sensors

Article
Tunable High-Sensitivity Four-Frequency Refractive Index
Sensor Based on Graphene Metamaterial
Xu Bao 1,† , Shujun Yu 2,† , Wenqiang Lu 1 , Zhiqiang Hao 2 , Zao Yi 1,3,4, * , Shubo Cheng 3 , Bin Tang 5 ,
Jianguo Zhang 6 , Chaojun Tang 7 and Yougen Yi 8

1 Joint Laboratory for Extreme Conditions Matter Properties, Key Laboratory of Manufacturing Process Testing
Technology of Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Energy Materials,
Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, China; [email protected] (X.B.);
[email protected] (W.L.)
2 Key Laboratory of Metallurgical Equipment and Control Technology of the Ministry of Education,
Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China; [email protected] (S.Y.);
[email protected] (Z.H.)
3 School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China;
[email protected]
4 School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jishou University, Jishou 416000, China
5 School of Microelectronics and Control Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China;
[email protected]
6 Department of Physics, Jinzhong University, Jinzhong 030619, China; [email protected]
7 College of Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; [email protected]
8 College of Physics and Electronics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel./Fax: +86-0816-2480830
† These authors contribute equally to this work.

Abstract: As graphene-related technology advances, the benefits of graphene metamaterials become

more apparent. In this study, a surface-isolated exciton-based absorber is built by running relevant
simulations on graphene, which can achieve more than 98% perfect absorption at multiple frequencies
in the MWIR (MediumWavelength Infra-Red (MWIR) band as compared to the typical absorber. The
Citation: Bao, X.; Yu, S.; Lu, W.; Hao, absorber consists of three layers: the bottom layer is gold, the middle layer is dielectric, and the
Z.; Yi, Z.; Cheng, S.; Tang, B.; Zhang, top layer is patterned with graphene. Tunability was achieved by electrically altering graphene’s
J.; Tang, C.; Yi, Y. Tunable Fermi energy, hence the position of the absorption peak. The influence of graphene’s relaxation time
High-Sensitivity Four-Frequency on the sensor is discussed. Due to the symmetry of its structure, different angles of light source
Refractive Index Sensor Based on incidence have little effect on the absorption rate, leading to polarization insensitivity, especially for
Graphene Metamaterial. Sensors 2024,
TE waves, and this absorber has polarization insensitivity at ultra-wide-angle degrees. The sensor is
24, 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/
characterized by its tunability, polarisation insensitivity, and high sensitivity, with a sensitivity of
s24082658
up to 21.60 THz/refractive index unit (RIU). This paper demonstrates the feasibility of the multi-
Academic Editors: Jiaguang Han and frequency sensor and provides a theoretical basis for the realization of the multi-frequency sensor.
Dongshan Wei This makes it possible to apply it to high-sensitivity sensors.
Received: 30 January 2024
Revised: 18 March 2024
Keywords: graphene; high sensitivity; multi-frequency sensor; tunability; polarization insensitivity
Accepted: 18 April 2024
Published: 22 April 2024

1. Introduction
The optical absorber plays a critical role in sensing [1–4], imaging [5,6], solar energy
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
consumption [7], and other applications. Conventional absorbers consist mainly of a top
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
metal layer, an intermediate dielectric layer, and a bottom metal layer, which use the metal’s
This article is an open access article
surface with equipartitioned excitations to confine the electromagnetic wave and achieve a
distributed under the terms and
high absorption peak [8,9]. Because of the advancement of technology, the performance of
conditions of the Creative Commons
narrow-band absorbers has increased; typical narrow-band absorbers are unable to satisfy
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
the demand, so the most promising material for an absorber is a graphene metamaterial
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Sensors 2024, 24, 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24082658 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 2 of 13

absorber. A tunable high-sensitivity absorber can be realized by taking advantage of the

