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RICK EDWARDS ON LEVITATING WITH SOUND
AR B
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WHY YOUR
BRAIN
REMEMBERS
HO W
T O BE A

Inside the tech anhde

talent behind t
scenes of an
off-road racing
championship

W I
A DR ! N
IVING
BUNDLE ISSUE 134

WORTH O
VER
£100
WILL THESE BE
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10
CRAZY
UNIVERSE
THEORIES CLOUD SEEDING: HOW
TO MAKE IT RAIN
SUPER SOLAR-
POWERED ANIMALS
DISCOVER THIS DEEP
OCEAN MINER

SMART HOME SECURITY TECH INSIDE GM FOOD FACTORIES E-SCOOTER POWER

 ISSUE 134

WELCOME
The magazine that feeds minds!

© Red Bull
f you’ve ever driven down an old

“Teams spend millions of pounds to get the I country road or a lane to a farm,
you’ll have noticed how much
bumpier and difficult to navigate it
most out of their 380-horsepower cars” is, even at low speeds. To charge
How to be a rally car driver, page 22 across this kind of off-road terrain
successfully at high speed, around hairpin bends and
over steep ramps, takes an exceptionally skilful team
Meet the team… and a technologically sophisticated vehicle that costs
several times your average Ferrari
supercar. This issue, we take a
look inside a World Rally
Championship car to see how Fo
HIW n r exclusive
it’s capable of tearing through sign u ews and o
p to ou ff
h r maili ers,
the countryside. We’ve also owitw ng list
Nikole Scott Baljeet Duncan Ailsa spoken to rally driver Jon c om/ne or k sdaily.
Production Editor Staff Writer Research Editor Senior Art Editor Staff Writer
Armstrong, who tells us
w sle tter
Would you wear a It’s not just plants The Big Bang is the Electric vehicles help Could these
skirt that could burst that can turn leading theory for in the fight against upcoming gadgets what it takes to compete at
into flames? Turn to sunlight into food: the universe’s climate change, and and inventions be this level. Enjoy!
page 76 to look back find out how some creation – but not e-scooters apply this the big
in time at some animals use the only one. Explore to compact vehicles. breakthroughs of
rather deadly photosynthesis on these odd alternate Learn more about 2020? Read more Ben Editor FOLLOW US…
fashion trends. page 66. theories on page 58. them on page 32. on page 44.
How It Works magazine @HowItWorksmag

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 003

 CONTENTS HO W
T O BE A
SPECIAL SPACE
22 How to be a 58 10 strange theories 22
rally driver AR about the universe
Discover the tech and talent ZZONE! Is this just a big hologram? It’s
behind the scenes at the world’s one of many mad arguments
most adventurous motorsport scientists can’t rule out…

TRANSPORT 64 What happens to the

body in space
32 E-scooters: the
future of travel ENVIRONMENT
We’ve torn apart an electric
66 Solar-powered
scooter to see what makes this
animals
nimble two-wheeler so efficient
It’s not just plants that can
34 Recycled plastic roads harness the power of the Sun

SCIENCE 70 How cows are

changing the world
36 How does the
brain remember? HISTORY
It’s a process that is vital to our
76 Fashion victims:
AR
ZONE!
lives: here’s how memories are
processed, stored and forgotten
dressed to kill
The fashionistas of yesteryear
40 How to levitate had a dangerous and sometimes
deadly dress sense
42 How is food
genetically modified? 80 How the first feathered
dinosaur lived
TECHNOLOGY
Fashion victims: 76
44 Incredible
breakthroughs dressed to kill
of 2020
Robot Olympics? AR contact
lenses? These cool innovations
could arrive this year

50 Deep-sea mining
A R
ZONE!

54 Smart home security

56 How to make it rain
AR
ZONE!

66

AR ZONE! Solar-powered animals

Scan the QR code with your device’s camera or download a free QR MEET THIS ISSUE’S EXPERTS…
code reader app. Many iPhone and Android devices include a QR reader

When you see the AAR ZONE!

ZONE! logo at the top of a page,
use your phone to scan the QR code, which looks like this

Hold your mobile device over the image and watch it come to life! Your
device needs to be connected to the internet for this to work Jo Elphick Mark Smith Andy Extance Dr Andrew
Jo is an academic A technology and Andy is a freelance May
lawyer and lecturer multimedia science writer based in Andrew has a PhD in
HOW THE AUGMENTED REALITY WORKS specialising in specialist, Mark Exeter, UK. He previously astrophysics and 30
After being launched by the QR code, the app reads anything you point your device’s criminal law and has written tech worked in early stage years in public and
camera at 30 times a second, searching for distinctive shapes we’ve trained it to forensics. She is articles for leading drug discovery research, private industry. He
recognise. When it sees a familiar picture, it overlays the augmented-reality 3D image also the author of a online and print followed by a brief stint in enjoys space writing
we’ve previously uploaded on your screen. number of true publications for silicone adhesive and and is the author of
crime books. many years. rubber manufacturing. several books.

004 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

 REGULARS
A RE!
ZON
56 80
How to make How the first feathered
it rain dinosaur lived
36 How does the
brain remember? A R
ZONE!

© alamy
06 Global eye
Science and tech news from
around the world

20 Wish list
Our pick of driving gadgets
and apps

83 Strategy guide
44 Incredible Word play with Letter Jam
breakthroughs of 2020 84 Brain dump
Your questions answered
90 Book reviews
92 Brain gym
Give your brain a workout
with our puzzle pages

95 How to...
See cosmic rays
96 Letters
Our readers have their say

98 Fast facts

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58 A DRIVING
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Page 74

Amy Grisdale Steve Wright Stephen Felicity Day Mike Jennings

Volunteer animal Steve has worked as Ashby Felicity is a qualified Mike is a freelance
worker Amy has an an editor on various Stephen is a writer solicitor who has technology journalist
enormous breadth of publications. He and editor with turned her hand to who is fascinated
experience on animal particularly enjoys video games and freelance writing, with gaming,
conservation projects. history feature computer tech specialising in British futuristic technology
She specialises in writing and regularly expertise. He is heritage and history. and motorsport. He
writing about writes literature and endlessly intrigued She particularly loves dreams of becoming
environmental topics. film reviews. by Earth science. the Georgian era. a rally driver.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 005

 Lovesick
spider
Leaping around the forests of Australia, peacock
spiders (Maratus speciosus) are looking for a perfect
stage to showcase their moves. In this pursuit, these
spiders practise a colourful dance to grab the attention
of a female. Boasting vibrant colours which differ
between some 60 species, peacock spiders raise their
rears and two legs, proceeding to wave them around in a
courtship dance in the hope that a female will be
impressed. Unlike their large eight-legged cousins,
these Australian natives are only a mere three to five
millimetres long – just a few times bigger than this
full stop. What they lack in body size, peacock
spiders more than make up for in jumping
ability, each capable of leaping more
than 20 times their
body length.
© Alamy

006 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 007
 Even stones
have hearts
Captured under polarised-light
photomicrography, this 30-micron (millionths of a
metre) thick slide of volcanic rock from Lipari, Italy,
reveals a heart-shaped arrangement of crystals.
Known as a glomerocryst, it’s formed when a magma
chamber erupts through surrounding rock, dragging in
neighbouring minerals from along the bottom and
walls. As it cools, minerals such as feldspar and
pyroxene group together to form a myriad of shapes
and structures. This heart-shaped stone was
captured by Bernardo Cesare for The Royal
Photographic Society’s 2019 science
hotography competition. You can find
© Bernardo Cesare

out more about this year’s

entries at rps.org.

008 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 009
 Cave’s
spooky
lightshow
If you go down to New Zealand’s Waitomo caves,
you’re sure for a glowing surprise. As you sail along
the cave’s stream, you’ll notice that the walls are
illuminated by thousands of tiny glow worms
(Arachnocampa Luminosa) living on the cavernous
ceiling. In a breathtaking display of bioluminescence, the
biological chemistry of each worm allows them to
radiate blue-green. More of a maggot than a worm,
these larvae are not only putting on a show for cave
visitors: they’re attracting flying food into a
curtain of silk threads around their bodies,
called snares. People have journeyed to
Waitomo to witness the spectacle of
the cave’s glowing ceiling since
the late 1880s.
© Shutterstock

010 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 011
GLOBAL EYE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH

Showcasing the incredible world we live in With over 14 million global monthly users, Live Science makes every day a little more interesting
by illuminating the fascinating world around us. For the science geek in everyone, Live Science
breaks down the stories behind the most interesting news and photos on the internet.

PLANET EARTH

Scientists witness river of ice emerge

Words by Rafi Letzter

or the first time, scientists think they’re rush. “After the initial surge in 2013, the unrelated to these surges, and that the surges
© NASA Earth Observatory images/Lauren Dauphin/Joshua Stevens/U.S. Geological Survey

F watching a fast-moving river of ice being

born. These so-called ice streams are
rapid, long-lasting flows of ice that form in
glacier still retains fast flow at around 1.8
kilometres per year,” the authors wrote in the
new study, published in 2019. That’s “an
aren’t primarily climate-driven, the
researchers wrote.
The initial ice surge, at a site known as the
the middle of more static ice formations unusually high and long-lasting speed for a Vavilov Ice Cap, has now stretched into a
known as ice sheets. They form in remote glacier surge”. years-long event that has permanently
parts of the Arctic and Antarctic, and once Until recently, researchers thought that transformed the region, according to the
established can last decades or even glacial surges were routine events, paper. The area is a polar desert, so little new
centuries. Until now, no one had ever seen independent of the climate change effects ice is added from one year to the next. And 11
one emerge. that are melting glaciers around the world. per cent of the ice mass in the region – about
In a recent study, a team of glaciologists Surges, researchers believed, occur as part of 9.5 billion metric tonnes of ice – has already
argues that another shorter-term event that normal growth and shrinking cycles in parts flowed into the ocean, causing the average
began in 2013 in the Russian Arctic may have of ice caps that can easily replenish elevation of the ice cap to drop significantly.
sparked the emergence of a long-lasting ice themselves. Ice streams were thought to be In other words, the ice from the surge is not
stream. The event, called a glacier surge, is separate, unrelated phenomena. But events replenishing itself as scientists typically
like a frozen flood. A great deal of ice comes in recent years, including this event, are expect following these sorts of events. The
loose and bursts out towards the ocean in a challenging the view that ice streams are key piece of evidence that the surge had

012 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 SPACE

NASA’s Martian mole

is digging again
Words by Meghan Bartels

he troubled ‘mole’ on NASA’s InSight Mars mimicked the situation with a replica

T lander is moving again, even as scientists

working on the robot’s seismometer
ponder new marsquake mysteries.
instrument here on Earth. At one point in
October, the mole popped out of Mars, as if it had
simply had enough of the whole situation.
InSight touched down in November 2018 on a Most recently the InSight team tried
quest to understand the interior of the Red manoeuvring the lander’s arm to gently
Planet. Two of its crucial tools for that task were a press sideways on the mole. Last November
burrowing heat probe nicknamed the mole and NASA announced that the technique had
a super-sensitive seismometer to study motion successfully let the probe dig itself down about
within the planet. 32 millimetres. Then, in mid-December, the
But soon after spacecraft personnel told the agency said that the mole was continuing to
mole to get digging, something went wrong, and burrow properly.
scientists and engineers affiliated with the The update did not include details on how far
mission have been strategising ways to get the the probe has moved, but a GIF accompanying
instrument moving ever since. the tweet suggests that the probe, which
The team photographed the situation from measures 400 millimetres in length, dug about
e
every angle possible, pondered the likelihood of 65 millimetres between 7 and 14 December.
h
hidden rocks, evaluated soil characteristics and “More digging to come,” the update concluded.

An artist’s rendition of the InSight lander

operating on the surface of Mars

Satellite data shows how ice at the Vavilov

Ice Cap flowed in a stream-like pattern
towards the ocean on 24 June 2018
© AGU/Geophysical Research Letters/Whyjay Zheng

turned into a stream is the emergence of

‘shear margins’ around the stream. A surge is
just a rapid dumping of ice into the water, but
just like liquid water streams, ice streams
develop clearly demarcated paths through
the landscape. The edges of the new ice
stream, as seen from a satellite, are darker
and less reflective, the researchers wrote.
That’s indicative of a long-lasting region of
fast-moving ice meeting the slower region
around it.
Researchers are still working to
understand ice surges, how they relate to
© NASA/JPL-Caltech

ice streams and how climate change

drives them. But the Vavilov surge is an
important new data point to help piece
that story together.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 013

 IN ASSOCIATION WITH

A rare condition known as ‘telescoping

fingers’ caused a woman’s finger bones
to shrink and disappear

SCIENCE

Doctors discover
rare case of
‘telescoping fingers’
Words by Nicoletta Lanese

rare condition caused a woman’s grown so swollen that her fingers skewed to bone that should otherwise stay in place. In

A fingers to scrunch back into her hands

as the bones of her hand and wrist
steadily disappeared, according to a report of
one side towards her pinky fingers, her
doctors noted. Upon examining the patient’s
hands, the doctors discovered that the bones
people with arthritis, osteoclasts may be
prompted to attack bone cells by
inflammatory substances present in
the case. The bone loss caused the 69-year- of her displaced digits seemed unusually the tissue.
old woman’s fingers to buckle back into her short – far too short for the woman to properly In the 69-year-old patient, damage inflicted
hand like segments of a collapsing telescope, flex her fingers or make a fist. by overactive osteoclasts caused her bones to
a distinct symptom that explains the unusual Radiographs of the patient’s wrists and shrink. While the woman’s fingers folded
condition’s nickname, ‘telescoping fingers’. hands revealed the extent of the damage: the back into her hands, her skin didn’t shrink to
An estimated 3.7 to 6.7 per cent of people bones of the woman’s fingers, hand, wrist match, so the excess tissue bunched up in
with a condition called psoriatic arthritis and lower forearm appeared worn down, as if wrinkled folds. By gently pulling on the tips
develop ‘telescoping fingers’, according to a substantial amounts of tissue had of the woman’s fingers, her doctors were able
2013 report in the journal Reumatología disappeared. The doctors diagnosed the to temporarily stretch the digits to their
Clínica; the condition also occurs in people woman with telescoping fingers, medically original lengths.
with rheumatoid arthritis, but even known as arthritis mutilans, and attributed
more rarely. the tissue loss to a process called osteolysis,
© The New England Journal of Medicine 2019

In the recent case, described in a report which causes bones to be ‘reabsorbed’ by

published last month in The New England cells called osteoclasts.
“The bone loss caused
Journal of Medicine, the woman’s hands Normally osteoclasts help to sculpt the 69-year-old
appeared severely deformed and swollen bones from tissue generated by other cells
when she went to a rheumatology clinic in and ensure that our skeleton fits together
woman’s fingers
Turkey for treatment. The patient had been correctly as we grow, according to to buckle back into
diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis 18 years Quantitative Human Physiology. But when
earlier, and over time her knuckles had osteoclasts go haywire, the cells can eat up
her hand”
014 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com
 PLANET EARTH Two of Death Valley's famed ’sailing

Ancient slab
stones’ display distinctive trails

preserves 200
million-year-
old mystery
Words by Mindy Weisberger

R
ocks that seem to propel themselves
across desert landscapes have long
mystified and intrigued scientists. Now,
researchers have identified tracks of these
so-called sailing stones dating back about 200
million years in a rocky slab long prized for the
five early dinosaur footprints it preserved.
The three-metre sandstone slab of dino prints
was discovered more than a century ago, though
some of the marks alongside those prints had

©Shutterstock
gone unexamined. Some of the marks – a series
of grooves – suggested that a stone once ‘sailed’
across the surface of this rock, likely buoyed by a
slick coating of ice and microbial slime. ancestor of enormous sauropods that emerged in eruptions that spewed masses of sulphur into
Other clues in the stone hinted that the the late Jurassic period. the atmosphere.
dinosaur and the sailing stone weren't the only The ancient stone slab was excavated However, there's something else that could
ones to leave their marks; pairs of small from a quarry in Portland, Connecticut, and have made a rock slick enough to sail: microbial
depressions suggested that a tiny, hopping around 200 million years ago that region of mats. Slimy coatings of microbial goo have
mammal also scampered across the surface. the world was humid and tropical. However, created sailing stones in Spain, and similar
The dinosaur tracks on the slab belonged to it could have endured a temporary cooling microbial coatings could also have covered the
Anchisaurus, a prosauropod dinosaur, an early period following explosive volcanic stone that sailed 200 million years ago.

SPACE

China’s rover breaks

Moon work record
Words by Leonard David

C
hina's far-side lunar rover The rover is part of China’s
Yutu-2 has broken the Chang'e 4 mission, which also
longevity record for includes a stationary lander. The
working on the surface of the duo touched down on the floor of
Moon. China Global Television the 186-kilometre Von Kármán
Network (CGTN) recently reported crater, which lies within the South
that the robot rolled by the Pole-Aitken Basin.
previous record set by the Soviet In early December 2019, Yutu-2
Union's Lunokhod 1 rover. and the Chang’e 4 lander ended
Lunokhod 1 was the first roving their work for the 12th lunar day,
remote-controlled robot to land on switching to dormant mode for
another world, operating in Mare the lunar night, reported the
Imbrium, or the Sea of Rains, Lunar Exploration and Space
starting on 17 November 1970. Program Center of the China
Lunokhod 1 operations officially National Space Administration
ceased about 10.5 months later. (CNSA). At that time the
Yutu-2 has been working on the wheeled rover had chalked up
Moon for more than 12 months, over 345 metres of travel, CNSA
© Getty

China's champion long-duration Moon rover, Yutu-2 since 3 January 2019. officials noted.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 015

 IN ASSOCIATION WITH

SPACE

Huge storm creates mysterious

hexagon on Jupiter
Words by Mike Wall

ASA’s Juno probe discovered a giant predicted before,” Cheng Li, a Juno scientist “We would’ve gotten cold. Really, really

N new storm swirling near Jupiter’s

south pole in November 2019, a few
weeks after pulling off a dramatic death-
from the University of California, Berkeley,
said in a statement.
“Nature is revealing new physics regarding
cold,” Juno project scientist Steve Levin of
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in
Pasadena, California, said during a press
dodging manoeuvre. fluid motions and how giant planet conference at the annual autumn meeting of
Juno spied the newfound maelstrom, which atmospheres work,” he added. “We are the American Geophysical Union (AGU),
is about as wide as Texas, during its 22nd beginning to grasp it through observations where the team announced the new results.
science pass of Jupiter. The storm joins a and computer simulations. Future Juno But the navigation team at JPL
family of six other cyclones in Jupiter’s south flybys will help us further refine our came up with a solution: ‘jumping
polar region, which Juno had spotted on understanding by revealing how the Jupiter’s shadow’. On 30 September,
previous passes by the gas giant. Those cyclones evolve over time.” Juno’s handlers directed the solar-powered
encounters also revealed nine cyclones near Juno orbits Jupiter on a highly elliptical probe to fire its small reaction-control
Jupiter’s north pole. path every 53 Earth days, gathering most of its engines in pulses for 10.5 hours. This
The southern tempests are arrayed in a data when it comes closest to the giant planet. pushed the probe’s path steadily outward
strikingly regular fashion. Previously five of But it took some fancy flying to make sure and ultimately out of the shadow path
them had formed a pentagon around a central Juno survived the experience. The mission altogether, Levin explained.
storm, which is as wide as the continental team determined that the probe’s trajectory “Without that manoeuvre, without the
United States. With the new addition, that would take Juno into Jupiter’s shadow for 12 creative genius of the folks at JPL on the
girdling structure is now a hexagon. hours on 3 November, and that likely navigation team, we wouldn’t have the
“These cyclones are new weather would’ve been a death sentence for the beautiful data that we have to show you
phenomena that have not been seen or solar-powered probe. today,” he said.
© NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/ASI/INAF/JIRAM

A new smaller cyclone can

be seen at the lower right
of this infrared image of
Jupiter’s south pole, taken
on 4 November 2019

016 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 HISTORY

First female
doctor may
never have
existed
Words by Yasemin Saplakoglu

M
erit-Ptah was an ancient Egyptian
physician, often revered as the
world’s first female doctor. She
was thought to live nearly 5,000 years ago,
but she likely never existed.
“Merit-Ptah was everywhere,” Jakub
Kwiecinski, a medical historian at the
University of Colorado’s School of
Medicine, said in a UC statement. “And yet
with all these mentions, there was no
proof that she really existed.” Kwiecinski
spent some time searching through
literature, looking for any such proof. He
traced the first mention of Merit-Ptah to a
1938 book describing the history of women
in medicine around the world, written by
medical historian, doctor and activist
Kate Campbell Hurd-Mead.
In her book she identified the first
woman doctor as Merit-Ptah, describing
Aerial view of the Pantokratoros Monastery in
how she lived during the fifth dynasty of
© Getty

