Materials Processing

(AS852-CO2)
Lecture : 3 H/W Year: I
Practical :1/3 H/W Part: II

Course Objectives:
Objectives of the course is to provide the knowledge on basic principles of materials processing and their applications for
materials characterization.
Course Contents:
I. Processing of metals [8 Hrs.]

1.1 Solidification nucleation, crystal growth, grain structure, solidification defects (shrinkage, gas porosity) concept of
solidification of metals, cooling curves, driving force for solidification.

1.2 Casting Expendable mold casting(sand casting, plaster casting, shell casting investment casting), Non-expendable mold
casting, Evaporative pattern casting - lost-foam casting and full-mold casting.

1.3 Extrusion advantages of extrusion process, hot, cold and warm extrusion, micro-extrusion, extrusion defects

1.4 Drawing Processing of drawing, cold drawing and hot drawing, precautions and limitation

1.5 Forging Hot, warm and cold forging, advantages & disadvantages,

1.6 Rolling advantages and disadvantages of hot and cold rolling, terminologies, different types of rolling, assumptions of metal
rolling, defects in rolled products

1.7 Powder metallurgy process, importance and applications of powder metallurgy, advantages and disadvantages.

1.8 Fabrication through welding methods, glass and plastic welding fabrication, welding defects, Weld quality assurance, and
safety issues during fabrication through welding.
 Materials processing
•Materials processing is defined as the series of steps or “unit operations”
used in the manufacture of raw-materials into finished goods. The
operations involve a succession of industrial processes with various
mechanical or chemical procedures, usually produced in large quantities or
batches.
• Industrial materials are defined as those used in the manufacture of
“hard”goods, such as more or less durable machines and equipment
produced for industry and consumers, as contrasted with disposable “soft”
goods, such as chemicals, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and apparel.

• It teaches the key principles involved in the processing of engineering

materials, specifically metals, ceramics and polymers, from starting or
raw materials through to the final functional forms.
 Metal Processing
Metallurgy – extraction of metals from their ores, purification of metals,
manufacture of alloys and the use and performance of metals in engineering
practice.
Ore –Naturally occurring mineral from which a metal and certain other elements
can be extracted.
Extraction
– Smelting
• Is a process of applying heat to ore, driving off slag and other elements
to extract out a base metal
– Electrolytic processing
• electric furnace or process is used to separate metal
– Leaching (liquid processing)
• metal is recovered from leachate
Metal Refining : oxidizing impurities, distillation, chemical agents, electrolysis
 Elements

Non-Metals Metals Metalloids

Active metals Less active Metals

(Reactive metals) (Less Reactive metals)

✓ Lies above H-in ECS and ✓ Lies below H-in ECS and cannot displace
displace H2 gas from mineral acids. (dil. HCl H2 gas from mineral acids. (dil. HCl or
or dil. H2SO4) dil. H2SO4)
✓ eg: Li, Na, Mg, K, Fe, Zn , Pb etc.. ✓ eg: Cu, Hg, Ag, Au, Pt etc..
Mines Metal Ore Crushing and Pulverisation

Concentration of pulversied ore

Gavity separation Froth Floatation Magnetic separation Leaching

Concentrated ore
Heat treatment

Calcination or Roasting

Reduction of calcined or roasted ore

Purification & refining of impure metal

Fi.g. Outlines of the method of extraction of metal fromtheir ores (pyrometallury)

 Solidification

Solidification - transformation of liquid or gaseous into a hard or

compact mass or solid below melting point

• Solidification process is applied to a wide range of materials from metals

and alloys to ceramics and polymers.