specific features of graphene metamaterial.
A layer of C atoms form covalent bonds with one another through sp2 hybridization
to generate graphene, a hexagonal honeycomb planar structure. The primary cause of
graphene’s planar conductivity is the electrons that each C atom possesses that are not
involved in bonding [10–12]. Monolayer graphene has a unique energy band structure
that results in linear energy dispersion and two crossed cones at the Dirac point, meaning
that there is no bandgap. As a result, it has an ultra-high carrier mobility rate, a high spe-
cific surface area, high thermal conductivity, and unique optoelectronic properties [13,14].
However, the low absorptivity of monolithic homogenous graphene (approximately 2.3%
absorption) makes it difficult to transform into an ideal absorber. In 2008, Landy et al.
developed the idea of a graphene perfect absorber [15]. They discovered that surface plas-
mon resonance occurs in graphene when it is used as an ultra-surface layer in an absorber.
Tunable graphene Fermi energy level allows for efficient terahertz wave reflection, absorp-
tion, and transmission [16,17]. Graphene is an excited element with excellent confinement,
low loss, and dynamic tunability. More crucially, by adjusting the voltage delivered to
graphene via an external gate, the graphene absorber can obtain tunable characteristics
suitable for a variety of applications [18–20]. This prompted later researchers to develop
a variety of graphene absorbers, including narrow-band [21,22], broadband [23,24], and
multi-frequency absorbers [25–27].
This work proposes an adjustable and highly sensitive quad-frequency refractive
index sensor based on graphene metamaterials. The absorber has graphene on top, a
dielectric layer in the middle, and a gold layer on the bottom. The absorber features four
absorption peaks, three of which are perfect, with absorptivities of 0.98965, 0.99857, 0.96241,
and 0.99108, respectively. The absorptivities of the absorber are varied by adjusting the
Fermi energy level of graphene. Adjusting the Fermi energy level of graphene changes
the absorber’s absorptivities. Furthermore, the absorber performance was improved by
adjusting the graphene relaxation time and structural characteristics using modeling tools.
A correlation study on the absorber’s sensitivity was conducted, and the conclusion was that
the absorber had a high sensitivity. The maximum sensitivity of the four absorption peaks
is 21.60 THz/RIU, providing it with an exceedingly rare advantage over other absorbers.
Overall, the absorber has numerous applications in high-sensitivity sensors [28,29].

2. Introduction to the Theory and Structural Model

In this article, a tunable multi-frequency absorber is obtained through modeling. Its
structure is shown in Figure 1a, where the thickness of the gold layer is T1 = 540 nm. The
dielectric layer in the middle of this absorber has a refractive index of 1.60 and the thickness
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
of this layer is T2 = 600 nm. Its basic unit is shown in Figure 1b, and the geometrical
parameters of the structure are P = 700 nm, L1 = 100 nm, L2 = L3 = 50 nm, L4 = 30 nm, and
R = 140 nm.

Figure
Figure 1.
1.(a)
(a)Basic
Basicunit
unitofofgraphene absorber;
graphene (b)(b)
absorber; toptop
view of absorber.
view of absorber.

The gold used in this paper is the classical Drude model of lossy gold, which has the
following dielectric constant [30]:
ω
ε =ε − (1)
ω + iωγ
Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 3 of 13

The gold used in this paper is the classical Drude model of lossy gold, which has the
following dielectric constant [30]:

ω2p
εAu = ε∞ − (1)
ω2p + iωγ

where ε∞ = 9.1 is the high-frequency limit dielectric constant. The plasmon frequency
ω p = 1.3659 × 1016 rad/s and the damping frequency γ = 1.0318 × 1014 rad/s are used.
The skinning depth of electromagnetic waves in a good conductor decreases as the
frequency, electrical conductivity, and magnetic permeability of the medium increase. The
maximal skinning depth for gold in the THz band is 266 nm. The thickness of the gold layer
we utilized is substantially more than the skinning depth of the electromagnetic waves;
hence, the layer entirely prevents electromagnetic wave propagation [31].
The intermediate dielectric layer is made of silicon oxide. In the MWIR band, SiO2 has
a refractive index of 1.3 to 1.4. The refractive index of SiO2 in this study is 1.6. TiO2 is doped
into SiO2 via plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition [32], altering the crystalline
structure of SiO2 and, hence, its refractive index. The Si/Ti ratio was set to ensure that the
dielectric layer’s refractive index was 1.6.
The top layer is patterned with graphene in the shape of an open mushroom plus four
little squares, as shown in Figure 1b. The dielectric constant of graphene in a single layer
can be stated as follows [33]:
iδg
ε(ω) = 1 + (2)
ωε0 ∆
where δg is the conductivity of graphene, ω is the radian frequency, ε 0 is the vacuum
dielectric constant, ∆ is the thickness of graphene, and the thickness of graphene is 1 nm.
The conductivity of graphene is divided into two components, intraband conductivity
σintra and interband conductivity σinter , which can be expressed via Kubo equation as
follows [34,35]:

σ(ω, Γ, µc , T) = σintra (ω, Γ, µc , T) + σinter (ω, Γ, µc , T) (3)

" Z ∞   #
ie(ω + i2Γ) 1 ∂fd (ε) ∂fd (−ε)
σintra (ω, Γ, µc , T) = ε − dε (4)
πh̄2 (ω + 2iΓ)2 0 ∂ε ∂ε
"Z #
ie(ω − i2Γ) ∞ fd (−ε) − fd (ε)
σinter (ω, Γ, µc , T) = dε (5)
πh̄2 0 (ω − 2iΓ )2 − 4(ε/h̄ )2

