Module 2: Modernity Emerging

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Module 2: Emergence of Modernity
• The Enlightenment Period and Scientific Era

• Modernity and Its Discontents

Please watch the YouTube video.
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To find the video, search for “Heroes of the Enlightenment” on YouTube.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Social, Historical, and Geographical Location of the Enlightenment

- When: Last quarter of the 18th century

- Where: centered in France (Paris); Other centers in Scotland and England

- Who: among the philosophes: man of letters who is also a “free thinker”;
cosmopolitans; citizens of an enlightened world who valued the interest of
mankind above that of country or clan.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Social, Historical, and Geographical Location of the Enlightenment

What:
- A characteristic bundle of ideas

- An intellectual movement (of mainly the philosophes)

- A communicating group or network of intellectuals

- A set of institutional centers where intellectuals clustered – Paris, Edinburgh,

Glasgow, London, etc.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Social, Historical, and Geographical Location of the Enlightenment

- Enlightenment: the general process of society awakening from the dark slumbers
of superstition and ignorance.

- Enlightenment was an amorphous, hard-to-pin-down and constantly shifting

entity.
- It did not really touch every society and every intellectual elite equally.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Characteristics of the Enlightenment

- Involved the “creation of a new framework of ideas about man, society, and
nature which challenged existing conceptions rooted in a traditional world-view,
dominated by Christianity.”

- This new framework had no compartmentalization of knowledge into specific

disciplines (yet). → It was all about applying the new framework on various
contexts.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Galileo and his Telescope

- Galileo supported Copernicus' view that the
Earth orbited the sun, a "heliocentric" theory
which the church declared contrary to
Scripture.

- Galileo was warned to abandon his support

for this theory and instead embrace the
traditional "geocentric" notion that the Earth
was an unmovable point around which the covecollective.org
universe revolved. (Space.com)
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Newton
- Newton’s synthesis of previous science knowledge-work into a
consistent mathematical theory of the world was the crown jewel
of the Scientific Revolution and a key to the Enlightenment.

- Newton also merged the two opposing trends of 17th-century

science–the empirical inductive method and the rational deductive
method. Through the proper balance of the two, Newton created
a basis for scientific methodology which exists in all of the natural
philosophies today (ufl.edu).

Britannica Online
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

An Anatomical Dissertation Upon the

Harvey Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals

- In 1628 the English physician William Harvey published his

revolutionary theory that blood circulates through the body driven
by the heart.

- This challenged the long-standing teachings of Hippocrates and

Galen concerning 4 different bodily fluids or 'humours' that flowed
through separate arterial and venous vascular systems
(PubMed).

- Used dissection to observe blood vessels.