• Major practical application of solidification – Casting

✓ Casting is a very economic method of forming a component. Properties of
casting is not easy to control, hence this understanding is important to control
the process to achieve desired results. Manufacture of every man-made object
involves solidification at some stage and hence it is economical and relatively
easier to achieve desired characteristics of the final component by controlling
process at solidification stage itself.
 Solidification
Solidification - transformation of liquid into solid below melting point
Concept of solidification:
• The energy of liquid is less then that of solid above the melting point so
liquid is stable above the melting point

• Below the melting point, the energy of liquid becomes more than that of the
solid so below the melting point, the solid becomes more stable than liquid

• At melting point both liquid and solid have equal energy therefore both are
equally stable, hence no solidification or melting will occur at the melting point,
liquid will remain liquid and solid will remain solid at the melting point.

• Some cooling will be essential for solidification (cooling curves)

• Solidification occurs by nucleation and crystal growth
 Nucleation
Nucleation – Physical process by which a solid particle (new phase ) is formed
from a liquid during solidification or the initial process that occurs in the formation
of a crystal from a solution or a vapor, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or
molecules become arranged in a pattern characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming
a site upon which additional particles are deposited as the crystal grows.
• At the solidification temperature, atoms from the liquid, such as molten, begin to bond
together and start to form crystals. The point where crystal begin to grow is the
nucleation point.
• Crystal Growth – Physical process by
which a new phase increases in size
• If more than one crystal is present then grain
is bigger unit than crystallites
• Nuclei crystals grains
• Grain boundaries – surfaces between the
grains
 Nucleation – Physical process by which a new phase (solid ) is formed from a liquid
during solidification.
Crystal Growth – Physical process by which a new phase increases in size

❑ The first step of metal solidification is the creation of tiny,

stable, nuclei in the liquid metal.
❑ Cooling the liquid below its equilibrium freezing
temperature, or undercooling, provides the driving force for
solidification.
❑ Once a cluster reaches a critical size, it becomes a stable
nucleus and continues to grow.
❑ The mold walls and any solid particles present in the liquid
make nucleation easier. Cluster of atoms Embryo Nuclei
Crystals Grains

Nucleation and formation of grains

NUCLEATION
✓ The volume free energy ΔGV – free energy difference between
the liquid and solid
Δ GV = 4/3πr3ΔGv (- ve)
✓ The surface energy ΔGs – the energy needed
to create a surface for the spherical particles
ΔGs = 4πr2γ (+ ve)
γ → specific surface energy of the particle
Total free energy Change, ΔGT = ΔGV + ΔGs
✓ At low temperatures atoms form small cluster
or groups.
✓ Embryo’s formed may either form into stable
nuclei or may re-dissolve in the liquid.
✓ beyond the critical radius of the nuclei it will
remain stable and growth occurs
Nucleation is the first step, where a small cluster of atoms or molecules forms from a metastable phase (e.g., a
liquid above its freezing point). This cluster, called a nucleus, is essentially a miniature version of the new phase.
The formation of a nucleus requires overcoming an energy barrier due to the increased surface area created at
the interface between the nucleus and the surrounding phase. However, once formed, the nucleus can grow by
the addition of more atoms or molecules from the metastable phase, eventually leading to the formation of the new
phase.

Nucleation and Growth Transformation may be of two types:

Homogeneous Nucleation and Heterogeneous Nucleation

There are two main types of nucleation:

•Homogeneous nucleation: This occurs when nuclei form spontaneously within the metastable phase, without the
presence of any external surfaces or imperfections. Homogeneous nucleation is typically a slow process due to
the high energy barrier involved.
•Heterogeneous nucleation: This occurs when nuclei form preferentially on existing surfaces or imperfections
in the metastable phase. These surfaces or imperfections can lower the energy barrier for nucleation, making it a
much faster process than homogeneous nucleation. Common examples of heterogeneous nucleation sites include
dust particles, scratches, and container walls.
Growth is the second step, where the nucleus adds more atoms or molecules to its surface, increasing
its size and eventually forming the new phase. The rate of growth depends on several factors, such as
the temperature, the concentration of the atoms or molecules in the surrounding phase, and the
mobility of these atoms or molecules.