Mount Athos, Greece, on 7 November 2017

Egypt’s ‘Old Kingdom’, or about 2730 BCE.
Inside the tomb of her high priest child
HISTORY was a picture and tablet that described

Old bones in all-male

Merit-Ptah as ‘the chief physician’,
Hurd-Mead wrote. However, the burial
ground in the Valley of the Kings didn’t

monastery likely female exist until Egypt’s New Kingdom, around

1,000 years after Merit-Ptah was thought
to have lived. What’s more, though
Words by Mindy Weisberger
“Merit-Ptah as a name existed in the Old

A
so-called all-male ‘holy mountain’ in The size and shape of a sacrum, shinbone and Kingdom,” there is no record of that name
northern Greece has hosted Christian forearm, for example, differed from the rest. linked to a physician in any list of ancient
monasteries for nearly 2,000 years, with “While the others were more robust and had Egyptian healers, Kwiecinski said.
women strictly prohibited. But one woman may clearly belonged to the frames of men, these had
have found a home there – at least in death. measurements that noticeably fell in the range of
During a recent restoration in the a female,” anthropologist Laura Wynn-Antikas,
Pantokratoros Monastery on Mount Athos, who examined the remains, told The Guardian.
archaeologists unearthed bones under the Women are not allowed within 0.5 kilometres
chapel floor that were smaller than most of the of the Mount Athos coast. The ban, which has
other remains found at the site. In fact, some been in place since the 10th century, was
experts are claiming that these diminutive enacted so that the Virgin Mary would represent
bones once belonged to a female. “As far as I the sole female presence on the mountain, the
know, this is the first case that bones belonging BBC reported in 2016. Further tests will be
to a woman have been discovered on Mount required to determine if the bones from the
© Alamy

Athos,” architect and restorer Phaidon chapel are truly female, and the remains are
Hadjiantoniou, the project leader for the currently undergoing analysis at laboratories in Merit-Ptah is often cited as the first woman doctor,
excavation, told the Greek Reporter. Athens, according to the Greek Reporter. but new findings suggest she never existed

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 017

IN ASSOCIATION WITH

ANIMALS A newborn panda cub in an

Giant panda
incubator at Chongqing Zoo,
China, on 23 June 2019

babies are
being born
‘undercooked’
Words by Rafi Letzter

iant panda babies are born weirdly tiny

G and underdeveloped. No one knows why,

and the major theory just turned out to
be wrong. Carnivorans – an order of mammals
that includes all bears, dogs, cats, raccoons,
weasels and seals, among other species – tend to
enter the world small, weak, hairless and blind,

© Getty
according to a recent study. Bears in particular
tend to give birth to unusually small cubs. undercooked,” Peishu Li, the lead study author, gave birth to five cubs, all of which died soon
Some researchers suspect that this oddity has said in a statement. after birth. Li and her co-author, Duke biology
to do with hibernation. At some point bears Panda babies are bizarrely tiny. At birth the professor Kathleen Smith, got their hands on
started cutting short their pregnancies to avoid cubs weigh just about 100 grams, which means two of those preserved cubs. The researchers
gestating while they hibernate, and now that that panda mothers are 900-times larger than used a CT scanner to build 3D models of the
trait is baked into every bear species – even their babies. Only a handful of other animals, unfortunate critters’ skeletons. They also
pandas, which don’t hibernate. That theory including kangaroos and echidnas, have similar scanned newborn grizzlies, sloth bears, polar
has a big problem though: pandas are born weight differences at birth. Still, it seemed bears, dogs, a fox and other animals. Comparing
exceptionally tiny and underdeveloped, possible that this was part of a universal bear all the skeletons, Li and Smith found that pandas
even for bears. And other bears, including story; polar bear mothers are 400 times the appeared to have uniquely underdeveloped
species that do hibernate, are born with weight of their newborns. bones at birth. “That would be like a 28-week
robust, mature skeletons. Pink, floppy panda In the 1980s, the first panda couple at the human foetus,” Smith said in the statement. But
babies are the exception. “They’re basically Smithsonian National Zoo in Washington, DC for now, no one knows why.

SPACE

Nasa’s ‘treasure map’

reveals potential human
landing site
Words by Elizabeth Howell

ASA’s wish to follow the water on Mars just statement. “We’re

N got a helping hand. Scientists have released

a new global map showing water ice that is
as little as 2.5 centimetres below the Red Planet’s
continuing to collect
data on buried ice on
Mars, zeroing in on
surface. With data in hand, the research team the best places for
located at least one promising landing spot for astronauts to land.”
future astronaut missions: a big zone in the Further study of the
northern hemisphere’s Arcadia Planitia. This area ‘treasure map’ could unlock
has a lot of water ice close to the surface and is in more landing locations too,
the ideal location for a human Mars mission according to NASA. Water is a
because it is in a temperate, mid-latitude region precious resource for future astronaut
with plenty of sunlight, the research team wrote in missions to Mars, where the space agency
a new study describing the findings. wants to land in the 2030s. The hope is that
© NASA/JPL-Caltech

“You wouldn’t need a backhoe to dig up this ice. instead of hauling all of the water astronauts will This area of the Red Planet is
You could use a shovel,” lead author Sylvain need from Earth to the Red Planet, astronauts where NASA spacecraft have
found near-surface water ice
Piqueux, who studies planetary surfaces at NASA’s could get their drinking water and the components that would be easy for
Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, said in a of water for rocket fuel from Mars itself. astronauts to dig up

018 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 NEW
PLANET EARTH

Buried diamonds could MANUALS

FROM HAYNES

explain earthquakes
Words by Mindy Weisberger

D
eep under Earth’s surface, earthquakes Shirey, a senior research scientist at the Carnegie
rumble in the mantle’s transition zone, the Institution for Science in Washington, DC, told
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020 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

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www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 021

 SPECIAL

HOW
T O B E A

or k s g ets
Ho w It W ld
t th e W or
mu ddy a ip
a m p io ns h
Ra lly C h
in W a le s
Mike Jennings
Words by

022 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Competition is fierce – the WRC’s average winning margin is just 30 seconds

R ll cars really
Rally lly do
d
make
e a sp
splas
lash on trrack

© Red Bull
© Wales Rally GB

Terrain varies massively between

each rally stage
© Getty

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 023

 SPECIAL

o motorsport is as exciting and as park. Servicing is important because cars get with those points added together to determine

N adventurous as rally, where drivers

tackle remote, rugged terrain in
million-pound cars that hit 0-60mph in less than
battered and bruised on stages, and engineers
can fit new parts to make the cars faster on
different types of terrain.
which team has done the best.
Wales Rally GB is the UK’s WRC entry, and it
takes place all over mid and north Wales. We
three seconds. It’s popular across the world, and attended the 2019 event with Citroën to find out
no matter where you are the concept is the same: THE WRC EXPLAINED how a top team handles the demands of one of
drivers and co-drivers have to complete tough, The World Rally Championship (WRC) is the the season’s toughest events and to experience
challenging sections of road in the fastest time sport’s top level of competition – the rallying the magic of WRC for ourselves.
possible – and keep their cars in one piece so equivalent of Formula 1. The 2019 season had 13
they can tackle the public roads in between events in countries like Mexico, Finland and A WELSH ADVENTURE
their timed runs. Turkey, and the 2020 series will be staged across A WRC round has been held in the UK almost
Drivers are joined by co-drivers, who call out six continents for the first time. The WRC tackles every year since the championship’s inception in
instructions during the stage. It’s a tough gig, different surfaces too, from the ice of Monte Carlo 1973, and Wales Rally GB can trace its history all
bellowing notes at more than 100 miles per hour, and the snow of Sweden to the gravel of the way back to 1932.
but it’s vital – if a driver has accurate notes, they Argentina and the tarmac of Germany. Teams It’s an important historic event that’s been
can attack the road as quickly as possible. spend millions to get the most out of their won by every legend of the sport – drivers like
Rallying isn’t just a partnership between driver 380-horsepower cars – it’s a big deal when Sébastien Loeb, Colin McRae and Richard Burns.
and co-driver though – like other motorsports, manufacturers like Toyota, Citroën and Hyundai It’s also one of the toughest gravel events in the
it’s a team game. Rally cars are maintained by can claim that their cars are the toughest. WRC, with stages that plunge through forests
teams of expert mechanics at a central service Drivers win points for their overall positions, and run across remote ranges of hills.

© Citroen World Rally Team

Wales Rally GB is one A team of expert mechanics work flawlessly
of the year’s most to keep WRC cars in race-ready condition
daring events

263
© Red Bull

The number of points

achieved by champion Forest tracks are fast, slippery and
Ott Tänak in the 2019 difficult, with logs lining the roads
WRC season

Drivers have to travel

© Citroen World Rally Team

on public roads in WRC

events, not just on
fast-paced stages
© Red Bull

024 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? More than 10,000 players compete in the WRC’s esports events – the world champion wins a Hyundai i10

The 2019 event was contested by some of the

best drivers the WRC has ever seen. The
Toyota Yaris squad was led by Ott Tänak,
the Estonian who eventually won the

1,800
2019 drivers’ title. Citroën’s lead
driver in the C3 was Sébastien Ogier,
a modern-day icon who has won six
WRC titles. The Hyundai i20 team The number of
centred around Thierry Neuville, volunteer marshals
who is one of the best drivers to who help run Wales
never win the title. The UK-based Rally GB
M-Sport Ford team relied on Elfyn
Evans in his Fiesta – the WRC’s only
Welsh driver. The 2019 event was made up of
22 stages that lasted for almost 200 miles across
Hybrid technology will
four days – and the drivers also had to tackle

© Red Bull
appear in WRC rallies from
hundreds of miles of public roads. 2022 onwards
Not all of the crews drive WRC cars. There are
several different classes beneath the main WRC
drivers: in WRC-2, crews drive more affordable
The WRC embraces the future
The WRC will be going hybrid in 2022, with to the sport – so we are requesting that we
versions of cars like the Fiesta, i20 and C3. There new cars that will use conventional petrol can use this electric power during stages
are Junior drivers in smaller vehicles, and more power on stages and electric engines for as an extra power source.” There are
crews piloting older cars like the Subaru road sections. Pierre Budar is the director of challenges though. “The cost of the car will
Impreza. That’s one of the key things about Citroën Racing, and at Wales Rally GB he be difficult,” said Budar. “It’s a big
told us that he sees a huge opportunity to challenge to produce the same level of
rallying: enthusiastic amateurs can enter the show off hybrid technology. “We have to performance using this new technology.
same events as the famous drivers. Rallying isn’t learn how to use [hybrid],” he explained. “It The hybrid system will weigh around 100
restricted to the WRC, either. There are rallies will be demonstrative with no noise, no kilograms, so we need to save weight with
and championships all across the UK for emissions, but it needs to bring something different designs and materials.”
top-level drivers and for those just starting out.

Wales Rally GB Rally Sweden Rally Finland

WRC 2020: 29 OCTOBER-1 NOVEMBER 13-16 FEBRUARY 6-9 AUGUST

big changes
The UK’s WRC event is moving later The year’s only snow event The fastest event on the
in the year for 2020, which means means cars need special tyres calendar uses wide, sweeping
it’s likely to be wetter, muddier and – they’re kitted out with roads with hundreds of exciting
The stages are set for a year
tougher for all of the drivers. extra-thin models that are packed jumps. It’s known as the Gravel
of fierce competition with metal studs for extra grip. Grand Prix for good reason.

C Rallye
Rallye Autom Deutschland
Monte C 15-18 OCTOBER
23-26 JAN Germany’s WRC event
It’s one of the oldest motorsport three rallies into
events in the world, and it’s the ot stages set on
only mixed-surface event on the tank ranges,
calendar, so it provides a unique side roads and
test at the start of t ineyard tracks.

Safari Rally Kenya

16-19 JULY
The Safari Rally is a classic, and it’s
back for the first time since 2002.
Expect gravel, rough terrain and
“For fans, attending the rally
perhaps some animals on the stages. adventure of its own – something you
don’t get in any other motorsport“
www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 025
 SPECIAL AR ZONE!

O RLD RALLY AR ZONE! 1

A W LORED
SCAN HERE

CAR EX P are the toughe st machines3

the Citroë
nC
in motorsport
Caged in
A sturdy metal roll cage
helps the car keep its shape
3 14,208
ou
nt
rs of WR
The h broadcast
C

conte lly to 155

– we get
han if it rolls over so drivers stay annua tries
safe in accidents. coun

4
5 380 Breaking
point
3
© Illu
stratio
n by N
ichola
s Ford
er

bhp
The Citroën C3 WRC
Tyre types
Michelin provides rugged,
has huge brake Spares
gravel-spec tyres to WRC
discs that offer far and repairs
more stopping WRC cars have

4
teams, and drivers can The amount of power than the spare tyres, basic
pick between soft and
hard tyres with different
horsepower delivered road-going version. components and a Suspension tension
performance levels. by each WRC car toolkit, and drivers The rough, bumpy gravel of Wales
often repair their demands tough suspension – this shock
cars on the road. absorber runs all the way up into the car.

026 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? WRC events can hit -25°C in snowy Sweden and 40°C in the gravel of Australia

© Citroen

2 3
© Citroen

© Citroen
© Citroen
Park life 1 4
This is the WRC service park.
Power plant It’s free to visit, and it allows
WRC cars use turbocharged incredible access to teams
1.6-litre engines. This huge radiator and drivers.
helps keep them cool, unless it’s
blocked by leaves, snow or sand!

Like clockwork
Eight expert mechanics are
allowed to service WRC cars
– the yellow armband means
they’re part of the team.

Aerodynamic 2
WRC cars like the Citroën C3
go through intense
aerodynamic development
© Citroen

so the car stays on the road

and handles smoothly.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 027

 SPECIAL

VISITING THE WRC Watching the rally in person is sensational. You

WRC events follow a similar structure to Wales hear the cars first, their monster engines
Rally GB: the service park is assembled in one
location – Llandudno in this case – with the
echoing around the trees, and then the drivers
arrive, hurling their million-pound machines ARE YOU
teams heading out to tackle stages in the
morning and returning at lunchtime and in the
around corners as quickly as possible.
When the stage is over, you can head back to
READY DRIVER?
WRC 2018 eSports champ Jon
evening to service their cars. WRC events have a your car and drive to another – and if you’re
ceremonial start, usually in a big city, and they lucky you’ll see some of the WRC cars doing the Armstrong has driven on rally
usually have a stage in cities or at racing circuits same thing. It’s an exciting, surreal experience. courses across Europe
in the evening for easy spectator access. And Stages are relatively cheap to attend, and the
How do you prepare for driving stages as
then, at the end of each event there’s the Power service park is free, so fans can get up close to
quickly as possible?
Stage – a special run where drivers can earn cars and get pictures with the top drivers.
We have to get to the stage by a certain time
extra championship points if they’re brave Rallying is incredibly accessible, and
– sometimes we refuel on the way. We’ll pull
enough to really attack the road. incredibly exciting. There’s no other motorsport
up a mile before the stage. I’m superstitious
For many fans, attending the rally is an where powerful racing cars are challenged by so
so I do everything in the same order – check
adventure of its own – something you don’t get in much tough, varied terrain – and few other
tyre pressures, put my left glove on before
any other motorsport. There’s nothing quite like sports make it so easy to get so close. We’re going
my right glove, put our helmets and
attending a rally: you wake up early, pulling on to dive deeper into the sport here, including
seatbelts on and hook up the intercom.
waterproofs and wellies before driving through exploring the future and finding out what a
the sunrise to the stunning, atmospheric forests. typical day is like for a champion driver – and
Rally days look very intense – what’s your
It’s easy to find spots right next to the stages – as we’ll see you on the stages when Wales Rally GB
routine like?
long as the marshals say you’re in a safe place. returns on 29 October 2020.
We’re up early, so we put our fireproof
underwear, race suits and boots on straight
away. We’ll grab breakfast at service – I have
Rally cars are based on road cars, but
they’re beefed up and stripped back something simple, like porridge or an
to improve performance omelette. We talk with our crew about the
day ahead, do basic car checks and try and
get information about the stage conditions
so we can choose which tyres to use.
Between stages we e have water, energy
rs and fruit. It’s important to keep blood
sugar constant – you don’t want to be tired,
but you don’t want to o spike and crash later.

59
After service, we’ll ea at a good source of
protein with some ve egetables. I’ll check my
note es for the next day y, shower and head to
bed. I prioritise sleep p because these are 12-
The number of crews
orr 14-hour days – recovery is important.
that contested Wales
Rally GB 2019 – only
w do you get ready for events?
47 finished
recce the stages to create our
nottes. WeW drive the rally twice,
lowwly, in a road car. We make
notes down to every metre so
© Red Bu

we kno ow how fast to drive the

stag ge and what obstacles
we’ll encounter. On the first
The road to success pass II’ll call out what the
WRC cars are based on road-going models – Toyota has the corn er looks like, and my
ne
Yaris, while Hyundai uses the i20 and Ford has its Fiesta. co-driver Noel writes it
However, few of the original cars’ parts are used on rally
dow wn. On the second pass
versions – the underlying chassis and overall shape is the same,
but that’s about it. he’lll read back what he’s
Components like the engine, suspension and brakes need to writtten so we can make
be made more powerful and robust. A roll cage is added to finer adjustments. Recce is
improve safety, and the driver and co-driver need moulded
seats, stronger seatbelts, fire extinguishers and an intercom. vittal – you need a good
Spoilers and aggressive aerodynamic features are added. It’s bala ance between caution
© Jon Armstrong

vital to save weight too. Virtually every component is either and sspeed.
removed or made from lighter materials. WRC car interiors are Jon Armstrong has competed at
bare – a prime example of function over form. Wales Rally GB and in Spain,
Finland, Portugal and Germany

028 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? More than 4 million fans attend WRC rallies around the world every year

1 km Malfunction at
the junction
Drivers head through a

© Jakob ebrey
B:
junction and into a

L A M
bumpy, technical section

EE T
to end the stage. It’s

SW ICON
narrow and fast – a
world-class challenge.

W EL SHTh is 32 -k il
hallenge is one of
ometre c ous stages. Here’s
W R C ’s most faml – and so tough
the o specia
why it’s s

Last-ditch attempt
In 2018, championship contender
© Red bull

Thierry Neuville crashed on this

simple corner, proving how tough
Wales Rally GB can be.

Forest fun

© Wales rally gb
The stage plunges into the
Welsh forests here. The
roads become narrower
and more slippery, because
they just don’t dry.
© Wales rally gb

Pick up the speed

© Wales rally gb

After this hairpin, drivers head

into a faster 60mph section,
but tree trunks on the side of
the road prove treacherous.
Double trouble
Two hairpin corners run
side by side here. It’s Hill climbing
© Red bull

perfect for watching two This hilltop section consists of

monster WRC cars at once! jumps and fast corners before
a tight hairpin, with loads of
drivers regularly caught out.
© Wales rally gb

. 5 2
02 8 s
1, ilef Wales
mlength o 2019, d
Bowled over The lly GB es an
Sweet Lamb’s famous ‘bowl’ is Ra g stag s
where cars attack jumps, din tion
hairpins and a water splash, so inclu ad sec
ro
it’s a great spot for spectating.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 029

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 TRANSPORT The SEAT
e-Scooter has a
removable
battery, so
you can have
two charging
at once

the future
Electric scooters are gaining
Charge it up

© SEAT
ground – should you get one You could argue that the battery is the
when you want to get moving? most important part of an electric
scooter. After all, if that’s rubbish then
Words by Mike Jennings you’re not going anywhere.
The bad news is that, for the

E
lectric vehicles are big business, but up foreseeable future at least, electric
until now the market has concentrated on vehicle capacities and ranges will
struggle to match petrol and diesel cars
cars. These days, though, electric bikes
and bikes – and these new vehicles
and scooters are getting more attention. It’s laws need to be created so people can actually will continue to be expensive because
long overdue too, because electric bikes have use them safely. There’s also the fact that there batteries aren’t cheap.
been around since the 1890s. BMW gained a lot are two kinds of device that could be described But the situation is improving: in 2015
the battery took up more than 50 per
of attention with its C Evolution back in 2016, as an electric scooter. cent of the cost of the average electric
and now SEAT has launched its own model, The BMW C Evolution and SEAT e-Scooter look car, but that figure is down to around 30
the e-Scooter. like traditional mopeds, and they’re sometimes per cent now.
It’s easy to see why these devices are proving called ‘maxi-scooters’ or ‘electric mopeds’. Batteries are becoming more efficient
too. The BMW C Evolution launched with
popular. More people are living and working in However, e-scooters can also be two-wheeled a 100-kilometre range and a power
cities than ever before, which means that people devices that look like children’s scooters. These output of 15 horsepower. The current
need small, manoeuvrable bikes and cars to get products have batteries and can often be rented model lasts just under 160 kilometres
around cities where traffic is a real problem. in cities – just like Boris Bikes in London – and with a 26-horsepower output.
In the past, petrol-powered mopeds have done are often also called ‘kick scooters’.
the job. They’re hugely popular in most These smaller scooters are big business in
European cities, including Barcelona, where America, where Uber and Lyft are getting
SEAT launched the e-Scooter. But now, with involved, and companies like Lime are rolling
more focus on the environment, people are them out in London, Paris, Berlin and Sydney.
demanding electric options. These new devices Because they’re rented, they’re cheap – and
are great, but they also have challenges. A lot of because they’re tiny, you don’t need a driving
cities just don’t know how to handle them. New license to use one.