Academia.edu
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Key Ideas
● REASON: The use of logic, observation, and rational thinking to understand the world, as opposed
to relying on tradition, superstition or religious doctrine. The Enlightenment emphasized reason as
a way to gain knowledge and improve society.
● EMPIRICISM: The philosophical approach that emphasizes gaining knowledge through sensory
experience and observation rather than through pure logic or intuition. This was a key aspect of
the scientific revolution.
● SCIENCE: The systematic study of the natural world through observation, experimentation, and
the formulation of testable theories. Modern science emerged during the scientific revolution of the
16th-17th centuries.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Key Ideas
● UNIVERSALISM: The belief that certain ideas, rights, or values apply to all humans regardless of
culture or background. Enlightenment thinkers promoted universal human rights and reason.
● PROGRESS: The idea that human societies can improve and advance over time through the
application of reason, science and rational planning. This was a core belief of Enlightenment
thinkers.
● INDIVIDUALISM: The emphasis on the rights, autonomy and self-reliance of the individual as
opposed to the collective or the state. This grew alongside modern capitalism and liberal
democracy.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Key Ideas
● TOLERATION: Acceptance of different beliefs, opinions and practices, especially in matters of
religion. Religious toleration was promoted by some Enlightenment thinkers.
● FREEDOM: The ability of individuals to act according to their own will without undue constraint.
Modern notions of political and economic freedom developed during the Enlightenment era.
● UNIFORMITY OF HUMAN NATURE: The belief that all humans share fundamental traits, needs
and rights regardless of cultural differences. This universalist view supported ideas of natural
rights.
● SECULARISM: The principle of separating religion from civic affairs and the state. The modern
secular state emerged as religious authority declined in Europe.
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Impacts
● PROGRESS:
○ Understanding how society would progress through an application of the
best knowledge available in the arts and sciences Shifted the attitudes of
the literate elite
○ Application of reasoned and empirically-based knowledge with social
institutions would make men happier and free from cruelty, injustice, and
despotism
○ Progress in the fields of agriculture, manufacturing, medicine/health, and
moving from ignorance
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Impacts
● Challenge to traditional authorities: Expansion of literacy → applying
modernity in all possible forms
● New approach to knowledge and nature: Scientific method can be used for
studying nature and society → science as basis of future values.
● Foundations for modern science and philosophy
● Shift toward rational understanding of the world
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Key Changes: Economic
● Creation of surplus, specialization, trade → brought market economy.
● Creation of currency to express “value” → to make trade faster and
“rational” and “efficient”.
● Development of notion of private property which allowed for the
accumulation of property.
The Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
Key Changes: Economic
● Industrial Capitalism: Involved a shift from agriculture and handicrafts to
industrial manufacturing and factory production.
● Key features of industrial capitalism include:
○ Mass production using machines and new technologies
○ Rise of the factory system
○ Urbanization as workers moved to cities
○ Growth of wage labor
○ Accumulation of capital by industrialists/capitalists
○ Expansion of markets
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Key Changes: Political
● Shift from feudal system to the nation state
● Creation of a rational legal system based on maximization of profit and
pleasure, minimization of cost and pain (application of economic cost-benefit
analysis)
○ “Morals” (i.e., conventions of behavior) became a concern of state legislation
(laws)
● Notion of meritocracy over nepotism based on aristocratic ties
○ Affairs of society increasingly assigned to bureaucrats (i.e., people with
technical skills and administrative qualities to run highly specialized
organizations → rational and efficient
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Key Changes: Intellectual and Cultural Arenas
● Transition from the centrality of religious teachings to individual discoveries
and experiences of natural laws as basis of knowledge → Implication is that
free will is important.
● Emergence of primacy of science - not only in the natural sciences, but also
in the social sciences
○ Darwinism (supremacy of species) → Social Darwinism
○ Philosophy as applied to natural and social sciences and its impacts on
society
○ Strong program of science → evidence based analysis
Darwin, Africa, and Genocide: The Horror of Scientific Racism
The Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
Key Developments
● Science brought inventions and technological innovations that enabled mass
production: creation of surplus
● Rise of the factory system
● Urbanization due to migration of people towards areas closer to the factories
(later “cities”)
● The new economic system of industrial capitalism
The Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
Social Impacts
● Growth of the working class
● New middle-class of industrialists/capitalists
● Changing family structures
● Urban Poverty and Slums
Social Transformations
Shift from Traditional to Modern Societies
● Weakening of traditional social bonds
○ Transition from family and church relations to economic relations
○ Mechanical (self-reliant, coercive) to Organic (interdependent and
cooperative) solidarity
● New forms of social organization - brought by new division of labor
● Increasing social mobility - from working class status to upper class due to
specialization
Social Transformations
New Social Institutions
● Modern bureaucratic states - with the creation of the nation-state and the
rationality in government (division of labor) → different roles and positions in
government
● Mass education systems - everyone must study and specialize to find their
role in society
● Industrial corporations - the version of bureaucracies in the private sector
● Professional associations - from artisan guilds to more specialized groups
Social Transformations
Cultural Changes
● Secularization
● Individualism
● Changing gender roles and family structures - due to changes in the division
of labor
● In the academia, the natural sciences became a field on its own separate
from philosophy (Physics, Biology)
● Social philosophy eventually paved the way to the development of Social
Sciences (Economics, Sociology)
Social Transformations
Cultural Changes: Scientific Worldview and the other Transformations

Systematic inquiries using scientific method led • Trade 🡪 Market

to better understanding of how the natural world – Social exchange based on supply and
works (e.g., physics, biology, etc)->faster demand
development of technology-> Industrial – Money as trust value of goods and services
Revolution -> Surplus of produce - • Wealth accumulation-> Beginnings of Capitalism-
>Specialization and Division of Labor->Artisan >Factories->Rise of Cities->Congestion,
Guilds Pollution, etc

• Medical Discoveries->Birth of Clinics and Asylums-> Identification and isolation of

people who are different
 PRINCIPLES OF RATIONAL THINKING
• Moral behavior operates on the same principle
– If a person is to follow rules, society has to
ensure that the pains (costs) of doing criminal
acts will be more than the pleasure (benefits)
derived from it.
– If a person is to be deterred from committing
criminal acts, then the gains of following rules
should be greater than the pains of punishment
for breaking the rules.