In the formula, ω is the angular frequency, e is the elementary charge, Γ is the scattering
rate Γ = 1/2τ, τ is the relaxation time, µ c is the chemical potential, h̄ is Planck’s constant,
and k B is Boltzmann’s constant. f d (ε) is the Fermi Dirac distribution [36,37]:

fd (ε) = [exp(ε − µc /kT) + 1]−1 (6)

At low light frequencies, graphene has zero interband conductivity. As a result, only
intraband conductivity is included when calculating graphene conductivity. Specifically,
this can be stated as follows [38]:

ie2 µc
σ(ω) = 2
(7)
πh̄ (ω + i2Γ)

This model is computationally simulated using the FDTD module in the Ansys Lumer-
ical software (Ansys Lumerical 2023), in which the relevant graphene parameters in the
FDTD material library are varied so that the Fermi energy level of graphene is 0.94 eV
and the relaxation time is 1 ps. The periodic boundary conditions are set in the x and y
directions, with the z direction set to be a perfectly matched layer. The model in FDTD
Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 4 of 13

is set up as follows: the x and y directions are set up as periodic boundary conditions,
and the z direction is set up as a perfectly matched layer (PML); the mesh is set up as a
40 nm step in the x and y directions and 1 nm in the z direction in the plane where the
graphene material is located. The model assumes that the ambient refractive index is 1. In
this paper, the incident wave is a plane wave that occurs above the graphene layer. The
incident wave has equal intensities at each wavelength and is classified as a TE wave. The
absorber absorptivity is determined via the following formula [39–41]:

A = 1−R−T (8)

where A is absorptivity, R is reflectivity, and T is transmittance. Because the bottom layer

is gold, and its thickness is significantly more than its skinning depth, no light can flow
through the gold layer; thus, set T = 0. This absorber absorptivity formula is reduced to the
following:
A = 1−R (9)
When R ≤ 0.02, the absorption peak is recognized as perfect absorption.
However, due to the intricacy of the absorber design and material selection, developing
a unified analytical model for the absorber’s resonant absorption is extremely challenging.
However, the fundamental process of its electrodynamics is evident and can be explained
in the following manner:
Driven by an applied electromagnetic field (i.e., incident light), free electron collective
oscillations pair with the external electromagnetic field, resulting in a localized increase in
the electromagnetic field. The localized enhancement of the electromagnetic field increases
the dipole moments of the molecules on the surface of the nanomaterial, and when the
frequency of the surface-parity excitation coincides with the oscillation frequency of the
molecules, the two produce a coupling, which greatly improves the material’s absorption.
As a result, the field amplification effect can be achieved by modifying the structural gap
between adjacent units in the equipartitioned exciton metamaterial.

3. Results and Discussion

As shown in Figure 2a, the order of magnitude of the transmittance is around 10−9 ,
which is absolutely inconsequential because the thickness of the gold layer is greater than
the skin-convergence depth of the electromagnetic wave in the gold element, as previously
mentioned. The absorber exhibits five distinct absorption peaks: models I, II, III, IV, and V.
The absorption peaks’ resonance frequencies are 69.0449 THz, 69.4769 THz, 71.6372 THz,
73.8215 THz, and 74.7096 THz, respectively, with absorptivities of 0.98572, 0.99787, 0.96395,
0.98922, and 0.34485. In Figure 2a, it is clear that model 5’s absorption rate is extremely low
and of little practical consequence, and it will not be discussed further.
TE waves are transverse electric waves, which are electromagnetic waves in which
the electric field vibrates perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation while the
magnetic field vibrates parallel to the direction of wave propagation. TM waves are trans-
verse magnetic waves, which are electromagnetic waves with the magnetic field vibrating
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation and the electric field vibrating parallel
to the direction of wave propagation. This is an advantage that the non-centrosymmetric
model does not have. The absorption spectra in the TE-wave and TM-wave modes are
identical, as shown in Figure 2b, owing to the model’s core symmetry [42,43]. This is one
advantage that the non-centrosymmetric model does not have.
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the absorber’s electric field intensity at the four
absorption peak frequencies. At absorption peak I , the electric field strength is localized
in the region near the left and right holes. This is due to the electric dipole resonance of
the surface plasma of the single-layer graphene coupled with the electromagnetic field.
This resonance locally enhances the electromagnetic field, making the incident wave much
more absorptive [44]. At absorption peak II, the electric field strength is localized in the
region near the upper and lower holes. At absorption peak III, the electric field strength
Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 5 of 13

is localized in the region near the upper and lower semicircle of the upper and lower
holes, as well as the region near the right angle formed by the large square. At absorption
peak IV, the electric field strength is localized in the area near the small square. As in the
preceding statement, the interaction between the collective oscillation of free electrons and
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the electromagnetic field causes the electric field to become highly localized,5allowing
of 14
the
absorber to perfectly absorb light of a given frequency.

