Chapter 2

Methods of Analysis
 Methods of Analysis - Chapter 3

3.1 Motivation
3.2 Nodal analysis
3.3 Nodal analysis with voltage sources
3.4 Mesh analysis
3.5 Mesh analysis with current sources
3.6 Nodal and mesh analysis by inspection
3.7 Nodal versus mesh analysis

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 3.1 Motivation

If you are given the following circuit, how can we determine (1) the
voltage across each resistor, (2) current through each resistor. (3)
power generated by each current source, etc.

What are the things which we need to know in order to determine the answers?

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 3.1 Motivation

Things we need to know in solving any resistive circuit with

current and voltage sources only:

• Kirchhoff’s Current Laws (KCL)

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Laws (KVL)
• Ohm’s Law

How should we apply these laws to determine the answers?

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Reference Node

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 3.2 Nodal Analysis
Steps to determine the node voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node.

2. Assign voltages v1,v2,…,vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes. The

voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

3. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown

node voltages.

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 Applying Nodal Analysis
• Let’s apply nodal analysis to this circuit
to see how it works.
• This circuit has a node that is designed
as ground. We will use that as the
reference node (node 0).
• The remaining two nodes are designed 1
and 2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
• Now apply KCL to each node:
• At node 1.
I1 = I 2 + i1 + i2

• At node 2.
I 2 + i2 = i3
 Apply Nodal Analysis
• We can now use OHM’s law to express the
unknown currents i1, i2, and i3 in terms of node
voltages.
• In doing so, keep in mind that current flows from
high potential to low.
• From this we get:
v1 v1 − v2
v −0 I1 = I 2 + +
i1 = 1 or i1 = G1v1 R1 R2
R1
v1 − v2 v2
v1 − v2 I2 + =
i2 = or i2 = G2 ( v1 − v2 ) R2 R3
R2
or
v2 − 0
i3 = or i3 = G3v2 I1 = I 2 + G1v1 + G2 ( v1 − v2 )
R3
I 2 + G2 ( v1 − v2 ) = G3v2

• The last step is to solve the system of equations.

Example 3.1

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Practice problem 3.1

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Example 3.2 – determine the voltages at the nodes.

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Practice problem 3.2

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3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Depending on what nodes the source is
connected to, the approach varies.
Between the reference node and a non-
reference mode:
• Set the voltage at the non-reference node
to the voltage of the source.
• In the example circuit v1 = 10V.

Between two non-reference nodes.

• The two nodes form a supernode.
 Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source
(dependant or independent) connected between two
non-reference nodes and any elements connected in
parallel with it.
Why?
Nodal analysis requires applying KCL.
The current through the voltage source cannot be known in
advance (Ohm’s law does not apply).
By lumping the nodes together, the current balance can still
be described.

• In the example circuit node 2 and 3 form a supernode.

• The current balance would be: i1 + i4 = i2 + i3

Or this can be expressed as: v1 − v2 v1 − v3 v2 − 0 v3 − 0

+ = +
2 4 8 6
 Analysis with a Supernode
• In order to apply KVL to the supernode in the
example, the circuit is redrawn as shown.
• Going around this loop in the clockwise
direction gives:

− v2 + 5 + v3 = 0  v2 − v3 = 5

• Note the following properties of a supernode:

1. The voltage source inside the supernode
provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of
both KCL and KVL.
Example 3.3
Example 3.3
Practice problem 3.3
Example 3.4
Example 3.4
Practice problem 3.4
 3.4 Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the mesh
currents as the circuit variables.
Recall:
A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once.
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

• Mesh analysis uses KVL to find unknown currents.

• Mesh analysis is limited in one aspect: It can only apply to
circuits that can be rendered planar.
• A planar circuit can be drawn such that there are no crossing
branches.
 3.4 Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the mesh
currents as the circuit variables.
Recall:
A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once.
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

• Mesh analysis uses KVL to find unknown currents.

• Mesh analysis is limited in one aspect: It can only apply to
circuits that can be rendered planar.
• A planar circuit can be drawn such that there are no crossing
branches.
 Planar versus Nonpalanar

The figure on the left is a nonplanar circuit: The • The figure on the right is a planar
branch with the 13 circuit: It can be redrawn to avoid
• resistor prevents the circuit from being drawn crossing branches
without crossing branches
 Mesh Analysis

1. Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing

circuits using mesh currents as the circuit variables.

2. Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit,

while mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.

3. A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

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 Mesh Analysis

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.