• Institutional response – enforcement of

punishment and retribution should be premised on
the same calculations.
 PRINCIPLES OF RATIONAL THINKING
• Human beings are capable of
independent human thoughts (i.e., free
will)
– Capacity to weight the costs and
consequences of their actions.
• Human beings are primarily utilitarian
by nature; i.e., operating on principles
of:
– Avoidance of pain (costs being
considered “painful”)
– Maximization of pleasure (equated
to benefits)
Example: CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Cost-Benefit Analysis of
Crime

Costs Moral Considerations

Benefits
Modernity and Its Discontents
Promises of Modernity
● Material progress and economic growth
● Individual freedom and autonomy
● Social mobility and meritocracy
● Rational social organization
● Scientific and technological advancement
Modernity and Its Discontents
Problems of Modernity
● Alienation and loss of meaning (Marx)
● New forms of social control (Weber on bureaucracy)
● Environmental destruction
● Increasing inequality and exploitation
● Erosion of traditional values and community
Modernity and Its Discontents
Ongoing Tensions
● Tradition vs modernity
● Community vs individualism
● Freedom vs security
● Progress vs sustainability
● Rationalization vs enchantment (Weber)
Modernity and Its Discontents
Ongoing Tensions: Rationalization vs Enchantment (Weber)
- Rationalization leads to greater predictability and efficiency, but can also result in
a "iron cage" of bureaucratic control.
- Weber used the term "disenchantment" to describe the loss of mystery, magic and
meaning in the modern rationalized world -
- The "enchanted" pre-modern world was full of spirits, gods, and mystical forces
that gave life meaning.
Modernity and Its Discontents
Ongoing Tensions: Rationalization vs Enchantment (Weber)
- Rationalization and scientific thinking led to "disenchantment" - a more secular,
materialist worldview.
- Rationalization brought greater efficiency and control, but at the cost of meaning,
spontaneity and "enchantment."
- It threatened to trap humanity in a disenchanted, meaningless existence focused
only on material efficiency.
Modernity and Its Discontents
Legacy of Modernity
● Continuing influence of Enlightenment ideals
● Critiques and alternatives to modernity
● Debates over “postmodernity”
● Modernity as an unfinished project
● Global spread and varieties of modernity
Thank You
Module 3: Modernity Expanding

Key ideas:
1. What processes of expansion do we see in history?
2. From where to where did the expansion occur?
3. What allowed the expansion process?
4. What are the impacts of expansion in our experience of the contemporary
world?
Module 3: Expansion of Modernity
• Globalization and Globalization in Asia