Figure
Figure
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2. (a)
2. (a) Reflection/transmission/absorption
Reflection/transmission/absorption spectraspectra of absorber;
of absorber; (b) absorption
(b) absorption spectra
spectra of of TE
TE 6 of 14
andand
TMTM waves.
waves. TheThe black
black solidsolid line
line is theisabsorption
the absorption spectrum
spectrum of the
of the TE TEand
wave wave
theand the red dashed
red dashed
line is the
line absorption
is the spectrum
absorption of the
spectrum ofTM
thewave.
TM wave.

TE waves are transverse electric waves, which are electromagnetic waves in which
the electric field vibrates perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation while the
magnetic field vibrates parallel to the direction of wave propagation. TM waves are trans-
verse magnetic waves, which are electromagnetic waves with the magnetic field vibrating
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation and the electric field vibrating parallel
to the direction of wave propagation. This is an advantage that the non-centrosymmetric
model does not have. The absorption spectra in the TE-wave and TM-wave modes are
identical, as shown in Figure 2b, owing to the model’s core symmetry [42,43]. This is one
advantage that the non-centrosymmetric model does not have.
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the absorber’s electric field intensity at the four
absorption peak frequencies. At absorption peak Ⅰ, the electric field strength is localized in
the region near the left and right holes. This is due to the electric dipole resonance of the
surface plasma of the single-layer graphene coupled with the electromagnetic field. This
resonance locally enhances the electromagnetic field, making the incident wave much
more absorptive [44]. At absorption peak Ⅱ, the electric field strength is localized in the
region near the upper and lower holes. At absorption peak Ⅲ, the electric field strength is
localized in the region near the upper and lower semicircle of the upper and lower holes,
as well as the region near the right angle formed by the large square. At absorption peak
Ⅳ, the electric field strength is localized in the area near the small square. As in the pre-
ceding statement, the interaction between the collective oscillation of free electrons and
theFigure (a–d)show
3.3.(a–d)
electromagnetic
Figure show thecauses
field
the electric
electricthefield strength
electric
field distribution
fielddistribution
strength to become ononthe
theabsorber
highly absorbertop
localized,top (i.e.,the
allowing
(i.e., the graphene
the
graphene
pattern)to
pattern)
absorber atatperfectly
theabsorption
the absorption
absorb frequencies
frequencies ofof69.0363
light of a given 69.0363 THz,69.4813
THz,
frequency. 69.4813THz,
THz,71.6358
71.6358THz,
THz,andand73.8137
73.8137THz,
THz,
respectively.
respectively.

Asshown
As shownin inFigure
Figure4,4,the
theabsorber’s
absorber’spolarization
polarizationinsensitivity
insensitivityisisessential
essentialininpractical
practical
applicationssince
applications sincethe
theabsorber
absorberwillwillnot
nothave
haveideal
idealoptical
opticalconditions
conditionsin inreal
reallife.
life.The
Thefigure
figure
showsthat,
shows that,for
forthe
theabsorber
absorberunder
underthetheTE
TEwave,
wave,when
whenthetheincident
incidentlight
lightisisbetween
between0° 0◦and
and
90◦ , the
90°, the absorption
absorptionpeak
peakabsorbance
absorbance in the absorber’s
in the absorption
absorber’s spectrum
absorption does not
spectrum change
does not
much. At the TM wave, ◦ and 45◦ , the absorber’s
change much. At the TMwhenwave,the incident
when light is between
the incident light is 0between 0° and 45°, the
absorptionabsorption
absorber’s peak absorbance does not does
peak absorbance changenotsignificantly. Our absorber
change significantly. thus exhibits
Our absorber thus
ultra-wide-angle polarization insensitivity for TE waves and high-angle
exhibits ultra-wide-angle polarization insensitivity for TE waves and high-angle polarization insen-
polarization insensitivity for TM waves. This demonstrates that the absorber has a wide
range of practical applications in both production and life, as well as promising future
applications [45,46,47].
 applications since the absorber will not have ideal optical conditions in real life. The figure
shows that, for the absorber under the TE wave, when the incident light is between 0° and
90°, the absorption peak absorbance in the absorber’s absorption spectrum does not
change much. At the TM wave, when the incident light is between 0° and 45°, the
Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 absorber’s absorption peak absorbance does not change significantly. Our absorber 6thus of 13
exhibits ultra-wide-angle polarization insensitivity for TE waves and high-angle
polarization insensitivity for TM waves. This demonstrates that the absorber has a wide
sitivity
range offor TM waves.
practical This demonstrates
applications that the absorber
in both production and life, has a wide
as well range of practical
as promising future
applications[45,46,47].
applications in both production and life, as well as promising future applications [45–47].

(a)TM
Figure4.4.(a)
Figure TMwave
waveangle
anglescan;
scan;(b)
(b)TE
TEwave
waveangle
anglescan.
scan.