There are different mechanisms of growth, including:

•Monomer attachment: Individual atoms or molecules are added to the surface of the nucleus one by
one. This is a common mechanism for crystal growth.

•Cluster attachment: Groups of atoms or molecules (clusters) can attach to the surface of the nucleus,
leading to faster growth. This is sometimes observed in the formation of nanoparticles.
•Oriented attachment: Two or more nuclei can merge together in a specific orientation, resulting in a
larger and more ordered structure. This is a common mechanism for the growth of biological tissues.
The interplay between nucleation and growth determines the final size, shape, and morphology of the new
phase. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial in various fields, such as materials science,
nanotechnology, and crystallography.
 Nucleation and Crystals Growth
Solidification occurs by nucleation and crystals growth
• At the solidification temperature, atoms from the liquid like
molten metal, began to bond together and starts to form crystals.
• The moment a crystal begins to grow is known as nucleation and
the point is the nucleation point. Nucleation is the first step in
crystal growth. It's the process by which a small group of atoms or
molecules come together and arrange themselves in a specific
pattern. This pattern is the same as the pattern of the Multiple
crystals that will eventually begins to grow in the liquid phase.
• Final size of the individual crystals depends on the number of
nucleation point.
• The crystals increase in size by the progressive addition of atoms
and grow until they interrupt the adjacent crystal.
• Nucleation and crystal growth can happen in a variety of ways,
depending on the material and the conditions. For example,
crystals can grow from a solution, from a melt, or from a vapor.
a) nucleation of crystal b) crystal growth
They can also grow on a surface, such as the inside of a
container.
• The size, shape, and purity of crystals are all important
properties that can be affected by the way they grow. Nucleation
and crystal growth are therefore important processes in many
different fields, including materials science, chemistry, and
engineering. c) crystal growth d) grain boundaries
 Ostwald ripening and Kirkendall growth principle
➢ fundamental mechanisms that explain the evolution of microstructures in materials, but they operate in different
ways and have distinct applications
➢ Driving force: Ostwald ripening is driven by differences in surface energy, while the Kirkendall effect is driven by
differences in diffusion rates.
➢ Outcome: Ostwald ripening leads to size changes within a single phase, while the Kirkendall effect leads to
changes in interface position and potentially new phases being formed.
Ostwald ripening: Kirkendall growth:
•Mechanism: Smaller particles dissolve faster than larger •Mechanism: When two materials with different diffusion rates
ones due to higher surface energy. Dissolved material are joined in contact, the faster diffusing species migrates into
diffuses and deposits onto bigger particles, leading to growth the slower diffusing material, creating voids at the interface. The
of the larger particles and shrinkage of the smaller ones. material on the slower side fills these voids, leading to an overall
•Applications: growth of the interface on the slower side.
Grain growth in materials: Controlling grain size in metals •Applications:
and ceramics influences properties like strength, ductility, and •Solid-state bonding: Joining dissimilar materials without
conductivity. Ostwald ripening can be used to achieve melting relies on the Kirkendall effect to create interdiffused
specific grain sizes. layers at the interface, ensuring strong bonds.
Production of monodisperse nanoparticles: Ostwald •Formation of metallic alloys: Diffusion of different metals at
ripening can help narrow down the size range, yielding more different rates leads to characteristic intermetallic phases with
uniform nanoparticle suspensions. desired properties.
Photovoltaic materials: Tailoring the size and distribution of •Microelectronic devices: Controlling the diffusion of dopants
pores in solar cell materials can enhance light absorption and in semiconductors is crucial for creating specific electrical
charge transport. characteristics. The Kirkendall effect plays a role in this process.
 Grain types structure
❖ Grain types and structure play a crucial role in metal processing, significantly impacting the final properties and
performance of the metal product.
❖ Metals are not made up of uniform, amorphous blobs of atoms. Instead, they are comprised of tiny crystalline regions
called grains. Each grain is a single crystal, meaning its atoms are arranged in a repeating, ordered pattern.
❖ The boundaries between grains are called grain boundaries, where the crystallographic orientation of the neighboring
grains changes abruptly. These boundaries can significantly affect the mechanical and physical properties of the metal.