“More people are living and working in cities than

© BMW
ever before – which means that people need BMW’s electric scooter is getting better – and
more manufacturers will follow suit
small, manoeuvrable bikes”

New take on old tech Electric bikes have existed in some form for over 120 years

1919 1967
In Britain, electric bikes with Scientists develop better
sidecars full of batteries are batteries for electric bikes, and
© madcharge.com

© madcharge.com

developed by the agricultural and the famous old brand Papoose

general engineering company begins to sell electric bikes. The
Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies. In its same year, chemist Karl
© kiobuy

prototype the batteries are placed Kordesch invents a hydrazine fuel

underneath the sidecar seat. This cell battery for a motorcycle. It’s
1895 1896 never made it through its trials, 1941 the same compound that powers
The first patent for an electric British cycle company Humber however. Meanwhile, petrol- A new company called SOCOVEL some rockets. The hybrid bike
bicycle is filed in Ohio – and displays the first electric tandem powered scooters begin to gain begins to sell electric scooters can travel up to 320 kilometres
they probably existed before – and a year later it travels at a popularity and development pulls because petrol was hard to find on a gallon of petrol, with a top
this date. record-breaking 60kph. ahead of electric bikes. during World War II. speed of 40kph.

032 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? SEAT’s e-Scooter can be monitored and managed using an app on your smartphone

Lighting up
The wheel deal
These bikes may be electric, Inside BMW’s e-scooter the road
These electric
but their wheels are still the BMW is one of the big names in the e-scooter world mopeds still look
same – after all, bikes still familiar and still
– so how do these vehicles work? have conventional
need to stay on the road!
lights – most of the
new technology is
on the inside.
Feel the power
Much of the BMW and SEAT
bikes are filled with battery
packs. It’s necessary when these
bikes have such long ranges.

Ride the wave

Electric power means bikes can
operate in different modes –
The engine room the BMW has options for better Touch the future
Electric scooters use engines that speed or improved efficiency. Bikes like the BMW and SEAT use
balance speed and efficiency. touchscreen displays rather than
They can also generate electricity conventional dials – perfect for
when the bike is braking. such a futuristic device.

In charge
Electric scooters
can be charged
from your mains
connection at
home, or at a
Engine-ious

© BMW
charging station.
Electric engines are similar
to petrol counterparts, but
he KickScooter has shock they can also generate and
bsorbers, safety lights recover electricity during
nd a display for speed and braking and acceleration.
© seat

attery capacity

1975
American inventor Mike Corbin
© Wikipedia/Tennen-Gas

releases the City Bike, which

is an electric bike with a
64-kilometre range. It’s based on
© Peugeot

a street-legal electric commuter

© BMW

© Lime

bike that he developed a few

years prior and named after
himself. He also sets the world 1991 1996 2014 2017
record for the top speed on an Lithium-ion batteries are invented Peugeot releases its Scoot’Elec – BMW releases its C Evolution Lime only launched a couple of
electric motorcycle, hitting just – a huge leap forward because it a successful electric scooter that electric scooter – the first major years ago, and its scooter-rental
over 265kph on a bike that was means more power can be stored is manufactured for ten years and car company to release this kind business is already in more than
named Quicksilver. in a smaller space. has a 40-kilometre range. of device since Peugeot. 100 cities worldwide.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 033

 TRANSPORT

Absent asphalt
Roads today don’t necessarily need to include asphalt
at all, as a cycle path in the Netherlands has shown Safer cycling
It’s equipped with monitoring
sensors for temperature and traffic,
and the path is designed to create
Tough surface safety for the city’s many cyclists.
Requiring the equivalent of
500,000 bottle caps in plastic,
the 30-metre path is three times
as durable as previous paths.

City infrastructure
Cables and pipes can easily
feed through the cavity
beneath the road.

Not slippery when wet

Designed by ‘Plastic Road’, the path
reduces slippery surfaces by draining
rainwater inside its structure.

© PlasticRoad
Recycled How roads can be
plastic roads more eco-friendly
Creating a structurally sound road from
plastic seems like a complex task. First
We can pave a future out of the plastic the plastic bottles, bags and other items
are washed and cut down into small
problem by turning it into a kind of tarmac pellets. These are melted at soaring

W
temperatures of 170 degrees Celsius to
e live in a world where over 400 wonder how these roads fare in safety. Tests combine with the asphalt mix. The
million tonnes of plastic are produced have shown that including plastic into resulting blend is used by workers to
each year. Of this volume, 75 per cent road mixtures actually improves strength, it layer smooth roads as they usually would.
gets thrown away, damaging ocean life and proving to be twice as strong and withstanding Pellets can vary in specific plastics,
creating roads with slightly different
packing landfills full. Recycling these materials heavy traffic. properties. Road manufacturers can
has become more important than ever, and one The reason for their improved durability is choose from three types of plastic pellets
way people are beginning to tackle this problem thought to be the flexible properties of plastic. to buy, ranging in flexibility and
durability. For example, in roads that will
is by creating roads out of plastic. Their bounce-back ability after displacement
be used for the transportation of heavy
Recycled roads can use up to 684,000 plastic from weight gives them an almost self-repairing trucks and machinery, the stronger
bottles or nearly 2 million single-use plastic bags property that asphalt roads lack. As well as this, pellets will be chosen. An example of
in every kilometre. Comparing current roads to the roads continue to establish the same where plastic varieties are essential is in
the Middle East. Here, pellets need to be
the properties we see in a plastic bottle, you may essential qualities such as being weatherproof
made from plastics that can resist
while reducing flaking and potholes. becoming misshapen in the extreme and
Using alternative materials, such as plastic, constant heat.
these recycled roads combat two issues at once.
While putting waste material to use instead of
damaging surrounding environments, these
roads also cut down on the amount of bitumen
used to make asphalt roads. Creating more
sustainable roads, less oil will be demanded for
production, as fossil fuels are rapidly depleting.
For each tonne of bitumen that plastic replaces in
© MacRebur

these roads, a tonne of carbon dioxide is reduced

in production. And why stop at plastic for
© Getty

alternative and sustainable sources? Further Road layering taking place with a recycled plastic
Plastic waste is shredded into pellets before impurities projects include the use of old tyres and even the and asphalt mix
such as paper labels are separated waste products from olive oil extraction.

034 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

 SCIENCE

HOW DOES THE

BRAIN
REMEMBER? Discover how this vital organ stores
and utilises memories in a process
essential to life as we know it
Words by Ailsa Harvey

W
here would we be without memory? dolphins who
Without the ability to remember are thought to
significant events in our lives we have the best
would lose sense of who we are, and being long-term memory of the
unable to store information as we learn it would entire animal kingdom.
leave us with the permanent intelligence of Actions taken from recalling
a newborn. past memories and imagining
Your memory is made up of information that’s future plans are critical
been stored in the brain and can be retrieved. It to our species’
enables us to learn from experiences, build trust survivability. The
and understanding, develop skills through majority of other
training and simply compose a thought. Memory animals have adapted to
doesn’t merely let us memorise a shopping list – store only the memories that will help
it allows us to have a meaningful life. them to survive. Some, such as squirrels
The impressive structure of the brain is so and the chickadee bird, bury food to help them
complex that scientists are constantly working survive through harsh winters. This would be of
to gain a better understanding of its true no use at all if they weren’t equipped with the
capabilities. Most animals have working memory function to relocate them. Chickadees’ “Memory allows
memories, but these differ greatly – from dogs
that can forget events after only two minutes to
impressive recall allows them to find their
80,000 hidden seeds all by memory.
us to have a
Our memories don’t all serve a life-or-death meaningful life”
purpose. Events that hold high significance to us
are more likely to be remembered later down memories. These memories will only be recalled
the line. For example, those that spark strong for a limited time, with some very fleeting and
emotions stay with us, as strong connections are lasting just 20 seconds.
formed in the brain. Those that are reused are deemed to be
As soon as a memory is created, it needs to be important, and they become stronger each time
stored. Because remembering everything would they are recalled. This being said, every time
overload our brains, memories are taken you retrieve the same memory of an event from
through a filtering process. The brain takes in your brain, it is altered slightly in some way.
© Getty

everything experienced by the senses. From this Because of this, no memory ever stays identical
Witnessing something unusual is more likely to remain mass of events, the ones that had the most through life; they are more like continuously
in your memory impact on the brain are stored first as short-term adapting reconstructions.

036 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The human brain starts to remember things just 20 weeks after conception

aking memories:
he biology of
emembering
Sensing
The very beginning involves the exposure to
surrounding scenes and situations. Various sights
and sounds are experienced by your senses.
101000 Encoding

© Getty
010100
1101011 With the sensory information passed to the brain,
1010111
the volume and complexity is too great to
process. Our brain selectively chooses aspects.
Neurons make new Close attention is paid to unusual events, while
connections with each encoded everyday occurrences are less likely to
other every time a be replayed later in a memory.
new long-term
memory is made Consolidation
To deep-root these memories in the brain,
consolidation is essential. By putting the encoded
experience together into a stable, long-term
memory, this process strengthens signals
between neurons in the brain required for recall.

Storage
After being consolidated into a memory, it needs
to be stored within the brain where it can be
easily accessed. The full memory is not stored,
however. Memory traces are stored to serve more
like an aid, prompting our brains to reconstruct
events as we experienced them as accurately as
possible using the selected aspects encoded.

Retrieval
Thousands of events can be stored as memory
traces, but these are useless if irretrievable. While
most memories will never be used, some can be
brought forward using retrieval cues. A song you
heard could trigger a memory trace. When we
think back to a time, relevant memories
surrounding this can also be retrieved. Once the
memory trace is activated, it is more likely to be
reactivated in the future.

In a process called
memory pruning,
the brain gets rid
of less important
memories from
early childhood
© Getty

Ageing memory
Every brain develops differently as it ages, with development, our complex memory is better able
some exceptional cases where recall is much more to retain and recall long-term memories. With old
advanced than usual. For most of us, the age, some brain areas can shrink in size. One of
memories of our early lives are nonexistent. This these is the hippocampus, which loses five per
doesn’t mean that memories aren’t formed in cent of nerve cells every decade. This causes
babies, however. Babies are constantly communication between neurons in the brain to
memorising and form 700 new neural connections slow down. Additionally, cell loss at the front of
every second. As our brains develop throughout the brain towards the end of life causes a decrease
childhood, less used synapses are altered and in production of the essential neurotransmitter,
parts are destroyed to create a more efficient acetylcholine. For these reasons, some people’s
brain structure. Losing connections means that ability to encode new information, and retrieve
many of our early memories are lost, but those memories already formed, reduces as they
© Getty

remaining are made stronger. Through further become older.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 037

 SCIENCE AR ZONE!

Senses incorporator

INSIDE THE The parietal lobe is involved in the

first step of memory formation,
using the senses experienced to
create memories. This section is
AR ZONE!
SCAN HERE

MEMORY
also responsible for triggering
retrieval when encountering the
same sensory information again. The visualiser
This section of the brain – the
occipital lobe – is responsible for

BANK
linking images to memories. As
part of its vision processing, this
area analyses shapes, colour and
movement and allows us to draw
conclusions from what we see.
Take a look inside the brain to
discover the areas associated
with recalling information

Complex
Memory organiser encoder
The frontal lobe is involved in The cerebellum
higher mental function. This plays a part in
section plays a role in the encoding complex
processing of short-term memories. It is
memories and the retaining also the part of the
of long-term memories brain involved with
which aren’t task based. motor learning.
This includes the
memory of skills
through practice
and accuracy of
movements.

Bike rider
Once you’ve learned how to ride a
bike, you never forget – thanks to
the basal ganglia. This area is
responsible for forming and
recalling all procedural memories,
including walking and talking.
One form of procedural memory
controlled by the basal ganglia is
implicit memory. These
memories are obtained and
applied unconsciously. No
previous experiences are brought
into awareness.

Long-term Memory chooser

memory maker The hippocampus decides which
The temporal lobe plays a are the most important
key role in forming memories to transform from
long-term memories and short-term to long-term. It is one
processing new of the only areas of the brain
information. Visual and Emotion recreators that can grow new neurons.
verbal memories can be With their primary role being to process and
formed and stored here. retrieve emotion from memories, the
The inner part of the amygdalae also help control response to social
temporal lobe plays a part encounters. When triggered by emotional
© Illustration by Nicholas Forder

in declarative and stimuli, the amygdalae are the areas which

episodic memory retrieve these deep-rooted memories.
formation. Declarative Fear-induced memories and those involving
memory is the recalling of trauma are some of the most common
facts while episodic associated with this area. The more emotional
memory involves an event, the more likely it is to be remembered.
contextual information
such as when and where
a specific event occurred.
038 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com
DID YOU KNOW? Our brains are thought to be able to hold the entire internet’s worth of information in their memory

Pay attention Get enough sleep

To move information from your short- to long-term For memory consolidation to take place, your
memory, paying attention and taking the time to body needs sleep. While you are asleep,
understand information helps. Neural circuits that connections in the brain can strengthen and
help build long-lasting memories work best when we information can pass into more permanent
focus on our surroundings. Neurotransmitters and efficient regions of the brain. Research
released when we
we’re
re attentive target
t areas involved shows that when information is learned
in processing visuals. before sleeping, it is remembered better.

Try meditating
Mindfulness is
proven to enhance
the abilities of your
working memory.
This is where new
information is
Stimulate
temporarily held.
your brain
Most adults are able
Testing your
to hold around seven
cognitive ability has
items in their
been found to reduce
working memory, but
early symptoms of
meditation is thought
memory loss. By
to strengthen it and
taking part in brain
increase its capacity.
games, your frontal
lobe enhances its
ability to split your
attention between
mental tasks.
Keeping your brain
used to memorising
and keeping neuron
connections
activated can TIPS FOR
A BETTER
increase their
efficiency.

MEMORY
How you can improve your memory
by making changes in your
day-to-day life

Drink less alcohol

Alcohol consumption has obvious impacts on memory
Exercise regularly ability. People who drink regularly make around 30 per
Physical activity has been proven to have a cent more memory mistakes in daily life than those
direct impact on brain health. By regularly who don’t drink. Alcohol works to prevent transfer of
exercising, the risk of cognitive decline short-term memories to long-term and even reduces the
becomes lower. By stimulating brain growth, size of brain cells. After a heavy night of drinking, it’s
A mags on page © Getty

studies have shown that in those who regularly possible to have no memory of events. This is due to a
exercise, parts of the brain key to memory memory-affecting chemical in the brain called
production are larger. glutamate, which is extremely susceptible to alcohol.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 039

How to
magine a world in which wheels

I were no longer a necessity, where

medicine could be hand-delivered
within the body, where buildings
rise above the ground during an
earthquake – a world where gravity
Rick Edwards
graduated with a
degree in natural
sciences from

is optional. This hypothetical world

Cambridge University
before becoming a
might be closer than we think, as TV journalist, presenter
and author
presenter, author and podcast host
Rick Edwards has discovered in a
BBC Studios YouTube Original. The
Edge of Science follows Edwards and
a team of popular YouTube creators,
© BBC Studios

including inventor Colin Furze and

MIT physics graduate Dianna
Cowern, as they attempt to achieve
you most surprised to discover about its you describe the experience?
the seemingly impossible: human
current and future applications? It’s kind of eerie. It feels a bit like standing on a
levitation. From levitation by sound Truthfully I went into this knowing nothing of very unstable skateboard, and your brain can’t
to using supercooled material to the applications of levitation – I just thought it really compute what is happening. Of course you
create a hoverboard straight from would be cool! But I quickly learned that the can’t see that there is clear air between you and
science fiction, Edwards sheds some potential applications are huge. From ‘acoustic the track, so your brain assumes that you must
light on what it’s like to float. tweezers’ which might allow the precise be balancing on something, and not locked into
delivery of drugs without the need to open a super-strong magnetic field, which is pretty
During your career you have explored many someone up to superconductor counter-intuitive. It’s only
avenues in science. What inspired you to innovations, which really the reactions of
investigate the science behind levitation? would revolutionise “Your brain everyone else that gives it
I’ve always been most fascinated by the bits of our energy efficiency. away – when they’re
science that might be politely described as
can’t really celebrating and telling you
‘fringe’ – those endeavours that are slightly During filming, what were compute that you are levitating!
sneered at by other scientists; the research that the biggest challenges and
sparks argument and derision. If the history of hurdles you had to
what is How would you sum
scientific advance tells us anything, it’s that overcome to finally achieve happening” up the journey from
those are the areas where novelty and progress your goal of levitation? preparing for the Edge
spring from. I mean, clearly lots of it is nonsense, It’s slightly embarrassing, but the biggest of Science to seeing the final project?
and levitation is one of those things that obstacle to getting me up was, simply, that I’m a It’s a funny one – the whole way through I was
seemingly everyone, scientifically inclined or bit of a unit – 6’5” and 100kg. It would have been a feeling pretty anxious. The idea is that this will
otherwise, has both a clear idea of, and a strong lot easier, for obvious reasons, if I was a little slip be a series and will continue to explore new and
sense that it’s solely the domain of illusions and of a thing. When we first told the guys who exciting and weird science, and I was worried
trickery. That made it very appealing to me designed and built the hoverboard my weight, that we’d set ourselves up for a fall by over-
because I knew that there was some stuff out there was an audible gasp. Fortunately they promising with this first episode. There were
there that would really surprise people. managed to create a track and board with numerous points along the way where we all
sufficient strength to accommodate me! thought, ‘I’m not sure we’re going to be able to
Throughout the special you speak to pull this levitation stunt off’. So when we did,
© BBC Studios

experts and YouTube creators to learn more How did it feel to finally stand on the after the initial excitement, I was just flooded
about the world of levitation. What were levitating skateboard, and how would with relief!

040 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 Edwards and
Professor Bruce
Drinkwater
explore the
possibilities of
acoustic
levitation
Supercooled
science
In the pursuit of defying gravity, Edwards
and Colin Furze, a popular YouTuber
known for his impressive mechanical
creations with over 8.7 million followers,
attempt to use superconductors to create
a board with the ability to hover along a
skate track. At a fundamental level
superconductors are materials through
which electricity – moving electrons –
freely moves without any resistance.
However, when dipped in liquid nitrogen
and sent into a deep freeze,
superconductors produce their own
magnetic fields that strongly repel other
magnets. By packing 32 individual
superconductors inside a futuristic
skateboard, adding liquid nitrogen and
placing it on a magnetic track, Edwards
could finally achieve his levitation goal.
When asked what the biggest challenges
were when it came to creating the
levitation skate ramp, Furze said: “The
magnetic sections come in straight
pieces and we were trying to make a
curved shape, so we didn’t want to make
the ramp look like a 50p coin. These
magnetic track pieces had such powerful
Find o
Edwa ut how magnets that if two were to snap

© BBC Studios
team rds and hi together they would crush you.”
missi get on in t s
on to heir
in the be
YouTu at gravity
‘The E be
dge o Original
How t f Sc
o Levi ience:
BBC E ta
arth’s te’ on Edwards attempts to levitate with
chann YouTube professional skateboarder Rianne Evans,
el now
! engineer Dr Oliver de Haas and YouTube
inventor Colin Furze

© BBC Studios
A combination of freezing temperatures and
strong magnets can lead to levitation

© BBC Studios

Evans’ smaller frame makes levitation a

slightly easier task

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 041

 SCIENCE

© Jurvetson/Flickr
A gene gun is used to
alter the DNA of corn cells

How is food Future food

genetically Beginning only as a way to enhance the

value of plants, genetic modification

© Getty
techniques are now being explored within

modified?
the animal food industry. The first animal
genetically edited for food quality was
salmon. These fish were modified in
Canada to adopt the ability to reach full
size in only 18 months - half the time it
would usually take – while being fed less.
Explore the production of human-made food The next steps in genetic modification
could be more radical. Pigs and chickens
perfection that takes place in science labs are being worked on to create disease-
resistant animals alongside dairy cows
Words by Ailsa Harvey without horns and sheep with the ability
to produce more offspring.