In the
In the previous
previous section,
section, we
we investigated
investigated the
the effect
effect of
of the
the absorber’s
absorber’s electric
electric field
field
distribution at the resonance frequency of the absorption peak, as well as the
distribution at the resonance frequency of the absorption peak, as well as the angle of angle of
incidence of the external optical mode, on the absorber. The impact of the
incidence of the external optical mode, on the absorber. The impact of the absorber’s absorber’s
intrinsic qualities on the absorber and its mode of action is also investigated. The Fermi
intrinsic qualities on the absorber and its mode of action is also investigated. The Fermi
energy levels and relaxation times of graphene, as well as the dielectric layer’s refractive
energy levels and relaxation times of graphene, as well as the dielectric layer’s refractive
index, are modified, and the impacts on the absorption spectra are investigated. The
index, are modified, and the impacts on the absorption spectra are investigated. The Fermi
Fermi energy levels of graphene can be dynamically adjusted by applying an external DC
energy levels of graphene can be dynamically adjusted by applying an external DC bias
bias voltage Vg to the graphene layer through an ion gel. The link between them is as
follows [48]: q
EF = VF πε 0 ε r Vg /e0 ts (10)

where Vg is the external voltage, e0 is the electron charge, VF is the Fermi velocity, and ts is
the thickness of the dielectric layer.
As illustrated in Figure 5a, the position of this absorber’s absorption peak varies as the
Fermi energy level of the graphene changes. The absorber’s absorption peak shifts blue as
the Fermi energy level of the graphene increases. This effect could be attributed to the more
difficult excitation of nonequilibrium carriers caused by an increase in the Fermi energy
level, necessitating the use of higher-frequency electromagnetic waves to excite the creation
of nonequilibrium carriers in graphene [49,50]. These phenomena have a significant impact
on the tunability of the absorber. It is worth noting that changing the graphene Fermi
energy level has only a minor effect on the absorbance of the absorption peaks, indicating
that the absorber performs well. The graphene Fermi energy level rises from 0.90 eV to
0.98 eV, and the resonance frequency of the absorption peaks shifts from 66.1324 THz to
69.0363 THz, 66.5657 THz to 69.4813 THz, 68.6265 THz to 71.6358 THz, and 70.7108 THz to
73.8137 THz. As a result, graphene’s Fermi energy level is electrically tuned, making the
absorber extremely tunable, which is one of its benefits as a metamaterial absorber.
The effect of graphene’s relaxation time on the absorption spectrum is explored be-
low, beginning with the relaxation time (an important graphene property), using this
expression [51,52]:
τ = µν/eV2F (11)
where µ and ν are the chemical potential and carrier mobility of graphene, respectively, e
represents the charge of the meta-charge, and VF is the Fermi velocity of graphene, which
can be calculated as VF = 106 m/s, according to the simple energy band theory.
Figure 5b depicts the fluctuations in this absorber’s absorption spectrum with graphene
relaxation time. The figure shows that the relaxation time of graphene has little effect on
the resonance wavelength of the absorber’s absorption peaks, whereas it can affect the
absorbance of the absorption peaks. When the relaxation time is 0.2 ps, the first two peaks
are united to form a single peak with a resonance wavelength of 69.3701 THz, which is
 is the thickness of the dielectric layer.
As illustrated in Figure 5a, the position of this absorber’s absorption peak varies as
the Fermi energy level of the graphene changes. The absorber’s absorption peak shifts
blue as the Fermi energy level of the graphene increases. This effect could be attributed to
Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 the more difficult excitation of nonequilibrium carriers caused by an increase in the Fermi 7 of 13
energy level, necessitating the use of higher-frequency electromagnetic waves to excite the
creation of nonequilibrium carriers in graphene [49,50]. These phenomena have a
significant impact
placed between on theand
69.0363 tunability
69.4813ofTHz,
the absorber. It is worth
while the first noting
two peaks that changing
gradually separatethe
as
graphene Fermi energy level has only a minor effect on the absorbance of
the relaxation time increases. The relaxation time of graphene has a significant impactthe absorption
peaks,
on theindicating
absorbance that the absorber
of absorption performs
peaks well.
within The graphene
a specific range (0.4Fermi
ps toenergy
1.0 ps,level rises
0.81325 to
from 0.90 eV to 0.98 eV, and the resonance frequency of the absorption peaks
0.99108, 0.88137 to 0.99732, 0.94208 to 0.95948, and 0.76604 to 0.99237). This occurrence shifts from
66.1324 THzgraphene’s
shows that to 69.0363relaxation
THz, 66.5657
timeTHz to 69.4813
can better manage THz, the68.6265 THz of
absorbance to the
71.6358 THz,
absorption
and 70.7108
peaks, THz in
resulting to the
73.8137 THz.
effect As a result,
of perfect graphene’s
absorption [53,54].Fermi energy
Because level is electrically
graphene’s relaxation
tuned, making the absorber extremely tunable, which is one of its benefits
time is immutable at the moment of production, this paper uses graphene with a relaxation as a
metamaterial
time of 1 ps. absorber.