2. Apply KCL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh

currents.

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 Mesh Analysis Example

• The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb).
• The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh.
• First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
• Applying KVL to the meshes:
−V1 + R1i1 + R3 ( i1 − i2 ) = 0 R2i2 + V2 + R3 ( i2 − i1 ) = 0
 
( R1 + R3 ) i1 − R3i2 = V1 − R3i1 + ( R2 + R3 ) i2 = −V2
3.5 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
• The presence of a current source makes the mesh analysis simpler in that it
reduces the number of equations.
• If the current source is located on only one mesh, the current for that mesh
is defined by the source.
• For example:

• Here, the current i2 is equal to −2A.

Example 3.5
Practice problem 3.5
Example 3.6
Practice problem 3.6
 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

The properties of a super-mesh:

1. The current source in the super-mesh is not completely ignored; it

provides the constraint equation necessary to solve for the mesh
currents.

2. A super-mesh has no current of its own.

3. A super-mesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

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 Supermesh
• Similar to the case of nodal analysis where a voltage source shared two non-
reference nodes, current sources (dependent or independent) that are
shared by more than one mesh need special treatment.
• The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a supermesh.
• The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes and excluding the
shared source and any elements in series with it.
• A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL.
• But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in advance.
• Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to for a larger
supermesh.
 Creating a Supermesh

• In this example, a 6A current course is shared between mesh 1 and 2.

• The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
• The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it are removed.
 Supermesh Example

• Apply KVL to the supermesh.

− 20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0 or 6i1 + 14i2 = 20
• We next apply KCL to the node in the branch where the two meshes
intersect. i =i +6
2 1

• Solving these two equations we get: i1 = −3.2A i2 = 2.8A

• Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL.
Example 3.7
Practice problem 3.7
 3.6 Nodal Analysis by Inspection
• There is a faster way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit by nodal
analysis.
• It requires that all current sources within the circuit be independent.
• In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the node-voltage
equations may be written as:

 G11 G12 G1N   v1   i1 

G G2 N   v2   i2 
 21 G22 =
    
    
GN 1 GN 2 GNN  vN  iN 

• Each diagonal term on the conductance matrix is the sum of conductances

connected to the node indicated by the matrix index.
 Nodal Analysis by Inspection
 G11 G12 G1N   v1   i1 
G G2 N   v2   i2 
 21 G22 =
    
    
GN 1 GN 2 GNN  vN  iN 

• The off diagonal terms, Gjk are the negative of the sum of all conductances
connected between nodes j and k with j  k.
• The unknown voltages are denoted as vk
• The sum of all independent current sources directly connected to node k are
denoted as ik. Current entering the node are treated as positive and vice
versa.
• This matrix equation can be solved for the unknown values of the nodal
voltages.
Example 3.8 – By inspection, write the nodal voltage equations for the circuit

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Practice problem 3.8 – By inspection, write the nodal voltage equations for the
circuit

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 Mesh Analysis by Inspection
• There is a similarly fast way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit by
mesh analysis.
• It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent.
• In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may be
written as:

 R11 R12 R1N   i1   v1 

R R22 R2 N   i2   v2 
 21 =
    
    
 RN 1 RN 2 RNN  iN  vN 

• Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in the
mesh indicated by the matrix index.
 Mesh Analysis by Inspection

 R11 R12 R1N   i1   v1 

R R22 R2 N   i2   v2 
 21 =
    
    
 RN 1 RN 2 RNN  iN  vN 

• The off diagonal terms, Rjk are the negative of the sum of all resistances in
common with meshes j and k with j  k.
• The unknown mesh currents in the clockwise direction are denoted as ik.
• The sum taken clockwise of all voltage sources in mesh k are denoted as vk.
Voltage rises are treated as positive.
• This matrix equation can be solved for the values of the unknown mesh
currents.
Example 3.9 – By inspection, write the mesh-current equations for the circuit

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Practice problem 3.9 – By inspection, write the mesh-current equations for the
circuit

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 3.7 Nodal versus Mesh Analysis

To select the method that results in the smaller number of equations. For
example:

1. Choose nodal analysis for circuit with fewer nodes than meshes.
• Choose mesh analysis for circuit with fewer meshes than nodes.
• Networks that contain many series connected elements, voltage
sources, or supermeshes are more suitable for mesh analysis.
• Networks with parallel-connected elements, current sources, or
supernodes are more suitable for nodal analysis.

2. If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply nodal

analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to
use mesh analysis.

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