UNIT-II

INLETS
Internal flow and Stall in subsonic inlets,

Boundary layer separation,

Major features of external flow near a subsonic inlet,

Relation between minimum area ratio and external deceleration ratio,

Diffuser performance,

Supersonic inlets,

Starting problem on supersonic inlets,

Shock swallowing by area variation,

External declaration,

Models of inlet operation

 What is Inlet?

All turbine engines have an inlet to bring free stream air into the engine
The inlet sits upstream of the compressor.
Will inlet affect the Thrust?
 Will inlet affect the Thrust?

if inlet does no work on the flow, inlet performance has a strong influence on engine
net thrust.

Yes, it affects the thrust

It is a known fact that the engine performance heavily depends on the installation
losses in the inlet such as

1. Additive drag
2. Forebody or cowl drag
3. Bypass air
4. Boundary layer bleed air.
1.Additive drag or skin friction drag or viscous drag:
It is another type of aerodynamic drag that objects experience when moving through
a fluid medium, such as air or water.

This type of drag is caused by the friction between the fluid and the surface of
the object.
2.Forebody or cowl drag
Forebody drag, also known as frontal drag or pressure drag,
is the resistance an object faces when moving through a fluid
due to pressure differences between its front and rear
sides.

It's influenced by the object's

shape,
speed,
fluid viscosity, and
cross-sectional area facing the flow.
Engineers aim to minimize forebody drag through aerodynamic
design.
3.Inlet bypass air loss
What is bypass in Transportation?
What is bypass in Gas Turbine Engine?
 What is bypass in Gas Turbine Engine?

➢ Bypass air provides a significant portion of the engine's thrust and

➢ contributes to the engine's overall efficiency, as it doesn't undergo combustion and
➢ therefore doesn't consume fuel.
3.Inlet bypass air loss
Inlet bypass air loss refers to the loss of air that occurs in the inlet of a jet engine, particularly in a turbofan
engine.

Turbofan engines are used in aircraft propulsion and consist of a central core engine surrounded by a larger duct,
or fan, that draws in air from the front.

This air is split into two streams:

1.one that goes through the core engine for combustion and

2.another that bypasses the core, flowing around it.

The bypass air provides a significant portion of the engine's thrust and contributes to the engine's overall
efficiency, as it doesn't undergo combustion and therefore doesn't consume fuel. However, not all the air that
enters the inlet is effectively utilized for generating thrust.

Inlet bypass air loss refers to the portion of bypass air that doesn't contribute to generating thrust due to various
factors such as inefficiencies in the inlet design, flow separation, turbulence, or other aerodynamic phenomena.
3.Inlet bypass air loss
Inlet bypass air loss refers to the portion of bypass air that
doesn't contribute to generating thrust due to various
factors such as
➢ Inefficiencies in the inlet design,
➢ Flow separation,
➢ Turbulence, or other aerodynamic
phenomena.

Contd…
4.Boundary layer bleed air
Inlet boundary layer bleed air is a technique used in aircraft engine design to manage the boundary layer, which
is a thin layer of slower-moving air that forms on the surface of the engine's inlet as the aircraft moves
through the air.

This boundary layer can lead to increased drag and reduced engine efficiency if not managed properly.
4.Boundary layer bleed air
Inlet boundary layer bleed air involves extracting a small
amount of air from the boundary layer and redirecting it away from the inlet.
This technique helps prevent the boundary layer from becoming too thick and
turbulent, which can negatively impact engine performance. By removing this
stagnant air, the boundary layer bleed system can improve the overall
efficiency and airflow characteristics of the engine.

Extracting a small amount of air (removing the stagnant air) from the boundary layer.
4.Boundary layer bleed air
The extracted air is often referred to as "bleed air" and is
typically vented overboard or redirected to other parts of the aircraft, such as for
➢ Anti-icing systems or
➢ Environmental control.
This technique is one of several methods used by engineers to optimize the aerodynamics and efficiency of
aircraft engines, contributing to better overall flight performance.
4.Boundary layer bleed air
 1) Additive drag
2) Forebody or cowl drag
3) Bypass air
4) Boundary layer bleed air.