• Development and Underdevelopment

• Orientalism
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Introducing globalization as an ideology.
- Steger argues that globalism constitutes a new ideology
- This challenges Michael Freeden's view that it's too early to call globalism an
ideology
- The article aims to establish globalism as:
- A coherent set of political ideas and beliefs
- The dominant ideology of our time
- Uses Freeden's criteria to assess globalism's ideological maturity
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Key Concepts and Distinctions
- Globalization: A set of social processes creating worldwide interdependencies
- Globality: A future social condition of thick global interconnections
- Globalism: The dominant political ideology promoting globalization
- Important to distinguish between:
- Globalization as a process
- Globality as a condition
- Globalism as an ideology
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Freeden's Criteria for Ideological Maturity
- Degree of uniqueness and morphological sophistication
- Context-bound responsiveness to a broad range of political issues
- Ability to produce effective conceptual decontestation chains
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Core Claims of Globalism
- Steger identifies 6 core claims of globalism:
1. Globalization is about liberalization and global integration of markets
2. Globalization is inevitable and irreversible
3. Nobody is in charge of globalization
4. Globalization benefits everyone (in the long run)
5. Globalization furthers the spread of democracy
6. Globalization requires a global war on terror
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Claim 1 - Market Liberalization
- Links "globalization" and "market" as core concepts
- Presents globalization primarily as an economic phenomenon
- Key ideas:
● Liberalization of markets from state control is good
● Global integration of markets is necessary
Example quote: "The driving idea behind globalization is free-market
capitalism" (Thomas Friedman)
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Claim 2 - Inevitability of Globalization
- Presents globalization as historically inevitable and irreversible
- Uses language like "inexorable", "irresistible", "accelerating"
- Borrows from Marxist determinism, despite ideological contradictions
- Political function: Suppresses alternatives and dissent
- Example quote: "Globalization is inevitable and inexorable and it is accelerating"
(Frederick W. Smith, FedEx CEO)
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Claim 3 - No One in Charge
- Links to classical liberal idea of "self-regulating market"
- Presents globalization as not controlled by any group or agenda
- Conceals role of powerful actors shaping globalization
- Challenged after 9/11 by more overt U.S. leadership
Example quote: "The great beauty of globalization is that no one is in control"
(Robert Hormats, Goldman Sachs)
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Claim 4 - Universal Benefits
- Argues globalization benefits everyone in the long run
- Focuses on material benefits like economic growth
- Draws on both liberal and socialist visions of progress
- Uses language of "science" to appear objective
Example quote: "Globalization provides great opportunities for the future, not only
for our countries, but for all others too" (G7 Summit Communiqué, 1996)
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Claim 5 - Spread of Democracy
- Links globalization to spread of democracy worldwide
- Often equates democracy with free markets
- Based on limited "polyarchy" model of democracy
- Ignores potential tensions between markets and democracy
Example quote: "Free trade and free markets have proven their ability to lift whole
societies out of poverty" (George W. Bush)
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Claim 6 - War on Terror
- Post-9/11 addition linking globalization to security agenda
- Combines economic globalization with militaristic ideas
- Creates some ideological contradictions within globalism
Example: Thomas Barnett's "Core" vs "Gap" global division
- Barnett has termed the globalized countries the "Functioning Core" or simply
"the Core". The other countries are part of the "Non-Integrating Gap", or
simply "the Gap". The Gap has been shrinking as globalization has
expanded.
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Globalism as Mature Ideology
- Meets Freeden's criteria for ideological maturity:
1. Unique morphology combining elements from other ideologies
2. Responsive to wide range of contemporary issues
3. Produces effective decontestation chains (6 core claims)
- Dominant ideology against which others must define
themselves
- Requires rethinking of traditional ideological classifications
Globalization as the Expansion of Modernity
Conclusion
- Globalism constitutes a new, mature ideology
- Dominant political belief system of our time
- Combines elements from multiple ideologies in novel ways
- Requires reclassification of contemporary ideological landscape
- Further research needed on institutionalization and adoption
Globalization and Asia Pacific/South Asia
Globalization is the worldwide integration of economic, political, social, and cultural
systems. This presentation examines the relationship between globalization and
the Asia Pacific and South Asia region through three perspectives:
1. The region as impacted by globalization
2. The region as a driver of globalization
3. The region as an alternative to globalization
Globalization and Asia Pacific/South Asia

The region as impacted by globalization

Historical context: Colonialism brought significant changes to the region
Economic transformation: From Japan's post-WWII growth to the rise of "tiger
economies"
Political changes: Spread of democracy and fall of authoritarian regimes
Cultural impact: "McDonaldization" and Western cultural influences
Challenges: Labor conditions, economic disparities, and cultural homogenization
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view

1. Colonial rule and dominance

● Advantages and disadvantages of colonial rule
● Colonized Asian countries
● Non colonized Asian countries
○ Case of Japan
○ Case of Thailand
● 19th & 20th century: movements for nationalism and independence
emerged
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view
2. World War II
○ Influenced by external forces
○ Case of Japan and US
3. Adoption of export oriented growth
○ Japan, Korea and Taiwan (1980s and 1990s)
○ Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam (late 1980s and 1990s)
○ SEA tigers: reliance on infusion of foreign capital
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view

4. IMF and WB (Bretton Wood System)

The cornerstone of economic liberalization and globalization in post war global
economy (loans, assistance)
○ Indonesia
■ The World Bank and IMF provided crucial assistance and economic framework
to the Suharto regime.
■ This support helped legitimize Suharto's authoritarian rule.
■ While providing some economic coherence, these institutions overlooked
massive corruption and patrimonialism in the Suharto regime.
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view

4. IMF and WB (Bretton Wood System)

The cornerstone of economic liberalization and globalization in post war global
economy (loans, assistance)
○ Thailand
■ The impact of the Bretton Woods system on Thailand was primarily through
economic policies:
■ The IMF and World Bank pushed for liberalization and export-oriented growth in
Thailand
■ This led to increasing amounts of foreign investment in the country
■ Thailand experienced double-digit GDP growth as a result of these policies
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view