T
he majority of what we eat has been production and the creation of crop perfection. In terms of crops, being able to grow
sourced from farms and factories which Experimenting with new varieties, genetically food that is resistant to harsh
environments may be a saviour in
breed and produce especially for the food engineered foods can increase flavour and preventing famine. Some areas of the
industry. For centuries humans have been nutrition, while also protecting the organism globe struggle with an extreme lack of
manipulating the outcome and appeal of food against disease. Created in laboratories, rainfall during their driest seasons,
sources by changing traits. Selecting the ideal scientists play with the combinations of genes in suffering from droughts that hinder their
ability to provide food. With climate
features, people have systematically created various food sources for an end result that is change likely to only exacerbate these
many combinations of favourable features in superior to natural qualities. conditions, scientists worldwide are
food that would not naturally have occurred. But are there any negative impacts of food experimenting with the development of
Genetic modification is one way of ensuring produced in this way? Over the years many drought-tolerant crops in preparation.
our food has the desired outcome, in a precise have raised concerns over whether growth and
and scientific procedure. Previous selective consumption of these foods are bad for our
breeding methods relied on luck in some parts of health and that of the environment. Altering
the process, but for this more advanced nature’s course can introduce beneficial aspects
technique, an organism’s DNA structure is cut to each food source, but it is also important to
and modified in a more direct act. This closely acknowledge where the method could have
controls the outcome and standard of produce. downfalls. Some believe modified foods
In order to grow food that is best suited to its could increase the likelihood of allergic
© Getty

environment while incorporating the best traits, reactions in those who eat them, as well as
scientists look to naturally thriving organisms. justifying the creation of more toxic herbicides Crops such as wheat and soybeans could be
Taking the advantageous aspects of their DNA, and pesticides by chemical companies to be engineered to close pores where water is lost
these are incorporated into mass food used on resistant crops.

042 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The first-ever genetically modified food was the ‘Flavr Savr’ long
g-life
life tomato in 1994

Forced Gun precision

Beneficial bacteria
In one method, some bacteria and
evolution Gene guns are often
used to alter plant
How favourable genes are genomes. These
viruses are used. They transfer
their DNA into host cells as part of passed into plants precise guns are filled
their usual cycle. Most commonly with DNA-coated
the bacteria Agrobacterium metal particles.
tumefaciens is used.
Gene
transferral
The desired gene is

© Getty
put into the bacterial
cell. To ensure it is
accepted, bacteria Use of the toxic herbicide glyphosate has increased
are shocked with by 1,500% since resistant GM crops were introduced
either electricity
or heat.

Dense bullets FICTITIOUS FRUITS

Metal is used to increase BECOMING REALITY
the density and allow
particles to penetrate
plant cells. Using metal
means that less DNA
needs to be used in each
1 Arctic apple
Created to resist turning brown,
these apples are available in the US.
shot – only a thin coating. Once the apple is cut, the inside is
prevented from changing colour.
Those responsible for modifying
the apples claim that foods with
these qualities will help to reduce
food waste.

2 Peachy strawberries
Strawberries are being
experimented with in order to
give them the sweetest taste
possible. In a merger between
Entering Forceful firing two fruits, some modification is
the plant The particles bombard the plant producing strawberries that are
The bacteria cells as they are fired into the peach flavoured.
take their tissue. Any cells that have been

3 Disease-resistant bananas
newly acquired successfully targeted now have
genes into the the genetic trait incorporated A common disease in bananas
plants’ cells. within their DNA. called fusarium wilt has prompted
scientists to develop a batch of
resistant bananas. This will ensure
that these bananas can all stay
healthy for consumption.

4 Spicy tomatoes
Some Brazilian scientists are
testing the possibility of hot
tomatoes with their spicy selection.
Tomatoes have some of the same
Embedded genes which produce spicy
genes chemicals as chillies, but they are
Some of the plants’ dormant. Altering this part of the
cells successfully genome, tomatoes could be used
take up the newly as more accessible chillies.
introduced DNA.

5 Rainbow papaya
The rainbow papaya was
modified to make papaya
New plant production more efficient. Papaya
The cells that now have the farms across Hawaii were suffering
chosen DNA are used to grow new from a loss of a huge number of
varieties of plant. Each plant cell their fruit to the ringspot disease.
has the capacity to individually Since commercialisation in 1998,
create an entire new plant. the rainbow papaya is claimed to
have saved the industry in Hawaii.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 043

 TECHNOLOGY

RE DIB
INRECAKTHROUGHS
B

2 2
OF

ta c t le nse s o
n
From AR co pics, wat h
he rob o t O ly m
t o te n tial
out for th e se p
in sc ie n ce and
advances s y e ar
o gy th i
technol
a Harvey
Words by Ails
© Getty

044 How It Works www.ho itwork aily.com

DID YOU KNOW? This year, 1 billion people are predicted to use augmented reality (AR)

AR CONTACT LENSES Display unit

The display unit receives
information from across
the contact lens and
Encapsulation layer
This outer layer encloses the
contents, and is designed to
comfortably fit the eyes. The
Passivation layer
This layer is sandwiched between
the device and the lens to act as a
shield and keep the lens from
Forget having your eyes glued to your projects images into the
eye. It can move with
encapsulation layer includes the
standard materials used in regular
getting damaged, as well as
acting as an electrical insulator
phone, soon it could be a part of you the pupil’s movement contacts, such as hydrogel. for the device’s contents.
for unlimited AR access
ontact lenses are great for enhancing vision while

C
in all directions.
remaining discrete. But imagine if they added more to
what you saw than clarity. Samsung has invented
smart AR contact lenses with built-in hidden cameras that
enable you to extend the information you receive when
wearing them. With Samsung’s lenses now patent-approved,
smartphone use as we know it could soon change.
The lenses will allow the wearer to record videos from their
point of view, take pictures and control devices with their
eyes using embedded motion sensors. Commands could be
controlled using eye motions, such as blinking to take a
photo. Additionally, photos from other smart devices could be
beamed into the wearer’s eyes, overlaying their view of the Transparent
Device layer Wiring portion substrate layer
real world. This is covered in an array of
This is where the important Surrounding the display unit,
Unlike similar glasses designs, this contact lens will imbue AR tech is stored, including the electrical wires bring all tightly packed microlenses,
the wearer with the sense that they’re controlling these tiny cameras, antennae to collected information to the more densely packed over the
connect to outside devices front of vision, creating the centre display unit, creating
digital abilities with their mind, while the device also gives higher resolution images.
and motion sensors. overall view and experience.
them an increased angle of view.

DRONE
How can communicating with projected avatars of people
DELIVERIES
In an attempt to make home
anywhere in the world better connect us? deliveries even speedier for
lightweight items, drones could
soon be dropping off your orders
to your door. One company that
aims to provide this option around
the world in 2020
is Amazon, with its Amazon
© Shutterstock

© Shutterstock
© Getty

Air service.
As close as you can get to
instant delivery, the drones will
get your parcel to you in half an
hour or less. Through ‘sense and
avoid’ technology, the drones will
steer away from obstacles to
deliver safely.

Avatar Chat by Magic Leap is one These platforms could be used to Where specialist knowledge is
of the first examples. When provide alternative teaching required, assistance is often Amazon’s delivery drones
connected to the platform you can methods. Students can interact needed quickly. With fast- will have a weight limit of
about two kilograms
invite your friends over, and it with tutors, and training staff connecting technology, expert © Amazon

appears as though they are in the could conduct training sessions opinion could be applied in an
room – or their avatar is. While all with groups spread across the instant. With AR eyewear and
people can see the group of globe. The current technology in avatar technology, experts could
avatars, soon you could also be Avatar Chat emulates head instruct others on what to do by
able to see the room you enter position, eye movements and looking at the scene and using
when you virtually visit friends’ body language, creating the best avatar gestures to demonstrate
houses. The technology could medium to express what is being actions. This could include
tackle the issue of loneliness for taught through long-distance medical advice or the engineering
those away from their loved ones. communication. of household appliances.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 045

 TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN MEDICINE

How better technology can lead to better health

WORLDWIDE
INTERNET

© Shutterstock
BALLOONS
© Getty

DIGITAL TWINS
The internet has enhanced our
communication and connection to global
WEARABLE TECH With the invention of digital twin
technology, the medical world is able to
affairs. But what about those remote areas These days you can tell a lot about your
further improve accuracy and accelerate
where even in the 21st century, people are yet own fitness without having to attend a
research by incorporating it into
to have access to the internet? doctor’s appointment. Many of us are
healthcare. The technology serves to create
As part of a Google-run project, a network of willing to strap monitors and sensors to
digital replicas and simulations of physical
balloons is set to be installed in the sky to our bodies in everyday life in the form of
objects, and even people, allowing
improve connectivity everywhere. This smart watches – but these wearable tech
procedures to be practised without
includes extremely rural areas where people trends are set to evolve from fitness
inflicting harm.
are isolated, as well as places impacted by trackers to real-time clinical monitors in
Soon digital twins may be used to
natural disasters where the internet is lost. 2020. For life-threatening cases such as
replicate entire hospitals as well as
How are they going to do this? Filled with cardiac diseases, medical practitioners
individual cases to see how changes
helium, the 15-metre-wide solar-powered could be automatically alerted to any
within the hospital could impact patients
structures will serve their role as they slowly worrying changes.
and identify any issues before they arise in
drift across the stratosphere. Equipped with
real life.
antennae, each balloon provides 5,180 square
kilometres of land below with internet access.
Attached to the bottom of the balloon is the
equipment: the antennae transceive data, the
solar panels power the equipment, a capsule
contains the balloon’s electronics and a
parachute is ready to be deployed at the end
of the balloon’s flight.
Once in position, the balloons aren’t fixed
in place. They can be manoeuvred by
technicians and their location is tracked by
Air Traffic Control using GPS. After an 8.0
magnitude earthquake struck Peru in 2019,
© Getty

20,000 people used this service in 48 hours.

© Shutterstock

3D PRINTING
Being able to produce a physical object
from a digital file is starting to transform MACHINE LEARNING
aspects of the medical industry. From Artificial intelligence (AI) is continuing to
transplanting printed organs to improving improve. But what if this led to machines
an individual’s quality of life through replacing doctors and nurses altogether?
prosthetics, the use of 3D printers in Virtual nursing is one way that AI is taking
medicine will continue to rapidly expand. over in the world of medicine. In some
© Loon

Surgical tools are also becoming more cases, machine learning chatbots are
Balloons last for over 100 days in the sky before personalised to aid medical professionals engaging with patients more frequently
landing on Earth in a slow, controlled descent in precise and intricate procedures. than human nurses are.

046 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The medical technology industry is valued at around £357 billion in 2020

2020
SMART CAMERA Computer vision works by
singling out individual

VISION SYSTEM objects in a scene

© xxxx
As we head into 2020, more cameras
should be able to understand what they
are seeing rather than acting as a display
screen. This technology is called computer

PREDICTIONS
vision, and it can be used to install safety
systems through artificial intelligence.
The computers work by assembling
TRUCK
visual images like a puzzle. By identifying
CAR

PROVED WRONG
the edges, shape and where the objects
sit in the field of vision, the camera’s
images are taken through a filtering
system before determining what it is CAR PERSON
looking at. Upcoming uses for this PERSON
technology include installation into We are always imagining what
self-driving cars to work as a replacement
a human driver’s eyes, interpreting objects the future will hold, but these
and any possible dangers. Computer
vision could prove to be a key progression
come with varying accuracy

“WEWILL LIVE IN
in technology for those who are visually
impaired. By incorporating natural
language processing, if computers can

FLYING HOUSES”
understand what they see, they can

© Getty
translate these images into words, serving
almost as eyes for the blind.

This prediction came from inventor and science writer

Arthur C Clarke. In 1966 he guessed that houses were
too dull for the days of 2020. Flying houses would be

MORE INTELLIGENT CARS

able to transport you without having to leave your
house, and whole cities could migrate somewhere
warmer for colder seasons. Unfortunately, today’s
houses are still firmly on the ground, and will most
Cars could become a real connective companion likely be there for a while.

CAR COMPANION “MAILWILL

BE SENT VIA
Due to be launched in 2020, Toyota’s car intelligence technology
could see cars looking out for us on much deeper levels. AI
could transform our driving experience by supporting our
emotional wellbeing in the car. Toyota’s Concept-i will
analyse the driver’s body language, speech tone and
use of language. Getting to know personal
ROCKETS”
Most of us may still be using standard post offices, but a
preferences, the car could then respond in ways it successful delivery by missile was once made in 1959.
That year, 3,000 letters were sent to political figures via
calculates to improve mood. At a Tokyo motor rocket. These successes were enough to make
show, the car demonstrated how it could cool or postmaster general Arthur E Summerfield predict that
warm the car temperature, release pleasant this would become a common affair.

fragrances, change the atmosphere through

interior lighting and even begin a
conversation. “TUBESWILL
The Toyota Concept-i will be launched for public
trials in 2020 © Tokumeigakarinoaoshim
REPLACEROADS”
In 1957 an article was published in Popular Mechanics

KEYLESS CARS
The mad dash in search of your car keys as you
with its prediction that America’s roads would be
eplaced by a tube system. Requiring you to drive only
from your house to the tube, the more efficient system
would power you to your destination.
leave the house could be unnecessary with new

“WE’LLVOTE
car unlocking technology. Safe new ways to
unlock your vehicle are emerging with facial
recognition and fingerprint technology. While
cars with these features are already available, a
2020 emergence could see these properties FROM HOME”
© Getty

starting to become the norm. One new concept As a 1997 prediction for 2020, Peter Schwartz and
car, the Karma SC2, has received major funding fo eter Leyden believed e-voting would be a reality. With
Fingerprint security works by turning scans o need to trek to your nearest polling station, voting
its new biometric features – signalling that this into a digitalised code. This code needs to be could take place at home. However, this is still deemed
could be the new future for car access. re-matched for access too risky and unreliable.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 047

 TECHNOLOGY

AI IN THE BRAIN
Stimulated areas Probes
If Neuralink can record which areas of the brain Containing thin threads, probes
react to senses such as touch, the electrodes could need to be inserted into the brain
use the information to simulate the sensation for tissue. A machine works like a
Discover the implant that could purposes such as robotic prosthetics. sewing machine to embed
reduce neurological issues and threads a millimetre into the
brain’s outer surface.
even connect AI to the brain
We now live in a world where many of
us are glued to our mobile phones – but
what if you were literally connected to
yours? A proposed brain implant called
Neuralink aims to connect the human
brain with artificial intelligence
through a smartphone application.
Serving not only as a way to enhance
human ability with computerised Carriers
capabilities, the chip should also record The role of the wires is to carry
signals between the chip and
deep-brain electrical activity in order to the electrodes. These can
understand and improve numerous Smart controls detect brain activity and also
cognitive issues. The device is claimed Further into the future, act in stimulating it.
Neuralink may use bluetooth
to be able to assist stroke victims with a to control the implant system
memory-boost feature, as well as through smartphones.

© I ustrat on by The Art Agency/N ck Sellers

helping those experiencing various
forms of paralysis.
The surgical procedure required to Thin wires
put one in place involves small holes With diameters thinner than human
Interpreting chip hair, wires are flexible in order to
being drilled into the skull by a robot The role of the chip, situated move when required and not
for the chip to plug into. Human trials behind the ear, is to interpret restrict the brain. These are safer
for this device are planned to start by the signals that are picked up for this device, which could spend
by the electrodes. prolonged periods in the brain.
the end of 2020.

Cathode Conductive
When an electric current layer
passes through the device, Comprising of

OLED
Ds could mean bendable displays
this layer injects electrons organic plastic
into the next layer. molecules, these
molecules transport The num mber of screens we watch in our lives is on the rise as technology is
positive molecules delving ffurther into the digital world. While the content we can stream onto
away from the screens is improving, so are the screens themselves. Most homes currently
anode layer. These have LCD D screens, but predictions for 2020 see the takeover of OLED. So
are called ‘holes’. what are e OLEDs, and how much difference can a screen’s properties make?
OLED stands for organic light-emitting diode, and is made of a material
that glowws when hit with electricity. The current strength sent to different
sections of the screen determines how much light is emitted. The ability to
have som me of the screen exposed to high currents and other sections with
no current at all enables a perfect black to be used for better contrast – a
feature n not possible in many modern-day TVs. Transforming the screens we
may be familiar
f with today, OLED screens hold the possibility to become
Emissive flexible aand foldable, bringing new opportunities for smartphone and
layer television design. We could soon have smartphones with foldable faces, or
even enttire walls covered in these innovative screens.
Made of organic
plastic molecules
such as polyfluorene, With OLED technology you
the emissive layer could open your phone
takes the cathode’s screen like a book
electrons. Light is
emitted here.

Substrate Anode
This layer can be made from clear When a current flows through a device, this
plastic, glass or foil and is purely layer removes negatively charged electrons
used for structural support. and creates the holes in their place.
© Getty

04
48 How It Works
DID YOU KNOW? 8 billion devices will be connected to the internet by 2020

INTELLIGENT FOOD LABELS

When you go to the supermarket to pick up your food shopping, you
may spend a lot of time searching for expiry dates. 2020 could
transform our food labelling system, with more useful features such
as colour-changing tags that represent the stage of food decay or labels
that are able to tell more information than just the price when scanned.
Time temperature indicators are tags that use temperature levels over
time to communicate the stage of food decay with the consumer. By
Demonstrating the potential
determining the edibilit ode, these labels for future robot jobs, these
work more accuratelyy than printed best
before dates. These scientific labels helpers will
w be of assistance in
are thought to reduce e the amount
of food unnecessarilyy thrown
Tokyo thhroughout the games
out before spoiling.
Another type of

Humanoid
intelligent labelling
involves RFID tags. Fo or
this to work, labels are This robot benefits those who are unable to attend
embedded with a tinyy the games by interacting with athletes. Replicating
antenna. When sound, im
mages and force-feedback, these robots
activated by radio let people communicate with athletes in Tokyo,
waves in the scanner, and if thin
ngs go well, even give them a high-five.
the tag responds,

Human support
sending a range of
details about the prod duct.
RFID labels can show
w Assisting memmbers of the audience, these
expiry date, weight and mobile robots guide
g them to the seats they can
price in one scan access. Using ttheir arms they can also bring
© Getty spectators meals and other items as a
complementaarry addition to their
experience. Th
hey are
expected to be serving

BEGINNING
over 1,000 peoople
during both th
he
e
Olympic and
Paralympic

COMMERCIAL
games.

SPACE TRIPS
Over 50 companies are researching the commercialisation
of space trips, and NASA has worked with ten to create
Fieldd support
14 facilities on the International Space Station. These
steps are in preparation for bringing tourists to space in Remote For throwing evvents such as javelin, less
staff will be nee
eded to collect equipment
2020. SpaceX and Boeing have both built vehicles location i ld Thi i j b f
the field support robot, increasing the
especially for private commercial use to operate as taxis
leaving our planet. communic
commun icaation
Another robot built for those who
speed and safety of the task.