Grain structure – three major types

• Equiaxed grain: Equiaxed grains have roughly equal dimensions in all directions. They form when the metal solidifies
slowly and uniformly. Equiaxed grains are desirable in many applications because they offer isotropic properties, meaning
they exhibit similar properties in all directions. This structure is often found in castings and some types of forged or rolled
materials
• Columnar grain: elongated in one direction and typically form during directional solidification, such as in casting or
welding processes where there is a temperature gradient. thin long grains forms when metal solidifies rather slow in the
presence of a steep temperature gradient. It grow perpendicular to the mold surface. elongated in one direction and
typically form during directional solidification, such as in casting or welding processes where there is a temperature
gradient.
• Dendritic Growth – in metals, crystals with morphology of pine tree. It occurs because crystals grow in defined planes
due to crystal lattice they create. tree-like structures that form during the initial stages of solidification when the metal
cools from its molten state. Dendrites grow outward from nucleation sites, and their branches continue to grow as the
temperature decreases. Dendritic grains are common in alloys and can influence the segregation of alloying elements and
the distribution of defects within the material.
 Equiaxed grains
Columnar grain
Dendritic Growth
Summery
Nuclei crystals grains

Polycrystalline – solidifies
the metal containing many
crystals
Grains-crystals in solidified
metal
Grain boundaries- the
surface between the grains
Factors Influencing Grain Structure:
The type and size of grains in a metal are influenced by various
The factors which determine
factors, including:
the rate of phase change are:
•Cooling rate: Faster cooling typically leads to smaller grains.
❖ The rate of nucleation i.e.
•Presence of impurities: Impurities can hinder grain
the no. of nuclei formed
growth, resulting in finer structures.
in unit volume
•Deformation processes: Cold working can break down grains
❖ The rate of growth i.e.
and refine the structure.
rate of increase in radius
•Heat treatment: Annealing can promote grain growth, while
with time
recrystallization can create new, smaller grains.
 Shrinkage
Shrinkage - Most materials contract or shrink during solidification and cooling.
Shrinkage is the result of:
– Contraction of the liquid as it cools prior to its solidification
– Contraction during phase change from a liquid to solid
– Contraction of the solid as it continues to cool to ambient temperature.
• Shrinkage can sometimes cause cracking to occur in component as it solidifies.
• Since the coolest area of a volume of liquid is where it contacts a mold or die, solidification usually begins first at this
surface.
• As the crystals grow inward, the material continues to shrink.
• If the solid surface is too rigid and will not deform to accommodate the internal shrinkage, the stresses can become
high enough to exceed the tensile strength of the material and cause a crack to form.
• Shrinkage cavitation sometimes occurs because as a material solidifies inward, shrinkage occurred to such an extent
that there is not enough atoms present to fill the available space and a void is left
Shrinkage porosity
• This shrinkage defect is a characteristic for the central regions of castings (ingots) of the alloys with a wide
temperature range of solidification. In these castings “feeding” melt is not able to infiltrate through the
interlacing dendrites. The local micro-spaces between the dendrites arm remain isolated from the melt in riser
forming micro-cavities or shrinkage porosity.
• Gas pores, entrapped in the solid structure of a casting, arise from different origins. Generally the Gas (Hydrogen)
dissolved in the liquid during melting and when it cools down and solidifies hydrogen solubility decreases and it is
forced out from the melt. The gas bubbles are trapped by the dendrites, forming gas porosity.
 Cooling curves
Pure metal solidifies at a constant If a pure metal cools rapidly and
temperature equal to its freezing does not contain any impurities as
point(melting point) nucleus to start solidifiction may cool
as in the fig.
Cooling curve for pure metals
❖ Casting and solidification are most
often used for making complex
shapes that would be difficult or
uneconomical to make by other
methods, and remain among the
most important commercial
processes for many materials.
❖ The modern science of
solidification started in the 1940s,
when engineers and scientists
began to use analytical
mathematical models to describe
solidification phenomena.
 Solidification of Metals
Solidification
❖ Solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a
solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point.
• Solidification is applied to a wide range of
materials from metals and alloys to ceramics and
polymers.
• Major practical application of solidification – Casting

Why to study in detail ?