4. IMF and WB (Bretton Wood System)

The cornerstone of economic liberalization and globalization in post war global
economy (loans, assistance)
○ Philippines
■ The World Bank and IMF had a close relationship with Ferdinand Marcos
■ This relationship had a disastrous impact on the country's economy
■ By the end of Marcos' tenure, the Philippines was left with nearly US $30 billion
in debt
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view

5. Asian Financial Crisis

○ Root cause: Poor policies, weak government, corruption, poor institutions;
inadequate liberalization
○ Globalization played a role in the 1997 crisis
○ Showed how deeply integrated the economy was in the global financial
system
 The Region as an Object Impacted by
1 externalist Globalization
view

6. Membership to WTO
7. Liberalization of Economy
○ Rise of China: Deng Xiaoping 1970s: economic reform – liberalization
of the economy: Experienced high level of growth and became more
integrated into the global economy
○ Rise of India: Liberalized their economy in 1991; increased trades and
FDI in textile and service sector
1 externalist Effects on Employment Practices
view

● Globalization initiated significant changes in employment practices

● Characteristics
○ Temporary and part time employment
○ Informal employment: self employment, family workers, informal enterprise workers
○ Underemployment: Philippines 18% of work force; Indonesia = 25% of workforce
○ No legal contracts
○ Poor working conditions and safety issues at factories that manufacture goods for
Western companies
1 externalist Effects on Politics
view

● There was a substantial fall in authoritarian regime; rise in democratic

regime
● Due to:
■ Rising middle classes
■ More globally connected world
■ End of Cold War
 Influence on Culture
1 externalist
view

● Globalization is a
form of cultural
westernization called McWorld
 1 externalist Influence on Culture
view

● Globalization is leading to cultural homogenization and

destruction of cultural diversity
○ Increase in number of McDonald stores in Asia
○ Rise of domestic fast food chains
○ Rapid expansion of supermarkets
1 externalist Influence on Diets
view

● Asia have been increasingly westernized

● Wheat replaced rice as staple food
● McDonaldization
● MTV-ization
● Hollywoodization
2 generative Generating Globalization: Asia as
view a Springboard

1. Early modern world economy: central was Asia

2. Colonialism: influenced the colonizers as well
3. Japan's influence on global manufacturing and trade patterns (became
a large importer of raw materials)
4. China's economic growth shaping global markets and supply chains
2 generative Generating Globalization: Asia as
view a Springboard

6.Rise of India
a. on IT / software development
b. Global service provider: outsourcing and offshoring
7. International migrant labor
8. Remittance from migrant workers
(PH: 11% of the PH economy)
 2 generative Generating Globalization: Asia as
view a Springboard

8. Rise of regional free trade arrangements

9. Open regionalism
10. Asian Products in Global Market
○ Cultural exports: Anime, K-pop, Bollywood gaining
global popularity
2 generative Generating Globalization: Asia as
view a Springboard
 3 The anti global impulse: Regional
the region as an
alternative to
alternatives to globalization
globalization
1. Historical example: Japan's East Asian Co-Prosperity
Sphere
The East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was ostensibly aimed at
creating a self-sufficient bloc of Asian nations led by Japan, free
from Western colonial influence.
It was presented as a way to "liberate" Asia from European
imperialism under the slogan "Asia for Asiatics"
 3 The anti global impulse: Regional
the region as an
alternative to
alternatives to globalization
globalization
2. "Asian values" discourse challenging Western liberal democracy:
a. Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew argued that Asian societies valued order and harmony over individual rights.
b. Proponents asserted that Asian societies prioritized collective well-being over individual liberties
c. Asian leaders claimed that Western democracy led to social disorder and moral decay
d. They argued that Asian societies required a more authoritarian style of governance to maintain stability and
progress
e. Confucian values of hierarchy and social harmony were cited as incompatible with Western liberal democracy
f. Some Asian leaders argued that human rights were culturally relative and that Western concepts should not
be imposed on Asian societies
 3 The anti global impulse: Regional
the region as an
alternative to
alternatives to globalization
globalization
The Asian way
● to reach consensus on national goals with the democratic framework to take the
middle path to exercise tolerance and sensitivity towards others
● Contrast to Western values: every individual can do what he likes, free from any
restraint by government;
● Asians respect hard work, thrift, authority; community over the individual
● Operates based on harmony and consensus rather than on majority rule
 3 The anti global impulse: Regional
the region as an
alternative to
alternatives to globalization
globalization
3. Regional institutions: East Asia Economic Caucus (EAEC) and Asian
Monetary Fund (AMF) proposals (no USA)
4. Religious movements: Jemaah Islamiyah's vision of a regional caliphate
(Regional terror network)
5. Local initiatives: Community currencies, self-sufficiency movements, and
ethical consumptionLocal movements that emerged
■ Japan: Community Supported Agriculture an Seikatsu Club
(encouraged to buy locally and ethically)
Globalization and Asia Pacific/South Asia