Thought to cost around £27,500

7 5 a night,
g , the holidayy don’t make it to the games in the
won’t be a cheap one, as the 30-day flesh, this one projects their
image onto a lifesize display. To
excursion could leave passengers
make them feel present, the
with a fee of arround £47 million. robots enable them to send and
Robyn Gatens,, deputy director receive communication.
of the Internattional Space
Station, annou unced that
they aim to con nduct two
short commercial space
missions a yea ar to
All images © Toyota

begin with; an n
opportunity th
serves as a hug
hat
ge Miini mascot
Tokyyo is aiming to make this Olympics
landmark for
the most
m technologically ad
dvanced of
the future of all time. They are also caterring for the
space travel. childdren who attend with th heir
mascot robots. These will b be able
to interact with them, recog gnising
Boeing is working on peop ple through built-in cam
meras
a space ship called on th heir heads and responding
© Boe
er
CST-100 Starline ing with expressions.

www.howitworksdaily.com 049
 TECHNOLOGY

Discover how digging in

the ocean depths can
reveal buried treasure
– but at what cost?
Words by Scott Dutfield
© Alamy

050 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? There’s a 65,000-kilometre tectonic boundary wrapped around the world called the mid-ocean ridge

W
hat lies beneath the world’s oceans is
one of nature’s biggest mysteries, with
most of our planet’s seabed still
unexplored, yet to be mapped by sonar
technology. Since the 1960s researchers have
wondered about the possibilities of extracting
valuable resources from the deep blue. Now,
around 60 years later, we might be on the cusp of
deep-sea mining becoming a reality.
But what could be so valuable at the bottom
of the ocean? Much like the gold found on a
sunken ship, the prospect of finding coveted
minerals and metals has spearheaded a
movement into the creation of subsea miners.
Although shallow seabed mining is currently
in operation in areas of the Pacific and the
Indian Oceans, deep-sea mining is a venture
not yet embarked upon. However, mining
companies such as Nautilus Minerals are
hoping to be the first to commercially harvest
marine-made metals.
Found scattered around the ocean floor, and
particularly abundant in the waters surrounding Humans control
© Damen Shipyard Group

Papua New Guinea, once-smoking vents called underwater mining robots

polymetallic massive sulphides are the target for “Inactive hypothermal from above sea level, as
seen in this technology
deep-sea miners. Containing valuable metals
and minerals such as cobalt, copper, gold and
vents could quite demonstration by the
VAMOS project

silver, these inactive hydrothermal vents could literally be a gold mine

quite literally be a gold mine for obtaining
lucrative elements.
for obtaining Much like the mining that occurs on land,
subsea excavations come at a cost to their
On land, diggers and mining equipment lucrative elements” surrounding environment. One of the biggest
are typically operated by manned machinery. concerns of environmentalists is the removal of
But even with the world’s most advanced a different role to ensure success. Leading the key species in the marine ecosystems. Many
technology, humans aren’t yet commercially deep-sea dive is the Auxiliary Cutter, which different benthic (deep ocean) species call
able to dive to great depths. So how does Nautilus uses its mining drum to create ‘benches’, flat potential mining sites home: species such as
Minerals, for example, expect to exploit mineral surfaces on the seafloor for other machinery to sponges, corals and starfish, which play a vital
havens sitting 500 to 5,000 metres below the work on. Once the groundwork is complete, the role in maintaining a balanced ecosystem. By
surface? Quite simply, keep the humans above Bulk Cutter moves in to do the heavy lifting and removing these key players, the effects on the
water and let the robots go to work. grinds away at the metallic crust. This environment could be potentially devastating
Using umbilical cord-like attachments, freshly ground seabed remains in expelled for marine life. Due to the complexity of ocean
mammoth mining vehicles are connected to piles by the Bulk Cutter until the collecting ecosystems, scientists have not yet been able to
the production support vessel bobbing on the machine comes along to suck up the goods and precisely predict the negative effects deep-sea
ocean’s surface. From there the equipment can send them up through another pipe connecting mining could have. However, an impressive
be lowered into the water and manoeuvred these subsea machines and the production 26-year-long study conducted by the National
remotely. What these puppeteers are piloting support vessel above, where it will be processed Oceanography Centre (NOC), suggests a dismal
is a team of three separate vehicles, each with and shipped to land. future. After investigating an area of ocean floor
4,000 metres deep off the coast of Peru that had
d to a mining simulation of

Seafloor hoover Precious metal

deep below
s lie
etal-bearing nodules, it found that
track marks were still visible 26
In what appears to be a cross between a deep-sea
miner and a Roomba, EU-funded projects such as years on. And most, if not all of
Blue Nodule have designed a method of mining the marine life from the area had
that sweeps along the ocean floor collecting not returned.
copper and manganese-rich polymetallic nodules.
Much in the same way as the machines by Although deep-sea mining is not
Nautilus, this umbilical cord-bound miner crawls et happening on an industrial
the seafloor, hoovering up nodules as it goes. With cale, licenses to do so have been
the ability to descend to depths of between 3,000
sued to a handful of countries by
and 6,000 metres, these autonomous crawlers are
capable of processing the nodules on the seabed e International Sea Authority,
before sending them up to the base ship above. vering a combined oceanic area of
© Alamy

er 1.3 million square kilometres.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 051

 TECHNOLOGY AR ZONE!

How will deep-ocean

mining companies
operate heavy machinery
on the seafloor?

Heavyweight Remote
Weighing in at 310 tonnes,
control
Operated manually
the Bulk Cutter is the largest
from above the
in Nautilus Minerals’ fleet.
ocean surface,
electrical power and
navigation is fed
through the attached
umbilical cords.

Mining force
Armed with a barrel of rock-carving
blades, the cutting drum is powered
by two 800-horsepower motors.

Slow and steady

The Bulk Cutter can reach
a top speed just shy of a
single kilometre an hour.

Caterpillar tracks
AR ZONE! A little unsteady on its feet, this
benthic bulldozer needs the

SCAN HERE assistance of the Auxiliary Cutter

to carve flat tracks on the seafloor.

Hidden treasure
How do gold and copper deposits find themselves at the bottom of the e
ocean? It all starts where two tectonic plates meet and rub oulders. Att
these boundaries, seawater begins to flow into cracks betwe een this
rocky union, where it is heated by convection from the Earth’s molten
middle. In turn, minerals from surrounding rock are dissolved into the
seawater, which then erupts back onto the seafloor. As the hot water hits
h
the cold ocean, the dissolved minerals precipitate out and settle on the
e Trapped within
the chimney of a
© Alamy

seafloor. Sheets of valuable metals such as copper and gold ollect, a hydrothermal vent is a
over time form chimneys of metal sulphide-rich hydrothermall vents. gold and copper treasure

052 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The deepest known point in the Earth’s ocean is 10,984 metres down, called the Challenger Deep

Production Support
Vessel (PSV)
As the base of operations for
deep-sea mining, the PSV is
the location of subsea machine
operators and the site where
mined material is stored in four
holding tanks.

Pumping pebbles
Once the collecting machine
has gathered the rock harvest,
material is pumped up from
the seafloor and onto the PSV
using seawater slurry.

An inland underwater
mining machine is
lowered off and onto
the deck above a
flooded pit by shipyards
specialist Damen

Mining
The Bulk Cutter carries out the
main responsibility of physically
grinding at the seafloor, leaving
piles of rubble to be harvested
by the collecting machine.

©Damen Shipyards Group

Minerals
Nautilus Minerals has proposed
reaching resources around 1,600
metres below the surface.
© Illustration by Adrian Mann

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 053

 TECHNOLOGY

Smart home Building a smart

security system

security
How these security components work
together to keep intruders at bay

Meet the team of digital devices

working together to protect homes 1
Words by Ailsa Harvey

ne of the biggest fears for most when they leave

O home – either for short or prolonged periods of

time – is the risk of leaving their most valuable
possessions. Did I definitely lock the door? What if it
2

looks too obvious that we’re all away? Should I have

hidden my valuables just in case?
In the past few years, home security has been upgraded
with the latest smart technology to assuage our worries.
Using traditional components of security systems, smart
devices allow the homeowner to monitor, control and
even interact with their house from any location using the
internet. When something unusual occurs, the devices
will flag up the areas of concern, presenting the problem
and in some cases intervening to deter any threats.

Stay at home
security robots
Working as personal security guards,
robots can patrol your home to observe
what goes on while you are away. While
each unit in a stationary alarm system
can only observe from one point of
view, robots can cover multiple rooms.
Equipped with motion sensors, night 10
vision and a microphone, these devices
can report back to your phone with any
suspicious findings.
With facial recognition technology,
robots can differentiate between those
who are meant to be in the house and
those who are intruders. Spying people it
doesn’t recognise instantly triggers an
alert. A robot isn’t likely to be able to stop
a burglary, but it can take pictures of the
trespasser and increase the chances of
them getting caught.

8
© Shutterstock

You don’t have to wait for security bots to alert

you. They can be controlled with a smartphone
7

054 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? 30 per cent of burglars enter homes through unlocked doors

1 6
Locks CCTV
Smart locks lock your home without While CCTV usually just records
3 needing a key. Connected to a
smartphone app, they let you lock
images, smart CCTV systems can
recognise what they see. This
and unlock the door from wherever you are. may seem intrusive for those living nearby,
If you have ever been filled with feelings of but some smart systems
doubt at having locked the door when you have this covered with
left, smart locks can bring peace of mind by the technology
allowing you to check. They can also send a required to blank
notification to tell you that you’ve forgotten. out windows and
To do this, smart locks are connected to gardens where

© Getty
your home WiFi, enabling it to receive the people value
smartphone command and lock the door. their privacy.

2
Faces of
Key safety passers-by can
If your house doesn’t have a smart also be erased,
lock, there can be occasions when only being revealed
someone needs access to your if an incident occurs.

7
house while you’re not home. Hiding a key
somewhere seems a bit risky, and leaving Intercom system
the door unlocked just isn’t an Being able to see and speak to
4 option. This is where key safes
can come in handy.
someone as they come to your
front door provides a security step
Installed in a discreet before opening the door to the unknown.
location, key safes can With modern intercoms, images and audio
hold a key outside the can be sent to more than one location. While
© Alamy

building safely. All you before you could only see these from inside
need to do is tell those the house, smart intercoms can let you view
you want to give who is outside your door from anywhere.

8
access to your house
the code and they can
Security cameras
safely enter without you
Cameras are the best way to see
being there.
what is going on in your home. In

3
the past they have purely been
Safes used to look back at
Keeping intruders out is one thing, break-ins and catch
but if break-ins do happen, extra those involved.
security comes in the form of With smart
safes. Your most valuable items technology,
can be stored in a secure however, you

© Alamy
container. With internet can tune into
connectivity, you can your home’s
keep track of your cameras from
safe’s wellbeing, any location on
© Getty

receiving real-time your smart

alerts if it’s broken into devices. You can
as well as being able to control cameras from
5 control the conditions these devices, with zooming
inside for your prized and night-vision mode enabled to keep a
possessions such as close eye on the entire room the camera sits
the temperature. in – both day and night.

4 9
Motion sensors Fire alarm system
Placed in various spots around Wireless fire alarm systems use
the house, motion sensors can let signals carried to the control
you know when someone is in panel by radio waves. Being more
your home. With adjustable sensitivity sensitive, smart fire alarm systems are less
settings, motion sensors can detect a warm like
ely to pick up false alarms. Detectors are
body using a passivve noot just used to detect smoke: heat
infrared sensor, andd detectors use thermistors to sense rises in
some can even temmperature, while carbon monoxide
recognise what detectors use a range of different
movements are just chemical-sensing cells.
6 your pet and what are
a
more suspicious. Motion
sensors can work in n
Smoke detector
Have you ever burnt a slice
alliance with other
of toast, only to be blasted
© Getty

devices such as lighhts

with deafening alarm
and alarms.
no
oises? With smart

5
tecchnology, sensors can
© Shutterstock

WiFi fire detectors tailor their responses

Intelligent smoke alarms can based on the level
provide specific information into of urgency. They
© Getty

where issues lie. WiFi-connected may begin with a

detectors can link to your smartphone, polite message of
alerting you of a fire wherever you are. The slight smoke
instant alert means that valuable time isn’t detection before
lost, potentially saving parts of your home in resorting to that
a real fire emergency. bracing alert.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 055

 TECHNOLOGY AR ZONE!

How to make it rain

Incredibly, simply by dispersing salts into the air,
rain-bearing cumulus clouds are germinated
Words by Scott Dutfield

he ability to control the weather might However, this process cannot create clouds out However, creating a downpour for the sake of

T seem like something from science fiction,

but since the 1940s scientists have been
altering the elements in the form of cloud
of thin air; there first needs to be some water
vapour or juvenile clouds in the area so that the
artificial seeds can encourage clouds to form.
watering plants is just one reason for cloud
seeding. It is a solution for a variety of weather
problems, from strategically inducing rainfall to
seeding. As the name suggests, cloud seeding is But why would we want to make clouds in the make way for blue skies in the 2008 Beijing
the process by which ‘seeds’ – in the form of first place? Rather than simply indulging in the Olympics to preventing heavy hail storms that
simple table salt or silver iodide – are released science of ‘playing God’, cloud seeding can be a cause physical damage to crops.
into the atmosphere to spawn cloud growth. lifeline to areas around the world where rainfall
By their very nature, clouds form when is minimal. For example, one of the keenest
evaporated water molecules condense around countries to undertake cloud-seeding
atmospheric dust and ice, known as a nucleus. programmes is the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
As more water droplets collect around the As one of the driest nations on Earth, the UAE’s
nucleus, larger droplets collide and begin to form arid environment only receives around 120
clouds. This natural seeding is what scientists millimetres of rainfall each year. Cloud seeding
have been able to replicate using aeroplane- programmes to encourage precipitation are
bound flares and even ground-launched rockets. therefore vital to assist in agricultural practices.

Cloud formation
Spreading the seeds As more and more water
droplets form around salt
How can seasoning clouds with particles, cumulus clouds form.
a little salt make them grow?

AR ZONE!
SCAN HERE

stri n
ll-scale air curre l ed
rafts carry salt particles
o naturally formed cloud

Salt particles
Water droplets collect on the
Speedy seeding surface of salt particles that
Water attraction It only takes a few minutes for are sent into the atmosphere.
70% potassium chloride, the flare to fire salt particles
13% sodium chloride. into the air, and around 20
minutes for them to take effect.

056 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? In 2017 the United Arab Emirates performed 242 cloud-seeding missions

Flares on the wings of planes

A lucky discovery
distribute the salt

Human-made clouds were first conceived

in 1946 when self-taught chemist Vincent
J Schaefer began experimenting with dry
ice in his laboratory fridge at the General
Electric company. As with many
discoveries in science, cloud seeding was
uncovered serendipitously. Initially
attempting to decrease the temperature
of his laboratory refrigerator, Schaefer
placed a piece of dry ice inside and
observed millions of microscopic ice
crystals form within the cold box. With
the addition of his warm, moist breath,

© Alamy
breathing into the cold box created
supercooled clouds, similar to those we
see in nature. Schaefer next took his
experiment to the skies, releasing dry ice
from an aircraft over a mountain range in
Michigan, and just as he thought,
human-made clouds of snow and ice
grew above the mountains.

© Alamy

© Getty
During a heatwave in China’s
Zhejiang province, Chemist and rain-god Vincent Schaefer began
cloud-seeding rockets were working at General Electric at the age of 15
used to encourage rainfall

Cloud-seeding programmes
around the world
Artificially creating clouds isn’t just an activity that the UAE dabbles in – at
least 56 countries do according to the World Meteorological Organization

Flares
Rows of salt-containing
© Illustration by Adrian Mann

flares are held on the

wings of an aircraft.
KEY
Precipitation-enhancement programmes
Hail-suppression programmes
Hail and precipitation programmes

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 057

 SPACE

ran g e
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© NASA

058 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Einstein once said the most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is comprehensible

Braneworld
An aspect of the universe we take
for granted is that it’s three
dimensional – there are three
perpendicular directions you can
move in. Some theories, however,
suggest another spatial dimension
– which we can’t perceive directly
– in another perpendicular direction. This
higher dimensional space is referred to as ‘the
bulk’, while our universe is a three-dimensional
membrane – or ‘brane’ – floating inside the bulk.
As complicated as it sounds, the braneworld
picture solves several problems in physics. For
example, a version proposed by Lisa Randall and
Raman Sundrum explains an asymmetry in
subatomic forces by suggesting the existence of
other branes parallel to our own. But it’s not
enough for a theory to explain facts we already
know – it has to make new predictions that can
be tested experimentally. In the case of the
Randall-Sundrum model, such tests could
involve measuring gravitational waves emitted
by black holes linking our brane to another.

Insane in
the brane
Crazy theory or the
The bulk
truth of the cosmos?? It’s difficult to show in a
two-dimensional image, but
this is a four-dimensional space
Parallel containing our own three-
brane dimensional brane, and others.
There may be
many other
branes in the
bulk, some only
a short distance
away in the
fourth spatial
direction.

Smaller
black hole
The pattern of
gravitational waves
produced by the
orbiting black hole
will be different if
the braneworld
theory is correct.

Our brane
Our three-dimensional
Black string universe is embedded in
A large black hole might the bulk, analogous to a
actually be a ‘black string’ two-dimensional
spanning the gap between membrane in a
our brane and a nearby one. three-dimensional space.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 059

 SPACE

The holographic
universe
he
Think of a security
ologram. This is
asically a two-
ig

© NASA
imensional object
Artist’s impression of multiple ‘braneworlds’. When ncoding a full three-
two collide, they may create a new universe imensional image.
According to this theory,
In the far future, galaxies will eventually drift braneworld theory? What happens when one the whole three-dimensional universe
so far apart that light from one can never cold, empty brane collides with another – may be ‘encoded’ on its two-dimensional
reach another. In fact, as stars get old and die, which, given enough time, it’s bound to do boundary. It may not sound as exciting
there will come a time when there’s no light eventually. Cosmologists Neil Turok and Paul as living inside a simulation, but it has
– or heat – left. The universe will be a dark, Steinhardt believe such a collision would the advantage that it’s a scientifically
cold, empty void. It sounds like the end of generate enough energy to create a whole new testable theory – research in 2017 showed
everything, but according to one theory, it’s universe. They call this the ‘ekpyrotic theory’, it was consistent with the observed
actually the beginning of the next universe in though physicist Michio Kaku has more pattern of CMB fluctuations.
an endlessly repeating cycle. Remember the evocatively dubbed it the ‘Big Splat’.

Initials ‘SH’ Tiny fluctuations

Almost certainly another random The difference between the
fluctuation, and not – as NASA highest (red) and lowest
scientists jokingly suggested – (blue) temperatures is just
cosmic graffiti by Stephen Hawking. 400 millionths of a degree.

© Getty
The universe, like this hologram, may have just
two dimensions despite appearing to have three

The steady-state
universe
The Big Bang is an
volutionary theory in
hich the universe
hanges in appearance as
t expands. It was denser
n the past, and it will
ecome less dense in the
Cold spot future. Not all scientists were happy
This could be the imprint of a
collision with another universe
with that, so they came up with a way for
– but it’s probably just a the density to remain constant, even in
random statistical fluctuation. an expanding universe. It involves the
continuous creation of matter at the rate

lasma-filled cosmos of about three hydrogen atoms per cubic

metre per million years. This model fell
e Big Bang remains the preferred theory of many scientists, out of favour with the discovery of the
ported by two key observations – the expansion of the universe CMB, which it can’t easily explain.
d the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Immediately after
the Big Bang the universe was much smaller and hotter, filled with BIG BANG
a glowing plasma like the Sun. We still see the end of this super-hot phase in
the form of a sea of radiation filling the whole of space. The expansion of the
universe over the intervening billions of years has cooled the radiation down
to minus 270 Celsius, but it’s still detectable by radio telescopes. STEADY STATE
The CMB looks virtually the same in every direction, which can’t be
explained if the universe has always expanded at its current rate. Many
scientists believe it went through a brief period of extremely rapid ‘inflation’ a
fraction of a second after the Big Bang, suddenly ballooning in size from a To keep the density of the universe constant, new
subatomic scale to several light years. matter must be created continuously

060 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? The Big Bang theory was originally formulated by a Catholic priest, Georges Lemaître

The
multiverse
he conventional view of
Big Bang, in order to
lain the uniformity of
CMB, it’s necessary to
tulate an early spurt of
erfast expansion
wn as inflation. Some
ntists believe that
en our universe
pped out of this
inflationary phase, it was just one tiny
bubble in a vast sea of inflating space. In
this theory, called ‘eternal inflation’,
other bubble universes are constantly
popping up in other parts of the
inflationary sea, with the whole
ensemble making up a ‘multiverse’.
The theory gets even stranger, because
there’s no reason other universes should
have the same laws of physics as ours –
some might have stronger gravity, or a
different speed of light. Although we can’t
observe the other universes directly, it’s
conceivable one of them could collide
with our own. It’s even been suggested
the ‘cold spot’ in the CMB is the imprint of
such a collision.