➢ The solidification of metals and their alloys is important in
various industrial process
➢ Most of the components produced from metals are by casting
process.
➢ When a metal is welded a small portion of metal near the weld
melts and solidifies.
 SOLIDIFICATION
➢ During solidification, the liquid changes in to solid as cooling proceeds.
➢ The energy of liquid is less than that of the solid above the melting point. Hence liquid is stable
above the melting point.
➢ But below the melting point, the energy of liquid becomes more than that of the solid.
➢ Hence below the melting point, the solid becomes more stable than the liquid.

Thermodynamically, both liquid and solid have equal energy at melting point
and therefore both are equally stable at melting point.
➢ Freezing (solidification) is almost always an exothermic process,
meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat is released.
➢ This heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the
freezing process will stop.
➢ The energy released upon freezing is a latent heat and is the entropy part.
➢ Some under-cooling will be essential for solidification.
➢ Solidification occurs by two process : nucleation and growth.
 COOLING CURVES
❑ A cooling curve is a graphical plot of the changes in temperature with time for a material over the entire
temperature range through which it cools.
❑ Under equilibrium, all metals exhibits a definite melting and freezing points. If a cooling curve is plotted for pure
metal it will show horizontal line of melting and freezing temperature.

Freezing point
➢ In alloys solidification doesnot take place at
constant temperature
➢ Solidification occurs in a range of temperature so a
pattern will be formed
 COOLING CURVE WITH UNDERCOOLING (Supercooling)
Undercooling or supercooling is the process of lowering the temperature of a liquid or a gas below its freezing
point without it changing into solid.
 DRIVING FORCE FOR SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification is undoubtedly the most important processing route for
metals and alloys. As in fig.

For a pure metal at the fusion temperature

Tf , ΔG = 0 so that

ΔGf = ΔHf − Tf ΔSf = 0 ( or ) ΔHf = Tf ΔSf

Where ΔHf is the latent heat of fusion and ΔSf is the positive for
melting

For any temperature other than Tf ,

ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
~ ΔHf− TΔSf
= ΔSf (Tf− T) = ΔSf . ΔT
undercooling
Driving force for solidification
❖ The driving force is therefore proportional to the
undercooling assuming that the latent heat and the
entropy of fusion do not vary much with temperature.
 Casting
❖ In metal work, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, (rigid frame or a hollow cavity of the desired
shape) and then allowing it to cool and solidify.
❖ The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.
“Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other
methods.”
❖ Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture, jewelery, precious metals
weapons, machinery parts and tools. Traditional techniques include low-wax casting , plaster mold casting and
sand casting.
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and nonexpendable casting.

Expendable mold casting involves the use of temporary/ non-reusable molds.

• sand casting
• Plaster casting
• shell casting
• investment (lost-wax technique) moldings.
 Sand casting
In the sand casting, sand is bonded together using clays, chemical binders,
or polymers.
- simplest types of casting
- smaller batches than permanent mold casting
- manufactures to create products at a low cost,
- very small-size operations to large size products e.g. train beds.
- initiation and completion of a production process may take days to
week
- allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for
the molds.
- sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little
maintenance.
-Sand cast parts include automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants and
large pipe fittings.
 Plaster mold casting (CaSO4.1/2H2O)
➢ use Plaster of Paris as a mold material.
➢ generally takes less than a week to prepare
➢ production rate of 1–10 units/hr·mold is achieved
➢ produce large items as 45 kg (99 lb) and as small as 30 g (1 oz)
➢ gives very good surface finish
➢ low cost
➢ alternative to other molding processes for complex parts due to the
low cost of
➢ the plaster and its ability to produce near net shape castings.
➢ disadvantage : can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous
materials,
➢ such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc.
➢ example gears, valves, fittings, tooling, and ornament
 Shell molding

❖ the sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed
with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and
hardened into a shell around the pattern.