- Globalization in Asia Pacific/South Asia is a complex, multifaceted process

- The region plays multiple roles: recipient, driver, and alternative to
globalization
- Importance of considering historical context and long-term trends
- Future outlook: Continued dynamic interaction between global forces and
regional characteristics
- Need for further research on specific aspects of globalization in the region
The Development of Underdevelopment

Introduction: Key Concepts

● Underdevelopment is not a natural state, but a result of historical processes
a. It’s a result of historical processes
b. Challenges the notion of underdevelopment as an original or traditional
condition
● Importance of studying underdeveloped countries' history to understand their
present condition
a. Essential for understanding their present condition
b. Reveals how past economic and social history led to current
underdevelopment
The Development of Underdevelopment

Introduction: Key Concepts

● Critique of existing development theories
a. Most theories based on experiences of European and North American
advanced capitalist nations
b. Fail to reflect the unique historical experiences of underdeveloped
countries
● Misconceptions about underdevelopment
a. Assumption that underdeveloped countries’ past resembles earlier stages
of developed countries
b. This leads to serious misunderstandings about contemporary
underdevelopment and development
The Development of Underdevelopment

Introduction
● Neglected aspects in most studies
a. Economic and other relations between metropolis and economic colonies
b. These relationships are crucial throughout the history of capitalist system
expansion
 DEPENDENCY MODEL
(Underdevelopment Theory)
 Andre Gunther Frank
◆ Third World countries colonial
history shape their
underdevelopment

◆ Underdevelopment is not a
consequence of being traditional,
rather, it is systematically created
by colonial exploitation; i.e.,
“development of
underdevelopment”
Dependency relations between the core and periphery
• unequal positions and functions coexisting within the same
structure of production (Cardoso and Falleto)

Core or Metropolitan Centers vs. Periphery or Colonies

(Developed of Modern Centers) (Underdeveloped Centers)
◆ Started when what is now known as the “third world”
got incorporated into a permanent relationship with
expanding capitalist economy through the trade
between the European empires and their colonies
◆ Economic colonialism in the service of capitalism
• Investment on plantations and mines by multinational companies
• Introduction of contracts, private property, forced labor in the colonies

◆ Growth of specific sectors, usually those involved in export of raw materials with very
minimal link to other sectors in the peripheries but with very strong links to the overseas
market and suppliers.
◆ Repatriation of surplus to the metropolitan centers
◆ Emergence of new relations of production in the periphery where new social
strata/class (the comprador class) emerged from among the indigenous people to
organize and/or facilitate new economic activities
• Accumulation of wealth and power by this class
• Replacement of colonial administration by “independent governments”
represented by this class.
 OUTCOMES
◆ Monopoly or exclusive control over resource and markets by the foreign
capitalists and their local trading partners
• Monopoly of commodity markets
• Monopoly in industrial technology

◆ Links between the elites of the core and the periphery becomes stronger

◆ CORE BECOMES MORE WEALTHY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED

WHILE THE PERIPHERY BECOMES MORE IMPOVERISHED AND DEPENDENT ON
THE FORMER FOR INVESTMENTS
 OUTCOMES
◆ Exploitation of workers or peasants Widespread unrest

◆ Employment of military force to curb mass unrest

towards Sponsorship of authoritarian regimes (mostly
military-led) in third world countries
 OUTCOMES
◆ Since military interventions can be costly and disruptive of economic
activities, distribution of foreign aid for basic reforms and industrial
development employed

• World Bank-IMF promoted the primary production orientation of the

Philippines to suit the needs of the American economy (Villegas)

• World Bank-IMF funded rural and urban development programs are aimed at
counter-insurgency and the pacification of the masses and stabilization of the
political situation to facilitate the further integration of the Philippine
economy into the international capitalist order; i.e., it is a development
debacle (W. Bello).
 Weaknesses of Dependency Model
◆ Present a pessimistic picture wherein the underdeveloped countries appear to have no hope of
achieving economic growth; i.e., it is a model for analyzing how the peripheries became
underdeveloped but not of how they can get out of it