Is our universe just one

bubble in a vast
multiverse?

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 061

 SPACE

e got gravity wrong

ories of the universe depend the only thing holding them is the matter’ which provides the missing gravity.
accurate understanding of gravitational pull of the visible galaxy. The maverick alternative is that our theory of
the only force in physics that Similarly, clusters of galaxies appear to be gravity is wrong, and should be replaced by
ter on very large scales. But held together by a stronger force than can be something called Modified Newtonian
an’t explain certain accounted for by the gravity of visible matter. Dynamics (MOND). The two options – MOND
bservations. If we measure There are two possible solutions. The and dark matter – are equally consistent
rs on the outskirts of a galaxy, standard one – favoured by most scientists – with observations, but are yet to be proven.
they’re moving too fast to remain in orbit if is that the universe contains unseen ‘dark More experiments are needed.

Is our galaxy surrounded by

dark matter, or is the theory
of gravity wrong?

THE BIG BANG

1 An accidental discovery
The CMB was a key prediction
of the Big Bang theory, so many
people looked for it. It was
eventually found in 1964 by
radio astronomers looking for
something else.

2 Space itself is expanding

Although we say the universe
is expanding, it’s really the fabric
of space itself. Any two galaxies
that aren’t tied to each other by
gravity are getting further apart.

3 Faster than light

Physical objects can’t travel
faster than light, but that doesn’t
apply to the stretching of space.
During the universe’s inflationary
phase, space expanded much
faster than light.

4 The start of everything

Stephen Hawking believed that
both space and time were created
at the Big Bang. Before that,
neither time nor space existed.

5 The missing link

© European Southern Observatory

“Gravity can’t explain The reason why there are so

many competing theories of the

certain astronomical universe is that physicists don’t

know how to combine gravity and
observations” quantum physics. Until they do, it’s
all guesswork.

062 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The actual phrase ‘Big Bang’ dates from 1949, when astronomer Fred Hoyle used it on a BBC radio show

Simulation theory
So far, all the theories
ave come from scientists
but here’s one from the
hilosophers. If all our
vidence about the
niverse comes into our
brains via our senses and
scientific instruments, who’s to say it
isn’t all a cleverly designed illusion? The
entire universe might be nothing but an
ultra-sophisticated computer
simulation. It’s an idea that was
popularised by the Matrix movies, but as
outlandish as it sounds it’s taken
seriously by some philosophers.
However, it fails the test of a true
According to some philosophers, the universe is a scientific theory, because there’s no way
computer-generated illusion projected into our brains it could be proved true or false.
© Getty

Cosmic
Collapsing high-mass star
In the conventional view, the star collapses all the way ego-trip
down to a black hole. In the ‘superfluid space-time’
The laws of
theory, the first phase of the collapse is the same.
physics involve a
handful of
A baby universe fundamental
The repulsive gravity
constants that
causes the matter inside
the gravastar to expand, determine the
like a mini-universe. The strength of gravity,
original star’s spin is
electromagnetism and subatomic forces.
transformed into vortices,
eventually giving rise to As far as we know, these numbers could
galaxy-like structures. have any possible value – but if they
departed even slightly from the values
they actually have, the universe would
be a very different place. Most
importantly for us, ‘life as we know it’
– including, of course, ourselves –
couldn’t possibly exist. Some people see
this as evidence that the universe was
Collapse is halted consciously designed in order for
As space-time becomes more compressed,
it develops a kind of ‘repulsive gravity’ which human-like life to evolve – the so-called
pushes outwards, preventing further self-centered ‘anthropic theory’.
collapse. Rather than a black hole, the star
becomes what’s called a ‘gravastar’.

Superfluid space-time
Even if space only has three dimensions, – is made up of microscopic particles on a
there’s still a fourth dimension in the form deeper level of reality than our
of time, so we can visualise the universe instruments can reach.
existing in four-dimensional ‘space-time’. The theory visualises space-time as a
According to some theories, this isn’t just ‘superfluid’, having zero viscosity. An odd
an abstract frame of reference containing property of such fluids is that they can’t be
physical objects like stars and galaxies, made to rotate in a wholesale fashion, like
but a physical substance in itself, an ordinary liquid does when you stir it.
© Getty

analogous to an ocean of water. Just as They break up into tiny vortices – which in
water is made up of countless molecules, the case of superfluid space-time, may be The anthropic theory revives the notion that the
so space-time – according to this theory the seeds from which galaxies form. universe was designed around human beings

How It Works 063

 SPACE

What happens to

© NASA
the body in space? The first spacesuit
worn by a human in
Preventing organ damage and boiling blood, space was in 1961

spacesuits protect astronauts from the deadly

conditions of an icy vacuum
he human body, while perfectly suited to find yourself floating unprotected in space, the body, even with this protection. Those enclosed

T conditions on Earth, wouldn’t fare quite

so well when exposed to the conditions in
space. To protect it, spacewalkers wear
experience would be a brief one. You would
remain conscious only for a matter of seconds
before passing out and dying a few minutes later
in space stations are subjected to ten times the
radiation experienced naturally on Earth.
Astronauts who venture into orbit understand
spacesuits. These can maintain comfort for the from oxygen deprivation. the strains they put their body under. Their
astronaut in varying extreme temperatures, Without air to breathe in the void of space, our specific regimes help to keep this impact on their
from around minus 150 degrees to plus 120 instincts might tell us to hold our breath in this body to a minimum, exercising daily to keep
degrees Celsius. Additionally they supply situation – but this would be a mistake. The low muscles strong and bone deterioration at bay.
oxygen to breathe, water to drink and pressure created in the vacuum would cause any
protection from the impact of tiny particles, oxygen held to drastically expand, rupturing
bright light and radiation. internal organs. NASA’s twin
So how long could we last in space without
these vital outfits? If for some reason you were to
While spacesuits are life-saving, travelling
into space can still have a huge impact on the
exper ment
w can truly compare the difference
at ivin n a space station has on the
Exposing the Vaporising liquid
Any liquid exposed on the body
n to being on Earth? Much of
e ta we have today was collected as
body to space will instantly begin to vaporise.
Wet surfaces such as the tongue
a ce experiment involving
n astronauts. Scott and Mark
What would happen to your and eyes will start to boil.
p rt in a detailed experiment
body in the vacuum? ing which Scott spent an
y r living in space while Mark
Changing colour Earth.
As oxygen leaves the blood, the experiment of its kind, the
skin colour is altered. The body s’ ident cal genes enabled the study
would adopt a pale-blue tinge. us ur ly on environmental factors.
After one minute circulation al in their bodies after one year,
would stop altogether. se er found that Scott’s retinas
Loss of d ue to blood swelling at the
consciousness o hi eye, as well as his carotid
You could endure only 15
in is neck. Scott lost
seconds of outer-space
Extreme conditions before losing
if an weight compared to his
expanding consciousness. This is br he an was more dehydrated
ov l. e these changes would
Human flesh would
Death by due to oxygen in the
re n mal shortly after landing,
expand to twice its
asphyxiation blood rapidly diminishing.
n’t.
size in a ballooning
Around 90 seconds
effect, but your t’s DN , which had been the same
into space exposure,
elastic skin will still h twi s, was now slightly damaged,
you would die. All
hold you together.
oxygen is used up
chro omes showing longer
and the body can no ecti c s on their ends. In addition
longer be sustained. t su er from a persistent
duction cognitive ability, becoming
ow s accurate in tests.

Beginning to
bubble
19,202 metres or higher
above Earth in outer Hot or cold
space, extremely low In some areas of space,
atmospheric pressure extreme temperatures
causes body fluids to plummet far below zero, while
© NASA

bubble within the tissues. near the Sun temperatures

soar. Between 12 and 26 hours
the entire body would either be tt Kel ( and Mark Kelly’s similarities
frozen or burnt to a crisp. uced t number of variables

064 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 ENVIRONMENT

SOLAR-
POWERED
Most animals have to
obtain carotenoids through
their food, but pea aphids
are able to make their own

ANIMALS
© Alamy
Meet the creatures taking inspiration from plant
photosynthesis and using sunlight to feed themselves
Words by Scott Dutfield

A
s Earth’s natural solar panels, plants produce another pigment called carotenoids, algae neighbours. Looking more like the leaf
obtain energy from converting which can also absorb sunlight and provide of a sycamore than a sea slug, sacoglossans
sunlight into food in a process called an energy boost for the aphids. Although this are a group of marine invertebrates that feed
photosynthesis. It’s an ability that has isn’t a complete replacement for the aphid’s on algae and in the process absorb their
ensured the survival of autotrophs – an plant-based diet, studies have shown green photosynthesis factories, chloroplasts.
organism that produces its own food – for aphids produce significantly higher levels of Known as kleptoplasty, sacoglossans can
around 2 billion years. But it turns out plants adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – the body’s strip chloroplasts from their algal prey and
don’t hold the monopoly on photosynthesis, energy currency – than their white relocate them into their own cells, where they
as a few animal species have also been found counterparts, who lack the carotenoid continue to produce energy and sugars from
to dabble in the art of light conversion. pigments. Pea aphids are a great example of sunlight. These sea slugs only need to feast
Take the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), how one species can mimic another to reap on marine algae for the first two weeks of
for example. Typically found feasting on the the same benefits through evolution. their life, which can sustain them for around
stems, leaves and flowers of alfalfa plants Just below the watery surface of salt 12 months.
around the world, pea aphids have evolved marshes around the North American One slug has taken this chloroplast
to mimic their leafy lunch. Rather than coastline, there is also a group of sun- kleptomania to the next level by stealing
producing chlorophyll pigment for worshipping slugs with a tendency to steal the algae’s genetic information to produce
© Alamy

photosynthesis, these tiny insects can the ability to photosynthesise from their its own chloroplasts. Although sacoglossan

066 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The world’s plantlife produces around 176 billion tonnes of glucose through photosynthesis every year

Elysia chlorotica is a

Source: Wik/ Karen N. Pelletreau et al

STEALING member of a genus
capable of stealing

ENERGY algaes’ method of

energy production

FACTORIES
How the emerald elysia strips algae of
their photosynthesis powerhouses

Elysia chlorotica
This leafy imposter lives in the

© Getty
salt marshes along the Atlantic
coast and grows to be between
Spotted salamanders are the only known
one and six centimetres long.
vertebrate with photosynthetic abilities

Eating algae
To obtain their photosynthetic powers,
elysia chow down on algae found on
underwater rocks and vegetation.

Stripping
Using their radula – a mollusc’s
version of a tongue – elysia strip
the chloroplasts from algae.

Digestive tubules
Chloroplasts are held in the elysia’s
‘stomach’, a network of digestive
tubules where sunlight is converted
into food for the sea slug.

Energy conversion
Giving elysia their green colour, Suck them up New residents
chloroplasts convert solar energy, Chloroplasts taken from The new chloroplast additions are held
carbon dioxide and water into oxygen algae enter the membrane
and sugars for the sea slugs to feed on. of the elysia’s cell.
within the cell, where they will continue Genetic transfer
producing energy through photosynthesis. Through horizontal genetic transfer, Elysia
chlorotica shares the genetic information
to manufacture its own chloroplasts.
© Illustration by Ed Crooks

How It Works 067

 ENVIRONMENT

SPOTTED 4 Homeward bound

SALAMANDER
Adult spotted salamanders
journey from their forest homes

LIFE CYCLE to the seasonal pools they

originally hatched from.
How algae has shaped this
amphibian’s development

© Alamy
3 Maturity
Salamanders will mature in
the next three to four years
before returning to the pool to Algal blooms and salamander embryos
produce their own offspring. have a mutualistic relationship,
whereby one feeds the other

5 Courtship
Once in the water,
males group
together in a
courtship
ensemble,
releasing
pheromones into
the water to
2 Hatching attract females.
After around one to
two months growing
in the pool, juvenile
salamanders emerge
from their eggs.

1 Embryo
Developing embryos
benefit from the
oxygen provided from
their algal cellmate.

7 Eggs 6 Mating
Once internally fertilised, Males drop spermatophores
females will lay up to (bundles of sperm) on areas
250 eggs on vegetation of vegetation, which a female
within the pool. will collect for fertilisation.

Algae
Algal blooms form within the
Japan’s leaf sheep (Costasiella egg of a developing salamander,
kuroshimae) is another sea slug where they feed on excess
© Alamy

capable of stealing algae’s carbon dioxide and nitrogen

ability to photosynthesise created by the embryo.

068 How It Works

 DID YOU KNOW? Spotted salamanders can live to be around 20 years old

slugs can survive for a whole year without algal hostage within its cells. It was
eating before they run out of photosynthesis previously believed that during the life cycle
power, the emerald elysia (Elysia chlorotica) of the spotted salamander (Ambystoma
has evolved a way to make sure it never runs maculatum), algae and a salamander embryo
out of reserves. Initially grazing on algae and have a symbiotic relationship whereby both
obtaining chloroplasts through benefit from the other in the
kleptoplasty, the emerald elysia
breaks into the nucleus of the
“Algae exchange of nutrients for oxygen.
However, studies have shown that BEWARE
algae and steals genetic become during development algae become
THE
information which codes for the
production of chloroplasts in
incorporated incorporated into the salamander
cells, where they live and provide GREEN MAN !
what’s known as a horizontal into the energy to adult salamanders. It’s
genetic transfer. This sea slug is
then able to sustain itself on the
salamander still relatively unclear as to how
exactly the algae enter the
energy produced through cells” salamander’s cells and why its
photosynthesis, even though immune system doesn’t deem the
they still chow down on an algal lunch from algae as a threat. But what is clear is that once
time to time. inside, this microscopic mutualism is no
With only a few examples of animals longer beneficial to both sides. Trapped in the
capable of exploiting photosynthesis, confines of an amphibian’s dark-pigmented
especially in vertebrate species, you’re not body, access to a source of light is in short
going to see green bears in the woods supply. Instead, these once-photosynthetic
anytime soon. However, one vertebrate algae turn their hand to fermentation to
species has been discovered to harbour an produce food in the gut of the salamander.

Indian pipe (Monotropa

uniflora), is one of the many
non-photosynthetic plants
that sucks the life out of
other organisms HIS THORNS,
VENOM,
AND WRATH
‘Mind-blowingly good.’
‘Non-stop action all the
way.’
‘An exhilarating read for
youngsters of all ages.’
Order your copy
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worldwide.
© Alamy

Scan here:
It’s not easy being green
Plants aren’t always the leafy green American plants obtain sugars from
photosynthetic organisms we think they surrounding fungi. Known as a myco-
are. Around 3,000 plant species around the heterotroph, Indian pipe take advantage of a
world are non-photosynthetic, seeking food group of fungi called mycorrhizae, which
in other ways. One such plant is the Indian typically have a symbiotic relationship with
pipe (Monotropa uniflora). Looking more like other plants, trading sugars for other
the ghost of plants past, this colour-lacking plant-produced nutrients. However, this
sprout is missing any chlorophyll to convert ghostly species only offers a one-sided deal,
light into energy. Instead, these North stripping the fungi for its own gain.

www.SeanYeager.com
www.howitworksdaily.com
 ENVIRONMENT

With over a billion cows populating our planet, what is the

impact of thousands of years of bovine breeding?
Words by Ailsa Harvey

070 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 DID YOU KNOW? There are over 800 recognised breeds of cattle in the world

Domesticating
huge herbivores
As one of the first animals domesticated
by humans, our encounters with cows
can be traced back to ancient times.
Having domesticated five wild cattle
species in the last 10,500 years, early
cattle were strikingly different. Now
extinct, aurochs were much taller than
the cows you would find in our fields
today and boasted impressively long
horns. As some of the largest herbivores
in Europe, these bulls reached up to 1.8
metres – significantly larger than the
breeds of today.
Evidence of the importance of cattle to
some of our early ancestors can be found
in cave paintings, clearly depicting

Source: Wik/Prof saxx

ancient cows and humans’ interest.
Across the history of cow domestication,
Cave paintings estimated at 17,000 years old the diversity of species in different
indicate how long humans have been around cows environments can determine where their
domestication took place. Areas where

C
domestication started, such as in India
ows have been providing products for us balmy sunshine. The Moscow farm adopted this and Europe, usually have a bigger range
for millennia, and are more useful to us approach after research showed a link between of breeds. Places where cattle were
than any other farm animal. We a cow’s emotional experience and the quality of brought following their domestication
have limited diversity, as breeding only
encounter cow products every day, whether its milk production.
between the already-domesticated cattle
that’s eating a beef burger, putting milk in our Animal agriculture has come a long way – has taken place.
tea or wearing a leather jacket. especially for cattle. The abundance of bovines
Widespread across the globe, cow species we see in our fields today are the result of
have been bred in vast numbers, with unique thousands of years of breeding. Originally
characteristics to suit their environment stemming from a group of as little as 80 animals,

Source: Wik/ CFoidl

and cater for the world’s population. Their this drastic increase in population has inevitably
incredible versatility makes them a staple of impacted the environment over time. But is this
our diet, contributing to around 24 per cent of for the better or worse?
all meat consumption. The environmental consequences of cattle Illustration showing size comparison between
aurochs and the bulls of today
Approaches to cow farming differ greatly farming range from the detrimental effects on
depending on location, as well as the conditions the ozone layer that a billion cows passing
cows face. As the world’s biggest dairy producer digestive gases has to the change in landscape In more recent times, the industry has been
and consumer, India is home to millions of and removal of trees in the creation of farm- put under more scrutiny than ever before as
sacred cows. They roam the streets in the friendly areas. Cattle farming generates income people question the impact of dairy farming
subtropical heat and provide products to the for millions of farmers, though many aim to and its significant contribution of greenhouse
people. Meanwhile, winters are so long and hard achieve more sustainable farming. A useful gases. As the world’s population continues to
on one Russian dairy farm that the farmer by-product of cattle, manure can be used as increase, food production also rises.
provides cattle with a taste of the ultimate fertiliser, soil amendment and even for Environmentalists continue to analyse the
paradise: cows on this farm wear virtual reality construction. High in nutrients and energy, it is impact of our food sources – and animal
headsets that project scenes of lush pastures and valued as a renewable source on many farms. agriculture is in the spotlight.

Cattle by country How do breeds vary?

Indu-Brazil Highland Australian Charbray Yakutian Limousin
BRAZIL SCOTLAND AUSTRALIA SIBERIA FRANCE
Indu-Brazil cows have humped To cope with Scottish weather, Bred in Australia as a cross Yakutian cattle are bred north of Originating between central and
backs and unique low-hanging these hairy cows have a double between the Charolais and the Arctic Circle, and are south France, Limousin cattle are
long ears which allow them to coat – an oiled outer coat expels Brahman, the Charbray cope well especially tolerant to freezing acknowledged for their great
better regulate body temperature. frequent rain and snowfall. in the hot and humid conditions. conditions. They have a thick coat. ability to adapt to conditions.
Source: Wik/ Anu Osva
© Shutterstock

© Shutterstock
Source: Wiki
© Getty

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 071

 ENVIRONMENT

Heat-resistant
Waste in waterways
As well as the gas produced, cow manure How are cows
dairy herds
impacts greatly on the environment. Often
used as fertiliser, it can be carried with rainfall impacting the
Have you ever heard of a heat-proof cow?
into rivers and lakes. High in phosphorus and
nitrogen, the manure can turn the water green environment?
As a way to continue cow farming while by increasing algae growth. This often ruins From their inbuilt biology to
attempting to accommodate for the drinking water by creating toxins. human-made homes, cattle
threat of climate change, some Indian
farmers have embraced the potential of farms are leaving their mark
miniature cows.
The Vechur cow is the smallest bovine Multiple compartments
in the world, and scientists think they Cows have stomachs that have
could be the future if cow farming is to multiple compartments, enabling
continue. Originating in Kerala, India, them to produce much more gas
these species can withstand much than most animals.
greater temperatures than your average
dairy cow. This was discovered during an
intense heat wave across India, which
saw the tiny cows continue to thrive
while other cows struggled. Not only do
they have the potential to live seemingly
unphased by the warming planet, they
also produce less methane than other
cow species per unit of milk produced.
Source: Wik/ Mullookkaaran

Gassy grazers
As a cow digests its food, a large
amount of methane is produced
inside them. When released, the gas
is released into the atmosphere.
While methane is a less prevalent
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide,
The small Vechur cow has an average
height of 87 centimetres it traps heat more efficiently,
contributing to global warming.

