ABACUS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT

Mogra, Hooghly

TECHNICAL REPORT ON:

Backtracking Algorithms.

Subject : Design & Analysis of Algorithms.

Subject Code : PCC-CS 404
Submitted by : SOUVIK PAUL.
University Roll : 24000123051
Registration No. : 232400110055 of 2023-24
Department : Computer Science & Engineering.
Semester : 4th
Date of Submission : 28.02.2025

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ABSTRACT:
Backtracking algorithms are a fundamental problem-solving strategy in computer
science, used to find solutions to complex problems by exploring all possible
solutions and backtracking when a dead end is reached. This report provides an in-
depth examination of backtracking algorithms, including their types, applications,
advantages, and disadvantages. We explore the use of backtracking algorithms in
solving puzzles, scheduling, planning, and computer games, and discuss their
guaranteed solution, efficiency, and flexibility. We also discuss the limitations of
backtracking algorithms, including computational complexity and space complexity.
This report aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of backtracking
algorithms and their role in solving complex problems.
INTRODUCTION:
Backtracking is a general algorithmic technique for solving problems recursively
by building a solution incrementally. It explores all possible options to find the
desired solution and abandons paths that lead to infeasibility (i.e., those that do not
satisfy the constraints). Backtracking is particularly useful in problems involving
decision-making, combinatorial optimization, and constraint satisfaction. These
algorithms work by exploring all possible solutions and backtracking when a dead
end is reached. In this report, we will explore the concept of backtracking algorithms,
their types, applications, and advantages.
KEYWORDS:
 Backtracking Algorithms
 Problem-Solving
 Puzzle-Solving
 Scheduling
 Computational Complexity
 Space Complexity
 Recursion
 Machine Learning
 Optimization

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What is Backtracking:
Backtracking follows a depth-first search (DFS) approach to explore all possibilities.
When a partial solution is found to be invalid, the algorithm "backtracks" to the
previous step and tries a different path. This method efficiently prunes unnecessary
branches, reducing the number of computations required.

Framework of Backtracking:
1. Start with an empty solution.
2. Attempt to add elements to the solution incrementally.
3. If the current partial solution satisfies constraints, proceed further.
4. If a solution is found, return it.
5. If the current path leads to an invalid solution, backtrack and explore a different
path.

Types of Backtracking:
1. Recursive Backtracking: This type of backtracking uses recursive function calls to
explore all possible solutions.
2. Iterative Backtracking: This type of backtracking uses iterative methods, such as
loops, to explore all possible solutions.
3. Constraint Satisfaction Backtracking: This type of backtracking is used to solve
constraint satisfaction problems, such as scheduling and planning.

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Applications of Backtracking:
Backtracking is widely used in various computational problems, including:
1. Solving Puzzles: Backtracking algorithms are often used to solve puzzles, such as
Sudoku, crosswords, and chess.
2. Scheduling: Backtracking algorithms are used in scheduling applications, such as
scheduling flights, trains, and buses.
3. Planning: Backtracking algorithms are used in planning applications, such as
planning routes, schedules, and resources.
4. Computer Games: Backtracking algorithms are used in computer games, such as
chess, checkers, and tic-tac-toe.

Examples of Backtracking Algorithms:

(A). The N-Queens Problem:

The N-Queens problem involves placing N queens on an N×N chessboard so that
no two queens attack each other. The algorithm explores all possibilities and
backtracks when conflicts arise.
 Algorithms Steps:
1. Place a queen in the first row.
2. Move to the next row and place a queen in a valid column.
3. If a conflict arises, backtrack to the previous row and move the queen to a
new column.
4. Repeat until all N queens are placed.

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 Pseudo Code:
Algorithm NQueens(K,n)
{
for i=1 to n ;
if (place[k,i]) then
{
x[k]=i
if (k==n) then print (x[1:n])
}
else
NQueens(K+1,n)
}
Algorithm place(k,i)
{
for j=1 to (k+1) do
{
If (( x[j]=i) or (abs(x[j]-i)= abs(j-k))) then return false
Otherwise return true
}

 State Space Tree:

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(B). Sudoku Solver:
A Sudoku solver uses backtracking to fill in missing numbers while ensuring the
constraints of the game are met.
 Algorithms Steps:
1. Identify an empty cell.
2. Try placing numbers (1-9) while ensuring the validity of the placement.
3. If the placement is valid, proceed to the next empty cell.
4. If no valid number can be placed, backtrack and try a different number.

Advantages of Backtracking Algorithms:

1. Guaranteed Solution: Backtracking algorithms guarantee a solution to a problem,
if one exists.
2. Efficient: Backtracking algorithms can be more efficient than other problem-
solving strategies, such as brute force.
3. Flexible: Backtracking algorithms can be used to solve a wide range of problems,
from puzzles to scheduling and planning.

Disadvantages of Backtracking Algorithms:

1. Computational Complexity: Backtracking algorithms can have high computational
complexity, making them slow for large problems.
2. Space Complexity: Backtracking algorithms can require a lot of memory, making
them unsuitable for systems with limited memory.
3. Difficulty in Implementation: Backtracking algorithms can be difficult to
implement, especially for complex problems.

Optimizations in Backtracking:
To improve efficiency, various optimizations are applied:
1. Pruning: Eliminates infeasible solutions early.
2. Constraint Propagation: Uses additional constraints to reduce search space.
3. Memoization: Stores previously computed results to avoid redundant calculations.

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CONCLUSION:
Backtracking is a powerful algorithmic approach used for solving complex
problems involving multiple possibilities and constraints. While it can be
computationally expensive, optimizations like pruning and constraint propagation
make it more efficient. It remains an essential technique in artificial intelligence,
operations research, and game theory.

REFERENCES:
 Design & Analysis of Algorithms, Gajendra Sharma, Khanna Publishing House
(AICTE Recommended Textbook – 2018)
 Introduction to Algorithms, 4TH Edition, Thomas H Cormen, Charles E
Lieserson, Ronald L Rivest and Clifford Stein, MIT Press/McGraw-Hill.
 Algorithms -- A Creative Approach, 3RD Edition, UdiManber, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA
 Algorithm Design, 1ST Edition, Jon Kleinberg and ÉvaTardos, Pearson.

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