◆ Presented a picture wherein the only alternative option entertained is revolution; as exemplified by
those who adopted socialism namely China, Cuba, Vietnam)

◆ Cannot account for the “success” stories (i.e., the industrialized countries in Asia which achieved
economic growth using export-oriented strategies)

◆ Did not incorporate the dismal experiences of social inequality and economic stagnation of former
socialist/communist countries
WORLD SYSTEMS MODEL

By Immanuel Wallerstein
The World-Systems Theory of Wallerstein

Introducing the Concept

Definition of a world-system:
a. A social system with boundaries, structures, member groups, rules of
legitimation, and coherence
b. Characterized by internal conflicts and tensions
c. Largely self-contained with internal dynamics driving development
Two types of world-systems:
a. World-empires: Single political system over most of the area
b. World-economies: No single political system over all or most of the space
The World-Systems Theory of Wallerstein

Introducing the Concept

World-Empires:
a. Ancient Rome: The Roman Empire controlled vast territories across Europe,
North Africa, and the Middle East under a single political system.
b. China under various dynasties: For much of its history, China functioned as a
world-empire with a centralized political structure governing a large territory.
c. Ottoman Empire: At its height, it controlled much of Southeast Europe,
Western Asia, and North Africa under a single political authority.
d. Mongol Empire: Under Genghis Khan and his successors, it became the
largest contiguous land empire in history.
The World-Systems Theory of Wallerstein

Introducing the Concept

World-Empires:
a. The European-centered capitalist world-economy: This is the primary focus of
Wallerstein's work, emerging in the 16th century and expanding to become the
modern world-system.
b. The Mediterranean world-economy: Before the rise of the European world-
economy, the Mediterranean region had its own economic system centered
around city-states like Venice and Genoa.
c. The Indian Ocean trade network: Prior to European dominance, this was a
vast trading system connecting East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and
Southeast Asia.
The World-Systems Theory of Wallerstein

Introducing the Concept

Wallerstein argues that world-economies were historically unstable and tended to
either collapse or be converted into world-empires. The European-centered
capitalist world-economy that emerged in the 16th century was unique in its ability
to survive and expand for over 500 years without being transformed into a world-
empire
The World-Systems Theory of Wallerstein

Introducing the Concept

The modern world-system:
a. A capitalist world-economy that has survived for 500 years
b. Unique in its longevity and resistance to transformation into a world-
empire
WORLD SYSTEMS MODEL

By Immanuel Wallerstein
Global Division of Labor
- Core
◆ Nation-states with extensive bureaucracies
and large mercenary armies that supports
the engagement of the bourgeoisie in
international commerce
◆ Democratic systems which broad middle
class

- Periphery
◆ Weak colonial governments run by the local
elites but controlled primarily by external
states
◆ Thin middle class which are generally
contentious
◆ Suppliers of raw materials to the core,
which are produced primarily through
forced labor
◆ Surplus expropriated by the core
Semi-Periphery
• Buffers between the core and the periphery
• Exploited by the core but are exploiters themselves
• Serves as example of the possibility of movement in the division of labor
• Characterized by restive populace, with two types of elites - those involved in export of
primary products and those who are involved in domestic production of industrial goods
- in conflict with one another

External Areas
• Those which remain outside the modern world economy; i.e., the socialist states AND
indigenous communities
 Class Relations
• At the core
◆ Consolidation of the ruling class

(i.e., the establishment of the

military-industrial complex)
◆ Development of a broad middle

class which are comprised of

those with highly technical and
professional capabilities who can
wield power through voting and
government administration
◆ Reduction of the number of the

labor class
◆ Homogenization/Polarization of

ethnic groups
• At the semi-periphery
◆ Emergence of comprador classes as
pariah groups (e.g., Chinese
merchants) which nonetheless control
trade and serve as necessary adjunct
of power – Cooptation of the elites as
partners of the industrialists from the
core

◆ Development of strong nationalism

among the pariah group 🡪 quest for
independence which is the precursor
of authoritarian states that have no
qualm about imposition of coercive
powers on the masses for purposes of
economic consolidation
• At the periphery
◆ Control of the landlord

classes of the haciendas

◆ Conflict between the

landlord classes and those

engaged in domestic
industrialization 🡪 state
weakened by competition
among the elites
◆ Masses alienated from the

state and its rulers 🡪

apathy and indifference
Orientalism of Said

Introduction to Orientalism
Orientalism refers to three overlapping domains:
a. Historical and cultural relationship between Europe and Asia
b. Western scientific discipline studying Oriental cultures
c. Ideological suppositions about the Orient