30%
Nearly a third of Earth’s
surface is used for
livestock farming

95%
Most methane produced
comes from cows’ mouths
A cow’s main stomach can hold the
equivalent of a full bath
Milk treatment
Cows’ milk is heat treated to

11 BILLION KG
kill bacteria and ensure it is
safe to drink. Research
shows that one dairy cow
requires up to seven kilowatt
A huge amount of beef was produced by the US in 2009 alone hours of electricity for a

70-
week’s worth of milk
treatment. Ultra heat-treated
(UHT) milk is also considered

120kg
to impact the environment
due to constantly creating
extreme temperatures.
© Illustration by The Art Agency/Sandra Doyle

A single cow releases a

huge amount of methane
every year

8-12
HOURS
3.4 per cent of global carbon emissions are Cows spend up to half
caused by deforestation for cattle ranching their days grazing

072 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The combined weight of all cows far exceeds that of all humans

Lots of ‘rumen’ there

The rumen is the largest of their
stomach’s compartments. It can
hold over 200 litres of material and
contains millions of microbes. Water footprint
Like in all food production, water
Wasted production is required. Nearly 16,000 litres
Over 30,000 tonnes of beef goes of water is needed to produce
to waste in UK houses alone. A just one kilogram of beef.
waste of food is also a waste of all
the resources put into its growth.

The black-and-white
Holstein Friesian cow
became popular to
breed due to their
ability to produce
more milk
© Getty

Providing food
To raise a sizeable cow suitable for
the beef industry, food needs to be
produced for the whole herd.
Producing one kilogram of beef
requires 25 kilograms of grain.

Creating space
Significant areas of land need to be
cleared to allow cows to graze. This
results in the loss of habitat for
animals, reducing biodiversity. 80
per cent of deforestation is thought
to be caused by cattle farming.
© Livestock Geo-wiki

Where’s the beef?

10,000 years ago, domesticated cows were found in two locations: one in India and
one in Europe. Now these animals roam all continents except Antarctica, with
countries such as Brazil and New Zealand being home to more cattle than people.
Take a look at where most of Earth’s cows live on the global distribution map above.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 073

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 HISTORY

FASHION
V
The people of the past made
some questionable – and
dangerous – fashion choices
Words by Felicity Day

© Getty

Consistently tightlacing your corset

was especially hazardous to health

076 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Before the 1850s both shoes in a pair were usually straight. There was no left or right, which deformed feet

T
oday ‘dressed to kill’ has a rather different
meaning, but in centuries past what you
chose to wear could very easily determine Big wigs
how you died. From gowns coloured with The mid-18th century vogue
poisonous pigments to tight shirt collars that was for extremes: big
choked them, the clothing our ancestors put on dresses and even bigger
made fashion victims of them, quite literally. hair. Towering wigs were
Take the corset, for example. Victorian women hot and heavy to wear,
from socialites to shop girls used the cinching causing sores on the scalp,
undergarment to achieve the tiny waist that was and they were easily set
then the feminine ideal – despite the fact that it alight, especially as the hair
inhibited their movement and came with powder used for whitening
numerous health hazards. While these could be and lard for styling made
as mild as chronic indigestion, the use of corsets them highly flammable.
did carry a very real risk of death: if a steel stay And there were other
snapped, it could easily puncture a woman’s reported dangers: long wire
internal organs. pins holding up a lady’s lofty
Of course, the necessity of using open fires and coiffure acted like a
candle flames for heating and lighting was lightning conductor during
behind a significant number of the clothing- a storm in 1778, setting it
related deaths of times past. But though our ablaze and singeing her
domestic environments have fewer fire hazards face. Infestations of lice (or
today, contemporary fashion trends do still have worse, mice) were a
their perils: the crazes for platform shoes in the persistent problem, since
1970s and 1990s, for example, were blamed for the elaborate hairpieces
rising car accidents, as the super-sized soles usually went unwashed
were found to slow braking speeds and therefore for weeks.
increase car stopping distances. A 2011 US study
also found that there’s toxic lead content in some DA NGER Safe Deadly Mocked by the press, towering
R AT I NG

© Getty
of our most popular brands of lipstick. So wigs were highly flammable and
attractive to vermin
beware: deadly fashion is not yet consigned to
the history books.

Back

Constricting Muscles in the back

wasted away due to
a lack of use, and the
Lungs
Diminished lung

corsets
capacity resulted
spine could become from compression
inalterably of the lower rib
misaligned, too. cage and lungs,
Though it successfully causing shortness
of breath and
cinched the waist, a fainting fits.

corset put untold

pressure on a
woman’s body

Rib cage
Ribs were pushed up and inwards,
becoming permanently deformed
over time and causing internal
organs to shift or change shape.
© Illustration by The Art Agency/ Peter Scott

Stomach
Indigestion and constipation were
the result of constant constriction
of the stomach and intestines.

DA NGER Safe Deadly

R AT I NG

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 077

 HISTORY

Toxic make-up The Earl of Coventry hated his wife’s

Explosive
addiction to toxic cosmetics, which
allegedly killed her in 1760
Today we favour a healthy sun tan, but until
the late 18th century a pale complexion was
hair combs highly prized – it was a sign that you were too
wealthy to be labouring outdoors. Lead-
An early form of plastic, celluloid, began to be
based make-up, mixed up with vinegar or
used to make decorative hair combs in the late
manure, gave skin the desirable porcelain-
19th century as a cheaper and more animal-
white tint, but it corroded it too, causing
friendly alternative to the traditional ivory. But
facial sores. It also dried skin out, causing
its chemical composition – particularly in
wrinkles. More worryingly, it slowly
cheaper varieties – made it acutely sensitive to
poisoned the wearer, who would suffer hair
heat, so simply sitting near to the fire or using
and tooth loss, headaches, muscle paralysis
curling tongs could cause a comb to
and mood swings before the exposure killed
self-ignite – and even explode!
them. Some suspect blood poisoning
They gave women scalp
caused by toxic face paint led to
burns and patches of
Elizabeth I’s death – she had used it
permanent hair loss,
religiously to conceal her
and when placed in
smallpox scars.
shop windows in the
glare of the Sun, they
© Getty

DA NGER Safe Deadly

sent retailers’ R AT I NG
window displays
up in flames
A woman models the
after combusting. highly fashionable
hobble skirt,
Celluloid was used as an which significantly
ivory substitute in all manner impeded mobility
of accessories

DA NGER Safe Deadly

R AT I NG

Choking collars
There’s a reason that shirt collar translates
literally as ‘father-killer’ in German.
At the end of the 19th century, it
was fashionable for men to
wear theirs highly starched, but
the stiffness made them high-
risk. They could easily cut off
the wearer’s air supply. After a
tipple or two the collars were
particularly lethal: men were
suffocated after drunkenly falling
asleep fully clothed, their heads
tilting forward and their collar © Getty

stopping their windpipe. In another

incident, a British man was choked
by his collar after an
attack of indigestion Hobble skirts
caused his neck to The Edwardian era saw women favouring increasingly narrow and
swell up. clinging skirts, but the trend took a treacherous turn with the hobble
Stylish men favoured skirt. Tightly cinched in at the knees and ankles, wearers were essentially
highly starched but crippled, able to take only tiny, tottering steps. They frequently toppled
high-risk shirt collars over, hitting their heads on pavements, breaking their legs and
worse. In 1911 a woman drowned after a stumble caused her to
plunge over a low railing into a canal below.
DA NGER Safe Deadly
R AT I NG
DA NGER
© Getty

R AT I NG Safe Deadly

078 How It Wor www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Winston Churchill’s mother died after tripping over in high heels and tumbling downstairs

Poisonous pigments
Green dye had been notoriously difficult to
create, so when Carl Scheele’s chemically
grains of the poison, shedding around 60
every time a woman waltzed her way
Combustible
produced pigment hit the market in the 1770s
it was an instant success. Scheele’s Green,
through a single evening party. A lethal dose
was just four or five grains! Similarly, a
crinolines
Underneath the voluminous dresses beloved
along with the similar Emerald Green, headdress of artificial foliage of the kind
by Victorian women was a crinoline, a
became the most fashionable hue for favoured by Queen Victoria contained
circular steel cage that gave the gown its
dresses, gloves, hats and headdresses. But enough arsenic to poison 20 people. Women
structured shape. But it was deadly. It made
thanks to the use of arsenic in its production, who went wild for green weren’t just
their highly flammable muslin and silk
green-tinted garments were incredibly toxic: endangering themselves, but everyone
skirts unwieldy in size and far more likely to
just one gown could contain around 900 around them too.
brush against candle flames or fireplaces.
And if the skirt ignited, the crinoline acted
DA NGER Safe Deadly
R AT I NG Brain like a chimney, dramatically increasing
Sufferers reported fatigue, the
h spe ed with which the fire spread. The
ee
fainting fits and persistent
huge hhooops caused women to blow over
Symptoms headaches – in some cases
they even experienced cliffs a
andd piers in gusty winds too, and

of arsenic tremors and paralysis. trappe

and ca
ed them in industrial machinery
arrriage wheels.
poisoning Eyes DA NGER Safe Deadly
People would die to Afflicted patients described R AT I NG
dress in green dye smarting eyes, conjunctivitis
and even dimness of sight.

Skin
Rashes, sores and skin
lesions were common Heart
complaints, particularly Irregular heartbeats,
among those regularly high blood pressure and
wearing green garments. even heart disease
resulted from persistent
exposure to arsenic.

Stomach
Nausea,
vomiting,
stomach
cramps and
Lungs diarrhoea were

©LACMA
Irritation of the all telltale signs
nasal passageways of arsenic
often gave way to poisoning. The cagge crinoline
c replaced bulky layers
dry coughs, and of pettic
coa
ats under women’s dresses
eventually
bronchitis and
difficulty breathing.
© We come Co ect on

Liver
Jaundice and
cirrhosis of the liver
are known effects
of arsenic exposure.
L dies’’ agazines advised keeping a ‘fire cloak’ in
the hou e to extinguish an accidental blaze
© Alamy

www.howitworks l How It Works 079

 HISTORY

© Getty

How the first feathered

dinosaur lived
Discover Caudipteryx, the peacock-like dinosaur that
roamed the lands of Asia 125 million years ago
Words by Ailsa Harvey
Tiny tail

I
n a time when dinosaurs inhabited the Earth, weight of just eight kilograms, with relatively Caudipteryx’s tail was short and
some colossal creatures towered at nearly 20 long legs and short arms. The dongi were even stiff. At its end protruded a
metres tall – causing the ground below to smaller, and had proportionally less wing. unique fan of feathers, probably
used for display or brooding eggs.
shake as they browsed for their food. But taking However, it is the tail that gives Caudipteryx its
a look nearer the ground, a very different name. The elaborate tail is thought to have been
dinosaur lived below these beasts. used for display, and detailed analysis into
Meet the Caudipteryx, a group of curious- remains shows that they were likely to have
looking dinosaurs only discovered by humans in been vibrant in colour. Translating ‘Caudipteryx’
1997. Estimated to have lived between 125 to 122 to English, its name simply means ‘tail feather’.
million years ago, the bird-like beings were In recent research involving a robotic dinosaur
equipped with long feathers at the end of their and similarly built ostriches wearing artificial
arms and tail. While images depict feathered Caudipteryx wings, it is believed that the
wing-like arms, these would have been too short
to be used in flight – this dinosaur spent its days
running style of the dinosaur would have caused
its wings to flap at the side of its body. This could
“Analysis shows that
running across the land. have been an evolutionary precursor to flight in they were likely to
There were two known species within the
Caudipteryx genus: zoui and dongi. The zoui
some of the planet’s future birds. If this research
is accurate, it suggests the need for some early
have been vibrant
species were slight creatures with an estimated dinosaurs to run before they could fly. in colour”
080 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com
DID YOU KNOW? It is thought that Caudipteryx are the closest known ancestors of today’s birds

Dinosaur or bird? These illustrations

show the similarities
Visually, the Caudipteryx appears as a strange mix between bird d
between peacocks
and dinosaur, but how can we tell which it is? While their
and Caudipteryx
symmetrical long feathers are similar to those found on living
flightless birds, they held different qualities to those of living
and fossilised flying birds. Having analysed their long legs,
scientists think that their lives were spent running. However,
some have theorised that with their spaced-apart toes, they
could have spent their time on Earth wading in water and mud,
catching fish like some modern-day garden birds.
Having been classed as an ‘Oviraptor’ (Latin for ‘egg-taker)
– a group established in 1976 – Caudipteryx are in a subgroup
of feathered dinosaurs. Animals in this group are thought by
many to be the origin of birds. Their uncanny resemblance to
birds is seen as a significant sign that they share some of the
same ancestors.

Caudipteryx’s

© Alamy
intriguing anatomy Wide-eyed
The large eyes, alongside sharp
What clues does the dinosaur’s body teeth and agility, are one of the
give us about its life? indicators used by scientists that
the alert dinosaur hunted for prey.

Stumpy arms
The dinosaurs’ arms
were tiny in comparison
to the rest of their body.
Although feathered, the
short arms would have Limited teeth
been unable to lift the Caudipteryx either had teeth on the upper jaw
animal from the ground. bones or none at all. Evidence of their teeth show
them to be long and sharp. It is believed these
teeth were used to eat plants and selected animals.

Ostrich head
The small, boxy skull
of the Caudipteryx
gives it a similar
appearance to turkeys,
ostriches and other
flightless birds.

© Getty
Several Caudipteryx skeletons
were found in ancient Chinese
sediments in Liaoning of
Northeastern China

Feathered frill
Stomach stones Embellished with colour,
Stones found in the rib cages of the dinosaurs’ feathers
ranged from insulating,
1m
Caudipteryx are thought to have been
used to aid digestion. With their lack of small fluffy ones to quills
teeth, these gastroliths would grind up stretching 20 centimetres Caudipteryx
food in their stomachs. in length. Flying birds’ zoui
feathers are usually
asymmetrical, but the
Caudipteryx had
symmetrical ones.
Runner’s form
Attached to its slight body, the long
shin bones and shorter thigh bones Caudipteryx dongi
prove that they were most likely
efficient and agile runners. The Caudipteryx
p y grew
g to sizes no bigger
© Getty

than a peacock, reaching below half the

height of most humans

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 081

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2020
STRATEGY GUIDE
Letter Jam
Countdown, Heads-up!, Scrabble and even poker come
together for a verbal twist on a guessing game
Q Publisher: Czech Games Q Price: £16.99 / $19.95 Q Number of players: 2-6 Q Recommended age: 10+ Q Typical game time: 45 minutes

his cooperative word guessing Each turn, all players try to spell as long a face-down if they do and turning the next one

T game involves players using the letter

cards visible to them to form words. To
begin, each player is given a certain number of
word as possible with the letters available to
them, telling the other players the length of the
word they’ve been able to spell, rather than the
up. The idea is to guess all the letters before the
clues run out and the game ends. The more
players that have unscrambled their hidden
cards face-down in front of them, as well as a actual word. The player who can spell the word, the more successful the team is. It takes a
card on a stand that all others can see, but they longest word is the designated clue-giver. This few runs to really get to grips with Letter Jam,
can’t. The object of the game is to guess the player then gives numbered tokens to the and some of its rules are questionable in their
face-down letters you have using the words that players in the order that their letter comes in the inclusion, but with a scalable difficulty level
other players have spelled out, in a process of word. Using this clue, each player then tries to there’s a lot of replay value in it, especially for
elimination and logic. guess what their letter is, putting the card fans of Scrabble and its ilk.

We’re Letter ordering

These coloured tokens are placed
Give us a clue
jammin’
You keep track of the number of
by the designated clue-giver in
clues using this card. The number
the order that the player’s letter
of these tokens varies depending
Letter Jam plays best with comes in the word.
on the number of players.
Making up numbers
four players or more who Even if there are only two
players, the other four players
have a good vocabulary are still set up for the game.

Wild card
Any player can use
the asterisk card as
a wild card in place
of one letter.

Guessing sheet
Players use the guessing sheet Stationery
to keep track of the letters A pencil for each
they’re confident about and player is supplied
those they still need to guess. in the box.
© Asmodee

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 083

 Do planets made
of metal exist?
Juan Hernandez
Because enquiring minds Q If the Earth was stripped of all the layers of rock, just leaving its

need to know… nickel-iron core, it would be a metal planet itself. As it is, its composition is
dominated by rock, and the same is true of most planets of a similar size.
The closest to a ‘metal planet’ here in the Solar System is Mercury, which is
70 per cent iron by weight. At least one exoplanet – K2-229b – is known to
MEET THE have similar composition, but on a bigger scale. It’s comparable in size to

EXPERTS Earth, and considerably denser due to its large quota of heavy metals. AM

Who’s answering
your questions Mercury is the closest
this month? thing we have in the

© NASA
Solar System to a
‘metal planet’

JO ELPHICK

MARK SMITH

ANDY EXTANCE

ANDREW MAY

AMY GRISDALE

Want
answers?
Send your questions to…
How It Works magazine
@HowItWorksmag
howitworks@
futurenet.com

084 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 Why do we get bags
under our eyes when we
are tired?
Hans Schmidt
Q Poor sleep can make blood vessels widen and
look darker, and leak fluid into nearby tissue.
Skin under our eyes is thin, so we easily see
darkness and puffiness there. AE

© Getty
Why does popcorn pop? How do
Rosa Blandford
Q Tiny water droplets inside popcorn kernels evaporate when televisions
heated up. The steam created ramps up the pressure so much so
work?
© Getty

that the kernels burst open into a delicious treat. AG

Aleksy Kowalski
Q Your TV captures broadcast signals and
turns them into single images which are
shown in such quick succession they appear
to be moving.
Modern TVs, such as LCD, do this by
switching tiny dots on their screen, or pixels,
on or off to display a specific image. MS

It’s not so much

that plastic isn’t
recyclable – it’s
whether there’s
© Getty

money in it

Why isn’t all another form. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

is cleaned up and ground into flakes, and then

plastic recyclable? melted into a new shape. When that’s not

possible, recyclers might be able to break
Diana Parker plastics down to their chemical building blocks
Q In principle most plastics could be recyclable. and then reform the plastic molecules. The issue
Recyclers can do their jobs in various ways. In is mainly whether recyclers can sell their
some cases they could just melt down certain products at a profit. For example, recycling
© Getty

types of used plastics and mould them into coloured plastics can be more costly. AE

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 085

 Elephants are
able to remember
directions to places
they’ve been before

© Getty
We had visited both poles by 1911 without the life-saving
technology scientists rely on today

Have we discovered all

the land on Earth?
Lois Hughes
n Most scientists agree that we’re familiar with
almost all of our planet’s surface. We don’t know
for sure, but we can be fairly certain there aren’t
vast and previously unknown territories waiting
to be discovered. Of course, areas exist that we
are yet to chart completely.
The closest thing we have to undiscovered
terrain is Antarctica. The entire landscape is
buried under ice that can reach depths of up to
five kilometres. Rocky ground that is yet to be
mapped lies hidden far beneath the frost,
including the world’s sixth-largest lake by
volume. Scientists studying our changing
climate are drilling down to uncover the hidden
region’s secrets. AG
© Getty

Does an elephant
really ‘never forget’?
Matt Harvey
n Elephants have incredible memory, but it retain information for a seriously long time.
might be pushing it to say they never ever forget. Elephants recognise each other after decades of
Elephants don’t always perform perfectly in lab separation and remember their way to distant © NASA

tests designed to test their memory, but can destinations year after year. AG Total eclipses aren’t rare, but they’re highly
localised – as this photo from space shows

Why do canals have locks?

