations show that the minimum wage for Malaysia

should be set at RM2,102 per month.

Based on the results of a study conducted by Saari et al. (2016), minimum wages were

found to be effective in reducing poverty among all ethnic groups in Malaysia. An increase in the

minimum wage helps to close the income gap between low-paid and high-paid workers. An

update to this policy will also help create an equal opportunity for all workers to receive a fair

11
compensation for their efforts, especially marginalised groups that are disproportionately

represented in low-paid jobs and are the groups who are most likely to be in poverty. It also

prevents the exploitation of employees by greedy corporations that also seek to increase profit

margins with no regard for the welfare of their employees.

4.2: AFFORDABLE HOUSING

As discussed earlier, the government has tried to establish several forms of affordable

housing which have not been able to keep up with demand in recent years. With the current trend

of population growth and urbanisation, the incompatibility between supply and demand of

affordable housing will continue to worsen if action is not taken. Due to this, the government

should try to implement more initiatives to ensure the availability of affordable housing

particularly in urban areas.

The government should have more policies in terms of public private partnership to

address the problem of supply in affordable housing to meet demands of the increasing low-

income population (Masram & Misnan, 2019). Typically, in Malaysia, an affordable house refers

to one that is below RM250,000. The private sector should be incentivized by the government or

work together with them in order to create more affordable housing. The government could

provide subsidies, tax reductions or grants to private companies who specialise in construction to

incentivize them to build more affordable housing. They could provide land at reduced rates for

private developers who are willing to create affordable houses. These private partners would use

their expertise and financing to create housing, reducing the burden for the government to solve

the issue singlehandedly.

12
 In addition to that, the government should reinstate rent control measures in order to

protect people, particularly those in poverty from predatory rental practices. The Malaysian

government had initiated rent control in 1966 but it was subsequently repealed in 1997 as the

government thought the policy was negatively affecting landlords and preventing development.

Now more than ever, a rent control policy needs to be reintroduced to ensure that property

owners do not take advantage of renters by charging excessive amounts on rental properties

specifically in urban areas. Rent control will place a limit on the amount of rent that can be

charged ensuring that it is affordable and reasonably priced. This will prevent low-income

households and those in poverty to avoid being taken advantage of.

4.3: INTRODUCING COMPULSORY SAVINGS FOR INFORMAL WORKERS

Informal workers refer to those working in the informal economy and typically do not

have any legal rights and are not monitored by the government. Many low-income households

are part of the informal economy and are not given access to any social protections such as EPF,

SOCSO or the Employment Insurance System (EIS). This means that they are left vulnerable if

they lose their job, are unable to work or reach retirement.

Therefore, the government needs to implement a system in which workers from the

informal sector contribute to compulsory savings in order to provide a safety net for themselves.

The government should create an alternative savings outlet for informal workers excluded from

the mandatory contributions. (Bank Negara Malaysia, 2022). The government has already

implemented a similar system in which SOCSO introduced a mandatory contributory scheme for

taxi or on demand drivers. This system should be extended to other sectors to provide better

coverage for informal sector workers,

13
 By implementing this, it creates more financial security for informal workers and enables

them to have a backup plan in case of unforeseen circumstances. They will ensure that they are

less likely to be driven to poverty. Most informal workers lack the financial literacy and

resources to plan for retirement.These contribution compulsory saving schemes also act as a

retirement fund for informal workers and ensure that they have enough money to survive even in

old age.

4.4: CREATING EQUITY FOR WOMEN

In recent years, the gender wage gap has been becoming worse in Malaysia. The

discrepancy between how much men and women make is one of the contributing factors towards

poverty. Women are also not provided with sufficient support to be integrated into the labour

market in terms of maternity and childcare. This is why the government needs to step in with

legislation, laws and policies to encourage the participation of women and prevent discrimination

based on gender.

The government’s labour laws must consider discriminatory issues in order to guarantee

gender equality and pay equity between men and women in Malaysia (Najib & Majid, 2021).

Malaysia should put a policy in place where companies are not allowed to pay women less than

men for the same job solely on the basis of gender. Equally as important, they should enforce

this policy and take action on companies that do have gender wage gaps by fining them.

Companies typically see women employees as lesser than their male counterparts and assume

they can get away with paying women less. This mechanism will ensure that women are not

exploited and taken advantage of just because of their gender.

14
 The government should also consider subsidising childcare and providing longer

maternity leave. As women are typically seen as homemakers, after having children, women in

Malaysia are less likely to return to the workforce. This is one of the contributing factors towards

why the female labour force participation is only around 50%. Subsidising childcare will enable

women to return to the workforce with less financial burden placed on them. Longer maternity

leave also encourages women to be more active in the workforce as they will not be penalised for

having children. Therefore, implementing these policies can help integrate women into the

labour market and create equity for women.

4.5: INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Government intervention is necessary in terms of infrastructural development to address

poverty. Comprehensive infrastructure in terms of roads, transport, health, education and others

are vital as they promote regional productivity growth and are a key part of poverty mitigation.

(Azam & Bakar, 2017). The government should place an emphasis on developing infrastructure

in low income urban areas to help promote economic growth there.

This can be done through accessible and reliable public transportation. The government

needs to emphasise transport development for the urban poor as the lack of it restricts their job

and education opportunities (Seetanah et al., 2009). Those in low-income households are not able

to spend a significant amount of money on transportation such as personal cars or bikes. This

means that they heavily rely on public transportation to get around as it is all that they can

afford. Having inadequate transportation infrastructure disproportionately affects low-income

households as it limits their mobility. Hence, the government should create accessible and

integrated public transport to increase mobility of the urban poor.

15
5.0: CONCLUSION

Urban poverty in Malaysia has been on the rise in recent years. This was due to causes

such as urbanisation which caused a massive shift in the Malaysian population from rural to

urban areas. Lack of good governance played an equally important role as it failed to provide a

sufficient safety net or adequate affordable housing. Other causes included exclusion of

demographics such as women and the elderly. Women have to deal with the gender wage gap

while the elderly struggle to survive with limited pension or savings. Foreign workers also

contribute towards poverty by oversaturating the labour market and creating competition for jobs

where they are favoured over local workers as they are easier to be exploited. Lastly, inflation

played a substantial role in causing poverty. Food inflation was particularly high and affected

low income households.

In order to overcome these issues, several policy solutions were suggested. Firstly, higher

minimum wage to ensure employees are compensated fairly and are able to acquire necessities

with their income. Affordable housing by the government through public-private partnerships

and rent control were also emphasised to reduce the financial strain on low income households.

Compulsory savings for informal workers is also important as they represent a majority of low

low income households and need to be given an adequate safety net. Equity for women can also

help in the eradication of poverty by encouraging women to actively participate in the labour

16
market and decrease the likelihood of discrimination. In addition to that, infrastructural

development in terms of transportation is vital as urban poor rely on it for their livelihoods.

In conclusion, urban poverty in Malaysia is a deeply complex issue which is caused by a

multitude of reasons. Its impacts are far reaching and primarily negative. This is why policy

solutions need to be taken by the government in order to solve this issue.

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