(a)Absorption
Figure5.5.(a)
Figure Absorptionspectra
spectraofofgraphene
graphenewith
withFermi
Fermienergy
energylevels
levelsofof0.90
0.90eV,
eV,0.92
0.92eV,
eV,0.94
0.94eV,
eV,
0.96eV,
0.96 eV,and
and0.98
0.98eV
eVfor
forthe
the absorber;
absorber; (b)(b) absorption
absorption spectra
spectra of graphene
of graphene with with relaxation
relaxation times
times of
of 0.2
ps,
0.20.4
ps,ps,
0.40.6
ps,ps,
0.60.8
ps,ps,
0.8and 1.0 ps
ps, and 1.0for
psthe
for absorber.
the absorber.

Figure
The 6 depicts
effect the effectrelaxation
of graphene’s of the dielectric
time on layer’s refractive index,
the absorption spectrum SiO2is, on the ab-
explored
sorber’s
below, absorption
beginning withspectrum. Figure
the relaxation 6b (an
time shows that thegraphene
important effect of property),
the dielectric layer’s
using this
refractive index
expression [51,52]: on the absorbance of the absorption peaks is irregular. The absorption rate
varies very little; absorption rate of absorption peak I varies from 0.98766 to 0.98865 with
a fluctuation of 0.099%; the absorption τrate = μν eVF2
of⁄absorption peak II varies from 0.99698 (11)
to
0.99947 with a fluctuation of 0.249%; the absorption rate of absorption
where μ and ν are the chemical potential and carrier mobility of graphene, respectively,peak III varies from
e0.93871 to 0.96263
represents withof
the charge a the
fluctuation of 2.392%;
meta-charge, and Vand the Fermi
F is the absorption rateofofgraphene,
velocity absorption peak
which
IV varies
can from 0.98831
be calculated as VF to
= 0.99088
106 m⁄swith a fluctuation
, according of 0.257%.
to the simple These
energy results
band show that the
theory.
dielectric layer’s refractive index has very little effect on the absorber’s absorption rate.
Figure 6c indicates that the absorption peak’s resonance frequency has a linear connection
with the dielectric layer’s refractive index. This was determined by analyzing the data and
fitting the refractive index n and resonant frequency γ with a linear function:

γI = −26.634n + 111.6634 (12)

γII = −26.126n + 111.3081 (13)

γIII = −26.126n + 111.3081 (14)
γIV = −28.552n + 119.5233 (15)
Sensors
Sensors2024,
2024, 24,
24, x2658
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 8ofof14
13

Figure6.
Figure (a)Change
6.(a) Changein inthe
theabsorption
absorptionspectra
spectraof ofthe
theabsorber
absorberasasthe
therefractive
refractiveindex
indexof
ofthe
thedielectric
dielectric
layer increases from 1.60 to 1.90; (b) changes in the absorbance of the four absorption
layer increases from 1.60 to 1.90; (b) changes in the absorbance of the four absorption peaks as peaks asthe
the
refractive index of the dielectric layer changes; (c) changes in the resonance frequency
refractive index of the dielectric layer changes; (c) changes in the resonance frequency of the four of the four
absorption
absorptionpeaks
peaksas
asthe
therefractive
refractive index
index of
of the
the dielectric
dielectric layer
layer changes.
changes.