Canal locks allo
boats to naviga
w Does a solar eclipse often
and down the co
of the land via
te up
ntours happen on Earth?
Sandra Myers canal Maher Ismail
n Canals don’t naturally flow with the contours of the
n There’s potential for a solar eclipse every new
landscape, such as up and down hills. If we didn’t have
Moon, when we see the Sun and Moon in the
locks, narrow boats would essentially have to negotiate
same direction, but most months they don’t
rapids in order to get from A to B.
quite line up. Partial eclipses occur a few times
Locks are ‘chambers’ where the boat sits. The doors
per year, and a total eclipse every year or two.
are closed and the water level is lowered or raised to
They’re only visible from a very localised area,
match the next part of the canal journey. The doors are
which is different each time – you’ll have to
opened and the narrow boat heads off. MS
travel if you want to see several of them. AM

086 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 What’s the
fastest
spacecraft
ever?
Kieran Roberts
n For a given energy, a spacecraft
travels faster the closer it gets to the
Sun. The current record was set by
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe, which
reached a speed of 343,180 kilometres
per hour in November 2018 – and it’s
set to get even faster over the course
of the mission. AM

How do
speed
© NASA

cameras
How many work?
Charles Boucher
atoms are n Depending on the type of camera, they

required for
utilise radar or detectors in the road to track
speed. If they spot you speeding they take a

an object to be digital image of your vehicle. MS

visible with no
microscope?
James Davies
n The smallest things people can see
are about a hair’s breadth, about 0.4
millimetres wide. The spaces between
atoms are less than a millionth of this,
so visible objects must be a million
atoms wide, deep and long, equating
to a quintillion atoms. A quintillion is a
one followed by 18 zeroes! AE
© Getty
© Getty

Some speed cameras use markers on the road to tell

if a vehicle is over the limit

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 087

 The skeleton of
a plague victim,
discovered in a
London burial
ground, is put
on display

What has
been the
world’s
worst

© Getty
pandemic? as as ng on
Bruno Souza D.C. always been the
n The bubonic plague, capital city of the US?
commonly known as the
Yasmin Patel
Black Death, ravaged Europe,
n New York City, New York, was the first
Africa and Asia from 1331 to
capital of the US under the Constitution
1353 and killed between 75
before it moved to Philadelphia,
and 200 million people. It
Pennsylvania, for ten years, finally moving
swiftly travelled across the
to Washington in 1800. JE
continents via the fleas that
lived on the ship rats. The
ports were densely populated The Galapagos Island Ground Finch is a
and so the bacterium thrived perfect example of natural selection in action
and spread throughout the
crowded cities. The disease
reoccurred in England every
few years from 1361 to 1480,
reducing England’s
© Getty

population by 50 per cent. JE

Has a British Prime

Minister ever been
assassinated?
er
Source: Wiki/ Robert Brew

Luke Carr

© Getty
n Spencer Perceval has the dubious honour of
being the only British Prime Minister to have
been assassinated while in office. He was
How does natural
murdered by John Bellingham on 11 May 1812 as
y weren s ps ma e selection work?
he stepped into the crowded lobby at the Palace Ali Wurst
of Westminster. JE of metal sooner? n Natural selection, also known as
Joe Robertson ‘survival of the fittest’, is a basic mechanism
n Although metalwork has existed for of evolution. In order for a species to survive
centuries for things such as swords and it must gradually change in response to its
armour, the sheer amount of metal required environment and also compete with other
and the techniques needed to forge them into organisms for food and other vital
large ships simply didn’t exist until the resources. If a species fails to pass on its
industrial revolution. most desirable characteristics to its
The development of large industrial forges offspring, then it is likely to become extinct.
during this era meant the raw materials could Organisms must be able to adapt to
now be turned into huge objects such as keels. changing situations such as destruction of
Isambard Brunel’s Great Britain, launched in habitat, introduction of new predators or
1843, was the first ship to be built entirely of limited resources as quickly as possible, but
wrought iron. From the 1880s shipbuilders this process can take thousands or even
started to use steel instead of iron, and some millions of years. JE
© Getty

were fitted with steam engines. MS

088 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 Why doesn’t gold tarnish
or get rusty?
Judith West
n It’s hard for gold to form chemical bonds with
other elements. That includes oxygen, which
reacts with metals to form rust. Gold’s electrons
travel near to the speed of light to escape the
attractive pull of its heavy nucleus. Relativity,
famously described by Einstein, affects
electrons travelling this fast. For different
atoms to form chemical bonds, their electrons
must have similar energies. But the relativistic
effect means that gold electrons’ energies are
almost unique. AE

Do other planets
outside the Solar
System have rings?
Rachel Stewart
n As well as Saturn, the Solar
System’s other giant planets have faint
rings, suggesting they’re common and
may occur around exoplanets. So far,
© Getty

however, no exoplanet rings have

© NASA
Gold doesn’t tarnish due to processes
been observed. AM
described in Einstein’s theory of relativity

Bottlenose dolphins use

their big brains to solve
problems, store complex
information and
communicate effectively

Can we
Want measure
eriosns?to…
Send
anyosurw
quest
ks magazin
e
animal IQ?
How It Wor Alexandra Stevens
rksmag
@HowItWo n There’s no standard test to measure
s@
howitwoert.kcom how smart an animal is. Instead we
futuren study their behaviour and look for
actions that only advanced brains are
capable of. Tool use, mathematical
ability and being able to recognise
themselves in a mirror are all signs of a
deep thinker. We also measure the size
of an animal’s brain in comparison to
the rest of its body. Apes, dolphins and
elephants top the charts on brain size
and are all very intelligent animals. AG
© Getty

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 089

The latest releases
ses for curious minds

“There's ann
hat
implication th
he doesn't believe
liev
in the climate
emergency y

Your Place In
The Universe
Forgotten Where we belong
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Strange ideas certainly play a Ask a Spaceman! is one of our favourite
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090 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

 BOOK REVIEWS

Build
The History Your Own
of Space Gaming PC
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Q Author: Adam Barnes
Travelling the timeline Q Publisher: Haynes
Q Author: Roger D Launius Q Price: £22.99 / $29.95
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can’t be many people more qualified than case lending their expertise to the quest
Roger D Launius to write a chronology of our to put together the perfect gaming PC.
progress in the field of space exploration. If this is something you have already
Which is just as well, considering what we’re of writing, with accompanying images attempted then the chances are that you
writing about here. visualising the route for us. already know what you’re doing, but this
Charting the earliest speculations of The format is a bit repetitive, which might at starts at the beginning anyway. From
individuals like Bernard Le Bovier and times make this a book more suitable for diving running through the tools of the trade
civilisations like the Aztecs to the first in and out of than devouring in one sitting, but and the components you really shouldn’t
experiments with rocket devices and our the perfunctory design shouldn’t overshadow neglect to the process of actually putting
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It’s fairly niche as far as Haynes

Discovering Ene manuals go, but that’s not necessarily a

bad thing. If you fit its target audience
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We’ve got the power
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If Eduard Altarriba has illustrated it, then

there’s a good chance we’ll be reading it. We’re
frequently captivated by the simplistic yet
colourful and evocative images that he
produces, which makes us delighted that we
find yet another of his books in our hands.
Penned by Johannes Hirn and Verónica
Sanz, this provides a child’s guide to the topic
of energy, namely what it is, how it’s used
and, most importantly, how it works. be adapted to help us further in the future,
The book touches on the various types of notably in the field of space exploration.
energy, such as solar, wind, water and As a book that’s image-led rather than
electricity; the various structures and devices text-heavy, you’d probably be better off looking
they power – such as batteries and combustion elsewhere for a more in-depth study of this. For
engines – and the residue they leave behind – younger readers, however, this provides the
steam and pollution among them. Moreover, perfect encouragement to develop more of an
our understanding of the subject constantly interest in what can seem like a rather broad and
developing, attention is paid to how energy can daunting area of study.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 091

GIVE YOUR BRAIN A PUZZLE WORKOUT Quickfire
questions
Wordsearch Q1 Typically, how much
can a WRC car cost?
FIND THE £100,000
E T E F A W X M I V N O L F V FOLLOWING £50,000
Z R A L L Y O Y E A S R T A I WORDS… £10,000
RALLY £500,000
U D W M C E Z H I O E M I R C SCOOTER ...............................................................

R E N X L S I L V E R O V E T REMEMBER Q2 Roughly how much

OCEAN data can the human
I C B O P R A L U C Y P B M O brain store?
SECURITY
100 gigabytes
L O G I C N P R E G M I O E R LEVITATE 100 megabytes
SILVER 100 terabytes
E M X O Q E X R N P O Y S M I UNIVERSE 100 kilobytes
V P W H E V A L T Y R T L B A DECOMPRESS ................................................................
SOLAR Q3 What’s the study of
I R G Y Q L Y N B X A I P E N COW ocean depth called?
T E L S O T F E J M Z R H R D VICTORIAN Topography
Waterology
A S R S W V C H N X O U G I T Seaology
T S B U D Z T L A I F C B G J Bathymetry
................................................................
E H Q C U N I V E R S E E A Y Q4 Why were crinoline
N T W I E R E T O O C S Z R W dresses deadly?
They were made of
G S L A I V H J Y E A U T X C radioactive plutonium
They were flammable
They were very tight
Spot the difference They attracted snakes
See if you can find all six changes we’ve made to the image on the right

092 How It Works

 Sudoku
Complete the grid so that each row, column and 3x3 box contain the numbers 1 to 9

EASY DIFFICULT

2 4 6 9 8 5 7 9
9 5 8 4 3
6 5 4 1 7 1 8
4 6 8 1 1
2 6 2 5
3 5 2 4 6 8 2 1 9 7
5 9 8 1 3 4 3 1 7
2 6 5 4 8 1 9 2 7 8 6 4 3
1 2 5 2 8

What is it? For more brain teasers

and the chance to test
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Hint: If you don’t own skills, enjoy our Mensa
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© Getty

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Quickfire questions

Q1 1964
Q2 5cm
Q3 Iron-nickel
Q4 350,000 years

A glacier

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 093

 EXPLORE THE MANY WONDERS
OF THE HUMAN BRAIN
Have you ever wondered why we dream? Confused by what it means to be
conscious? Intrigued by the latest cutting-edge brain technology? Well wonder
no more, for all the answers to your brain questions can be found in this book!

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HOW TO…
Practical projects to try at home 1
DON’T
DO IT
ALO
IF YOU’R NE
8, MAK
E
E UN
DER
HAVE A SURE YOU
NA
Get
in touch
Send your ideas to…
How It Works magazine
@HowItWorksmag
WITH Y DULT
OU howitworks@
futurenet.com

How to see cosmic rays

Create a cloud chamber and watch subatomic particles zoom through the air in front of you

1 Prepare your tank

First, you’ll need to find a large, rectangular
tank – like a fish tank. Cut out a piece of felt the
2 Add dry ice
Now ask an adult to put on some thick gloves
and place some dry ice in a large, well-insulated
3 Cool the base
Now take the lid of your fish tank – ideally one
that’s dark in colour – and place it on top of the dry
same size at the top and stick it inside the tank, base. Dry ice is solidified carbon dioxide, and it ice. Let it sit there until it cools to the temperature
then soak it in isopropyl alcohol. needs to be very cold to stay solid, so be careful. of the dry ice.

4 Seal it off
If you have any excess alcohol in your fish
tank, pour it out in a rectangle on the cooled base.
5 Waiting game
Place the fish tank onto the lid and turn the
lights out. We now need to wait for the room-
6 Watch it cool
As the evaporated alcohol reaches the
bottom of the fish tank, the dry ice begins to cool
When you place the fish tank on top, it should temperature alcohol to evaporate into the air it. As it cools, it wants to form a liquid – so tiny
form a seal with the liquid. inside the fish tank. droplets form into a cloud.

SUMMARY…
Particles from space are constantly bombarding the Earth, passing
through us on their journey through the universe. As they zoom
through the cloud chamber, they cause disturbances in the gas,
ionising the gas molecules. This makes them clump together to form
tiny droplets. Different types of particles form different kinds of tracks.

Had a go? Let us know!

“You should If you’ve tried out any of our experiments – or
NEXT see lines conducted some of your own – then let us know!

ISSU
© I ustrat ons by Ed Crooks

Share your photos or videos with us on social media.

Make rain E
7 Lights out
Shine a torch in through the side of the fish tank.
You should see the cloud, but you should also see lines
b
raindrop ow
and test s
density
oil
appearing in
the cloud”
Disclaimer: Neither Future Publishing nor its employees can accept any
liability for any adverse effects experienced during the course of carrying
out these projects or at any time after. Always take care when handling
potentially hazardous equipment or when working with electronics and
appearing in the cloud. These are particles! follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

www.howitworksdaily.com
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Wo orks | 095
Works 095
INBOX
Speak your mind…
Get in touch
If you have any questions or comments for us, send them to:
How It Works magazine @HowItWorksmag [email protected]

Letter of the month but in their own separate compartments of

the cylinder. Both engine types use pressure

Engines
from the burning of fuel and air, but it is
utilised in different ways. In piston engines,
the pressure builds up inside the cylinder and
n Dear HIW, causes pistons inside to move back and forth.
How do rotary engines work differently to regular This motion is converted into a rotation to
combustion engines? move vehicles.
Thank you In rotary engines, however, the resulting
Leo force is kept in compartments separated by a
triangular structure. Three separate volumes
Rotary engines were the early combustion of gas expand and contract to turn the
engines used in cars, and as you have triangular containers around, drawing air and
noted, these work differently to the fuel into the engine to generate power.
conventional piston combustion engine. When a mixture of fuel and air is pumped
A piston engine uses the same space to through the engine’s opening, it is forced into a
carry out four different jobs: intake, space between the sides of the rotor. Being
combustion, compression and exhaust. turned around inside the barrel, the fuel is
These processes occur alternately in a ignited. This causes the gases to expand, and
HIW was a desirable prize
chain system. Meanwhile, rotary engines increased pressure continues to turn the rotor
© Kerry

at this school fête

require the same four actions to take place, and produce power.

Christmas
fête fun
n Dear HIW,
I created a ‘balloon pop’ stall at our Christmas fête last
week. Basically kids pay 50p to pop a balloon, and if
the raffle ticket number inside it is even, they win a
prize – a magazine!
All 100 balloons were popped within an hour and I
banked the PTA £50. That may not seem a lot to you,
but to us it’s totally great, and all it cost us was the
price of balloons! I even recall two dads popping
© Getty

balloons because they wanted a particular edition of

How It Works magazine! This diagram shows how the triangle rotor turns – similar to a spirograph
Thank you so much for supporting us, it really
made a difference. I had the most popular stall by
a long way.
Kerry, PTA Iver Heath Junior School
Lunar lasers
n Dear HIW,
Thank you to Iver Heath Junior School for If you stood on the Moon facing Earth in the centre of the laser beam
sharing this picture of its Christmas that is used to determine its distance, how would the beam change
fundraising event. It sounds like great fun and the look of Earth?
we loved hearing about the head-to-head Colin
battles for a copy of How It Works.
Lasers beamed from our planet are aimed at a reflective
device placed on the Moon. By shooting the lasers in

!
intermittent pulses, these are able to be counted and timed

W IN
COND
upon their return back to Earth. The time taken for the laser
to return is used as a way to compare these great
distances. While this can be detected for data gathering,
30-SE E
DIC INin the the signal of these lasers is too weak to be viewed by the
ME human eye. Laser ranging is a method used to calculate
© P xabay/Arek Socha

estones ments
cial mil
50 cru t
the trea distance rather than physically see distance. If you were to
r y of health, , each
histo
tech n ologies han it watch Earth from the Moon, you may see it gradually
and t
ss time
ed in le his page.
explain read t
change in size over time as it gets closer. In the sky, the
takes to Earth would take up 13-times more space when viewed
At its closest the Moon is 363,000
kilometres away from Earth from the Moon as the Moon does from our planet.

096 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

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Issue 1 35 on sale Editorial

20 FEB Editor Ben Biggs

Senior Art Editor Duncan Crook

Crow habits 2020 Research Editor Baljeet Panesar

Production Editor Nikole Robinson
Staff Writer ³ƬȒɎɎ(ɖɎˡƺǼƳ
QDear HIW, Staff Writer Ailsa Harvey
Editor-in-Chief JƺȅȅƏnƏɮƺȇƳƺȸ
Do young crows feed and take care of their old and Contributors
disabled parents? Jo Elphick, Mark Smith, Andy Extance, Andrew May, Amy
Grisdale, Stephen Ashby, Steve Wright, Mike Jennings,
Lily Lin (Malaysia) Felicity Day

Cover images
Alamy, BBC, Getty
Across the globe, you can find crows living
in large families of around 15, building up a Photography
Alamy, Getty Images, NASA, Science Photo Library,
network of trust and care. Many stay Shutterstock, Thinkstock, Wikimedia
All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected

© Getty
nesting where they are born, except for in Advertising
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winter months when they need to migrate. Commercial Director Clare Dove
Crows are cooperative breeders, meaning they live
Spending large portions of their lives with close to their nest, defending their family
ƬǼƏȸƺِƳȒɮƺ۬ǔɖɎɖȸƺȇƺɎِƬȒȅ
Group Advertising Director Mark Wright
their parents, crows have been observed ȅƏȸǸِɯȸǣǕǝɎ۬ǔɖɎɖȸƺȇƺɎِƬȒȅ
Advertising Manager Toni Cole
looking out for each other, helping the parents and other family members are ɎȒȇǣِƬȒǼƺ۬ǔɖɎɖȸƺȇƺɎِƬȒȅ
01225 687368
injured and vulnerable among the group. permanently disabled, crows can take on the Media Sales Executive hƏǕƳƺƺȵxƏƏȇ
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These seemingly caring birds not only look role of carer for life. As well as bringing food 01225 687353

after their immediate family, but have been to their parents, crows often help them out International
How It Works is available for licensing. Contact the
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Inside Netflix
Email enquiries ƬȒȇɎƏƬɎ۬ȅɵǔƏɮȒɖȸǣɎƺȅƏǕƏɿǣȇƺɀِƬȒِɖǸ
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Head of subscriptions ³ǝƏȸȒȇÁȒƳƳ
Q Dear HIW, Circulation
Head of Newstrade Tim Mathers

media?
How does Netflix work?
Production
Oisin Head of Production Mark Constance
Production Project Manager Clare Scott
Advertising Production Manager Joanne Crosby
Digital Editions ControllerhƏɀȒȇRɖƳɀȒȇ
When Netflix was launched in 1997, there were Production Manager Vivienne Calvert
mixed feelings about the idea. DVDs were new Management
Brand Director0ɮƏȇkɵȵȸƺȒɀ
and it seemed the world wasn’t quite ready for !ǝǣƺǔ!ȒȇɎƺȇɎ ǔˡƬƺȸƏȸȒȇɀƏƳǣ
Commercial Finance Director Dan Jotcham
online streaming. Today, Netflix has become
one of the most popular platforms for TV
This month we asked Head of Art & Design Greg Whittaker
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shows, films and documentaries. Its constant you what you think the Road, Willenhall, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, WV13 3XB
Distributed by Marketforce, 5 Churchill Place, Canary Wharf,
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and it is able to recommend things for
individual users. To do this, Netflix analyses
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 Amazing trivia to blow your mind

$22 BILLION
13.799
BILLION YEARS
ITER IS SPENDING A FORTUNE ON
A FUSION REACTOR IN FRANCE,
SCHEDULED FOR 2025
THE APPROXIMATE AGE
OF THE UNIVERSE UNDER
THE BIG BANG THEORY 56.7KG
DAIRY COWS NEED TO PRODUCE
AN ENORMOUS AMOUNT OF
SALIVA EVERY DAY
THE DRIVING

85% REACTION
TIME OF
THE VAST MAJORITY PROFESSIONAL
OF THE WORLD’S RACING DRIVERS
ELECTRIC KICK SCOOTERS TRAVEL SEABEDS ARE IS HALF THAT OF
20-TIMES FURTHER THAN AN UNEXPLORED AND THE AVERAGE
ELECTRIC CAR ON 1 KWH OF POWER UNMAPPED PERSON
MALE
ASTRONAUTS ARE
MORE LIKELY TO IN 2018 DE BEERS EXTRACTED A HUGE
SUFFER VISUAL NUMBER OF DIAMONDS FROM THE
IMPAIRMENT SEABED AROUND NAMIBIA
THAN FEMALE
ASTRONAUTS IN VICTORIAN TIMES,
UNSCRUPULOUS GROCERS
CAFFEINE
PUT RED LEAD INTO CAYENNE CAN
PEPPER TO INCREASE PROFITS
HELP TO
INCREASE

METRES
357.7
MILLION TONNES IMPROVE
ALERTNESS,
BUT NOT
THE LARGEST-KNOWN
THE AMOUNT OF GENETICALLY
FEATHERED DINOSAUR,
YUTYRANNUS, WAS MODIFIED CORN PRODUCED YOUR
TWICE AS LONG AS A CAR WORLDWIDE, 1996 TO 2015 MEMORY
098 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com