❖ is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed

by a hardened "shell" of sand

❖ gives a much finer surface finish because of the resin and

finer sand .

❖ process is easily automated and more precise than sand

casting.

❖ common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminum,

magnesium, and copper alloys.

❖ process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-

sized.
 Investment casting
➢ is a process that has been practiced for thousands of years, sometimes known as lost-wax
Casting. It builds a mold around a sacrificial wax model. After the mold investment is
set, the wax is melted out and forms a cavity where the metal or glass flows in. Using
this method of casting captures fine details in both metal and glass.

➢ ensure high dimensional accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity.

➢ Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded,
with a refractory material.

➢ the wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to withstand forces
encountered during the mold making.

➢ advantage of investment casting is that the wax can be reused

➢ generally used for small castings an expensive process compare to sand casting and die
casting.

➢ can incorporate intricate contours, excellent finish, so require little or no rework once cast

➢ this process has been used to produce aircraft door frames, blades for gas
turbines, in jewelry etc.
Non-expendable mold casting
Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need
not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes
: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting.

Permanent mold casting

❑ reusable molds ("permanent molds") are used,

❑ molds usually made from metal.

❑ the most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or
a vacuum are also used.

❑ common casting metals are aluminium, magnesium and copper alloys. Other
materials include tin, zinc and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite
molds.
The permanent molding process
 Die casting

❑ in this process forces molten metal is injected into mold cavity

under high pressure(30000 psi/200Mpa) and at relatively high
velocity and allows to solidify with the pressure maintained.

❑ use two piece permanent steel mold or die when clamped

together, the two pieces form the desired shape

❑ method is especially suited for applications where many small

to medium sized parts are needed with in a good detail,

❑ a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency

❑ is inexpensive as it can be cast rapidly are mostly made from

alloy of zinc, aluminum and magnesium which have low
melting temperatures.
 Centrifugal casting
✓ the molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify
while the mold is rotating

✓ metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation.
Due to centrifugal force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the
periphery.

✓ is both gravity and pressure independent since it creates its own

force

✓ the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application

of the method developed by the German

✓ applications like jet engine compressor cases, petrochemical

furnace tubes, many military products, and other high-reliability
applications

✓ Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method
 Features of Centrifugal Casting

• Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and

diameter.

• Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size

mold.

• Eliminates the need for cores.

• Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with

pipes.

• Mechanical properties of centrifugal castings are excellent.

• Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.

• Size limits are upto 3 m (10 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet)
length.

•Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm (0.1 - 5.0 in).

 Continuous casting
❖ is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metals with a constant
cross-section.
❖ Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled mold, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form
over the still-liquid Centre, gradually solidifying the metal from the outside in.
❖ After solidification, the strand, is continuously withdrawn from the mold.
❖ Predetermined lengths of the strand can be cut off by either mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene
torches.
❖ Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm
square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick).
❖ Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard product,
and also increased quality of the final product.
❖ Metals such as steel, copper, aluminum and lead are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the
greatest tonnages cast using this method
 Evaporative-pattern casting
Evaporative-pattern casting
This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour, which means there is no
need to remove the pattern material from the mold before casting. The two main processes are lost-foam casting and full-
mold casting.

Lost-foam casting
Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment casting except foam
is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the low boiling point of foam to simplify the
investment casting process by removing the need to melt the wax out of the mold.

Full-mold casting
Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand casting and lost - foam
casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The
metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the foam upon contact