Equations (12)–(15)
Equations (12)–(15) apply
apply toto dielectric
dielectric layers
layers with
with aa refractive
refractive index
index of of 1.6–1.9.
1.6–1.9. As As
previously stated, the resonance frequency of the absorber can be tuned
previously stated, the resonance frequency of the absorber can be tuned by adjusting the by adjusting the
Fermi energy
Fermi energy level
level ofof graphene;
graphene; however,
however, the the precise
precise tuning
tuning of of the
the absorber
absorber is is difficult
difficult
due to
due to the
the complex
complex functional
functional relationship
relationship between
betweenthethe Fermi
Fermi energy
energy level
level of
of graphene
graphene
andthe
and the resonance
resonance frequency.
frequency. TheThe linear
linear relationship
relationship between
betweenthe therefractive
refractiveindex
indexof ofthe
the
dielectric layer and the resonance frequency described above, which has
dielectric layer and the resonance frequency described above, which has a weak effect on a weak effect on the
absorptivity, allows for accurate tuning of the absorber [55,56]. Using
the absorptivity, allows for accurate tuning of the absorber [55,56]. Using the equation the equation above,
the absorber
above, may detect
the absorber maychanges
detect in the refractive
changes index of the
in the refractive dielectric
index of thelayer material.
dielectric layer
By
material. changing the parameters of the Fermi energy level and the relaxation time of
graphene, as well as
By changing thethe refractive index
parameters of theofFermi
the dielectric
energy layer,
level to
andunderstand the changes
the relaxation time of in
the absorption spectrum of the absorber, we can conclude the following:
graphene, as well as the refractive index of the dielectric layer, to understand the changes the Fermi energy
level
in theofabsorption
graphene spectrum
is able to change the resonance
of the absorber, wavelength
we can concludeofthe thefollowing:
absorptionthe peak; the
Fermi
relaxation time of graphene is able to affect the absorption rate
energy level of graphene is able to change the resonance wavelength of the absorption of the absorption peak
of thethe
peak; absorber;
relaxationthetime
refractive index is
of graphene ofable
the todielectric
affect thelayer mainly rate
absorption affects theabsorption
of the resonance
wavelength of the absorption peak of the absorber. Moreover, the resonance wavelength
peak of the absorber; the refractive index of the dielectric layer mainly affects the
and the refractive index show linearity, and have very little effect on the absorbance rate.
resonance wavelength of the absorption peak of the absorber. Moreover, the resonance
Finally, we analyze one of the most important parameters of this absorber, the sensitiv-
wavelength and the refractive index show linearity, and have very little effect on the
ity(S) and figure of merit (FOM) of the absorber.
absorbance rate.
A sshown in Figure 7, absorbers play a critical role and are used extensively in sensing
Finally, we analyze one of the most important parameters of this absorber, the
and detection. An absorber can be utilized with the ultra-sensitive atmospheric refractive
sensitivity(S) and figure of merit (FOM) of the absorber.
index sensor. As shown in Figure 7b, the absorbance of the absorption peak varies in a
A sshown in Figure 7, absorbers play a critical role and are used extensively in
complex manner with the air refractive index, which has little practical relevance in the
sensing and detection. An absorber can be utilized with the ultra-sensitive atmospheric
actual application. However, Figure 7c shows that its absorption rate has a linear connection
refractive index sensor. As shown in Figure 7b, the absorbance of the absorption peak
with the ambient refractive index, which is a remarkable phenomenon. Using this approach,
varies in a complex manner with the air refractive index, which has little practical
we can determine the change in the atmospheric refractive index by changing the resonance
relevance
frequencyinofthetheactual application.
absorption However, Figure
peak, demonstrating the 7c shows
effect that its absorption
of atmospheric rateindex
refractive has
a linear connection with the ambient refractive index, which is a remarkable phenomenon.
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 Using this approach, we can determine the change in the atmospheric refractive index9 by of 13
changing the resonance frequency of the absorption peak, demonstrating the effect of
atmospheric refractive index detection [57,58]. We shall evaluate this absorber’s
performance in terms
detection [57,58]. Weof sensitivity
shall evaluate(S) and
this quality factor
absorber’s (FOM). in
performance The formulas
terms for these(S)
of sensitivity
two metrics are as follows [59,60,61]:
and quality factor (FOM). The formulas for these two metrics are as follows [59–61]:
Δλ
S = ∆λ (16)
S = Δn (16)
∆n
SS
FOM =
FOM = (17)
(17)
FWHM
FWHM
whereΔλ
where ∆λisisthe
theamount
amountofofchange
changeininthetheresonance
resonancewavelength
wavelengthofofthe theabsorption
absorptionpeakpeak
with
withrespect
respecttotothe
thechange
changeininthe
theambient
ambientrefractive
refractiveindex.
index.FWHM
FWHMisis the
thehalf-height
half-heightwidth
width
ofofthe
theabsorption
absorptionpeak. peak.Using
Usinga asimple
simplesubstitution
substitutioncalculation,
calculation, the
theS Sofofthese
thesefour
fourpeaks
peaks
can
can be obtained as follows: 19.5025 THz/RIU, 21.6025 THz/RIU, 20.7025 THz/RIU,and
be obtained as follows: 19.5025 THz/RIU, 21.6025 THz/RIU, 20.7025 THz/RIU, and
20.7025
20.7025THz/RIU.
THz/RIU. The sensitivity
The sensitivity ofof
this sensor
this sensoris is
anan
extremely
extremely large
largeadvantage
advantage compared
compared
totoother
otherabsorbers,
absorbers,sosothe theuse
useofofthis
thisabsorber
absorberininthis
thisrefractive
refractiveindex
indexsensor
sensorhashasgreat
great
potential.
potential.This
Thisabsorber
absorberhashasgreat
greatpotential
potentialfor
forrefractive
refractiveindex
indexsensors
sensors[62,63,64].
[62–64].