Key concept: The division between Orient and Occident is a human production, not
a natural fact

Orientalism must be studied as part of the social world, including both the studier
and the studied
Orientalism of Said

Political and Ethical Context

Resistance to discussing Orientalism in its proper political and ethical contexts

Importance of considering:
a. Who writes or studies the Orient
b. In what institutional or discursive setting
c. For what audience
d. With what ends in mind

Parallel to issues raised in feminist, ethnic, and anti-imperialist studies

Orientalism of Said

Goal: Creation of new objects for a new kind of knowledge

Key aspects include:
a. Challenging existing categories: Moving beyond simplistic labels like "Orient"
or "Muslim world" to recognize the diversity and complexity within these broad
designations
b. Incorporating native perspectives: Integrating the voices and viewpoints of
people from the cultures being studied, rather than relying solely on external
observations
c. Interdisciplinary approaches: Combining insights from various fields like
anthropology, history, literature, and sociology to create a more holistic
understanding
d. Reflexivity: Encouraging scholars to examine their own biases and the power
dynamics inherent in their research
Orientalism of Said

Example:
Instead of studying "Islam" as a monolithic entity, a new approach might involve:
- Examining specific Islamic practices in a particular region
- Incorporating local interpretations and lived experiences
- Analyzing how these practices interact with economic and social factors
- Reflecting on how the researcher's own background influences their observations

This approach creates a "new object" of study that is more nuanced and
contextualized, leading to a "new kind of knowledge" that better represents the
complexities of cultural realities
Orientalism of Said

Representation and Interpretation

- The Orient defies neutral, disinterested, or stable definition
- Comparison to literary interpretation (e.g., Shakespeare)
- Orient often denied the privilege of reinterpretation
- Labels like "Arab" or "Muslim" are saturated with meanings and
overdetermined by history
- Challenge to the muteness imposed upon the Orient as an object of study
Orientalism of Said

Critiques of Orientalism
Various critiques of Orientalism as ideology and praxis:
- Nativist
- Focus on asserting the virtues of native cultures
- Aim to reclaim cultural identity and authenticity
- Example: Some critics attack Orientalism as a prelude to asserting
the virtues of one or another native culture
- Nationalist
- Defend against attacks on specific political creeds
- Often tied to national independence movements
- Example: Critics who criticize Orientalism as a defense against
attacks on one or another political creed
Orientalism of Said

Critiques of Orientalism
Various critiques of Orientalism as ideology and praxis:
- Fundamentalist
- Argue that Orientalism falsifies the nature of Islam
- Seek to defend "true" or "authentic" religious interpretations
- Example: Those who criticize Orientalism for falsifying the nature of
Islam
Orientalism of Said

Critiques of Orientalism
Two important commonalities among critics:
- Rigorous methodological vigilance

- Determination to challenge the segregation and confinement of the Orient

Orientalism of Said

Critiques of Orientalism
Responses from Orientalists:
- Reinforcement of power within Orientalist discourse
Bernard Lewis's approach:
a. Insisted that Western quest for knowledge about other societies is unique
and motivated by pure curiosity
b. Claimed Muslims were neither able nor interested in gaining knowledge
about Europe
c. Presented arguments as stemming from "scholar's apolitical impartiality"
while supporting anti-Islamic, anti-Arab, Zionist, and Cold War crusades
Orientalism of Said

Critiques of Orientalism
Responses from Orientalists:
- Reinforcement of power within Orientalist discourse
Daniel Pipes's work:
a. Made broad generalizations about Islam, treating it as a simple,
monolithic entity
b. Relied on "rumor, hearsay, and other wisps of evidence" to make claims
about Islam
c. Argued that Muslims are the worst source for their own history,
reinforcing the idea that Orientals cannot represent themselves
Orientalism of Said

Critiques of Orientalism
Responses from Orientalists:
- Rare instances of genuine intellectual exchange (Said):
“Depending on how they construed their roles as Orientalists, critics of the critics
of Orientalism have either reinforced the affirmations of positive power lodged
within Orientalism's discourse, or much less frequently alas, they have engaged
Orientalism's critics in a genuine intellectual exchange."

- This suggests that while some Orientalists have engaged in genuine

intellectual exchange with their critics, these instances are unfortunately
uncommon compared to those who reinforce existing power structures within
Orientalist discourse.
Thank You