Figure 7. (a) Change in the absorption spectra of the absorber as the ambient refractive index increases
Figure 7. (a) Change in the absorption spectra of the absorber as the ambient refractive index
from 1.00
increases to 1.08;
from 1.00(b)
to changes
1.08; (b)inchanges
the absorbance of the fourof
in the absorbance absorption
the four peaks with the
absorption change
peaks with in the
the
refractive index of the ambient refractive index; (c) changes in the resonance frequency of
change in the refractive index of the ambient refractive index; (c) changes in the resonance frequency the four
ofabsorption peaks with
the four absorption the change
peaks with theinchange
the refractive index of the
in the refractive ambient
index of therefractive index. index.
ambient refractive

TheFOM
The FOMisisaauseful
usefulmeasure
measureof of the
the absorber’s
absorber’s bandwidth.
bandwidth. To
To compute
computethe theFWHM
FWHMof
all peaks, the background refractive index is set to Nc = 1. The FWHM of absorber
of all peaks, the background refractive index is set to Nc = 1. The FWHM of absorber peak peak I and
absorber peak II cannot be determined due to their proximity. The FOM
Ⅰ and absorber peak Ⅱ cannot be determined due to their proximity. The FOM of this of this absorber’s
last two peaks
absorber’s can peaks
last two be calculated as 49.06 and
can be calculated as71.66,
49.06respectively. Furthermore,
and 71.66, respectively. we compared
Furthermore,
our absorber-to-absorber research from recent years and, as shown in Table 1 [65–69], our
we compared our absorber-to-absorber research from recent years and, as shown in Table
absorber has high sensitivity and polarization insensitivity, as well as a significant number
1 [65,66,67,68,69], our absorber has high sensitivity and polarization insensitivity, as well
of absorption peaks, demonstrating the strength of our absorber.
as a significant number of absorption peaks, demonstrating the strength of our absorber.
Table 1. Comparison with previous absorbers.

Peak Average Polarization Incident Sensitivity

Reference FOM
Number Absorption Insensitive Angle (THz/RIU)
[65] 2 99.0% yes 0–60 2.475 76.89
[66] 2 99.9% - 0–80 4.72 13.88
[67] 1 99.96% yes 0–75 3.923 6.11
[68] 2 96.05% - 0–50 1.84 -
[69] 2 99.00% yes - 14.88 53.09
This work 4 98.54% yes 0–45 20.62 60.36
Sensors 2024, 24, 2658 10 of 13

4. Conclusions
In this paper, we designed a tunable four-frequency absorber MWIR, where the top
layer of the absorber is patterned with graphene, which consists of a dug-out mushroom
shape and four small squares. It has four absorption peaks with three perfect absorption
peaks. We explained the absorption mechanism of this absorber using electric field theory.
In addition, we adjusted the Fermi energy level and relaxation time of graphene, obtained
the tuning of the absorber by adjusting the refractive index of the intermediate dielectric
layer, and verified that the resonance frequency of the absorption peaks and the absorption
rate of the absorber had a very good tuning ability. The practicality of the absorber was
also analyzed; it is characterized by a high sensitivity compared to other absorbers, with
the highest sensitivity of 21.60 THz/RIU. In addition, the absorber achieves polarization
insensitivity at an incident angle of 0◦ to 90◦ for TE waves and achieves polarization
insensitivity at an incident angle of 0◦ to 45◦ for TM waves, and the absorber achieves
insensitivity with an ultra-wide angle for TE waves compared to other absorbers. We
believe that our absorbers will be used in a wide range of applications in the field of
high-sensitivity detection and optoelectronic detection.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.B., S.Y., W.L. and Z.H.; data curation, X.B., S.Y., Z.H.,
Z.Y., S.C., B.T., J.Z., C.T. and Y.Y.; formal analysis, X.B., S.Y., Z.H., S.C., B.T. and Y.Y.; methodology, X.B.,
S.Y., Z.Y., J.Z., C.T. and Y.Y.; resources, C.T. and Y.Y.; software, X.B., S.Y., Z.Y. and Y.Y.; data curation,
X.B., S.Y., S.C. and B.T.; writing—original draft preparation, X.B., S.Y., J.Z. and C.T.; writing—review
and editing, X.B., S.Y., Z.Y. and Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: The authors are grateful to the support provided by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (No. 51606158, 11604311, 61705204, 21506257); the funded by the Sichuan Science
and Technology Program (No. 2021JDRC0022); the funded by the Natural Science Foundation of
Fujian Province (2021J05202); the funded by the Open Fund of the Key Laboratory for Metallurgical
Equipment and Control Technology of Ministry of Education in Wuhan University of Science and
Technology, China (No. MECOF2022B01); the funded by the Project supported by Guangxi Key
Laboratory of Precision Navigation Technology and Application, Guilin University of Electronic
Technology (No. DH202321).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Publicly available datasets were analyzed in this study. These data can
be found here: https://www.lumerical.com/ (accessed on 1 January 2020).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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