Hence, the design of the inlet should be done with great care so as to minimize
these losses.
The performance of an inlet is related to the following characteristics:
(i) high total pressure ratio,
(ii) controllable flow matching requirements,
(iii) good uniformity of flow,
(iv) low installation drag,
(v) good starting and stability,
(vi) low signatures (acoustic, radar, etc.,), and minimum weight, and
(vii) low cost while meeting life and reliability goals.

An inlet’s overall performance must be determined by simultaneously evaluating all

these characteristics
Inlets come in a variety of shapes and sizes with the specifics usually dictated by the
speed of the aircraft.
➢ SUBSONIC INLETS
➢ SUPERSONIC INLETS
➢ HYPERSONIC INLETS
 At hypersonic speeds, the
chemistry of the air must be
1 < M < 3. Compressibility effects considered when
are important for supersonic determining forces on the
aircraft, and shock waves are object.
generated by the surface of the
object. At these speeds, some of
the energy of the object now
For high supersonic speeds, goes into exciting the
compressibility can be ignored 3 < M < 5, aerodynamic heating chemical bonds which hold
also becomes very important for together the nitrogen and
aircraft design. oxygen molecules of the air.
 SUBSONIC INLETS
For aircraft that cannot go faster than the speed of sound, like large airliners,
simple,
straight,
short inlet works quite well.

On a typical subsonic inlet,

continuous smooth curve with

the surface of the inlet from outside to inside is a
some thickness from inside to outside.

The most upstream portion of the inlet is called the highlight, or the inlet lip.

A subsonic aircraft has an inlet with a relatively thick lip.

Most subsonic aircraft have their engines placed in nacelles. Hence, in this section we may not deal with the
inlet alone but include the nacelle at subsonic Mach numbers.

The cross section of a typical subsonic inlet and its geometric parameters are shown in Figure
 (hl) : Highlight

The most upstream portion of the inlet is called the highlight, or the inlet lip.

A1 : Area of the inlet

dhl : Diameter at the highlight.

dt :Throat diameter

dfan :Diameter of the fan (in a turbofan engine).

dmax: Maximum diameter of the inlet area.

L : Length of the inlet,

(from the highlight to the fan or
compressor face)
➢ The inlet area A1 , is based on the flow cross section at the inlet height.

➢ It may be noted that the subsonic inlet can draw in airflow whose free-stream area A0 is larger than the inlet area A1.

➢ Variable inlet geometry is not required.

➢ The details in this section on subsonic inlets are based on a fixed-geometry inlet.
The operating conditions of an inlet depend on the

1.Flight velocity and

2.Mass flow requirements.

 a. b.

c. d.
 a. b.

Capture area in
(a) larger
(b) smaller than a
c. d.
(c) smaller than b
(d) smaller than c
Figure 13.2(a) shows acceleration of the fluid external to the
inlet which will occur when the inlet operates at a velocity lower
than the design value or at a mass flow higher than the design
value.

Inlet operates at a
velocity lower than the design value
 Figure 13.2(a) shows acceleration of the fluid external to the
inlet which will occur when the inlet operates at a velocity lower
than the design value or at a mass flow higher than the design
value.

Inlet operates at a
velocity lower than the design value

Static Operation (Insufficient Air for the Engine):

● In this case, the aircraft is stationary or at very low speed. The engine cannot receive enough air due
to a lack of forward motion, causing turbulence at the inlet and airflow entering from multiple
directions (backflow).
Figure 13.2(b) show the
configuration for correct mass flow
for the design conditions.
 Figure 13.2(b) show the
configuration for correct mass flow
for the design conditions.

Low-Speed Operation (Correct Engine Air):

● At lower speeds, the engine receives the right amount of air. The airflow is smooth and aligned with the inlet
geometry, ensuring optimal engine performance.
Figure 13.2(c) shows deceleration of the fluid external
to the inlet which will occur at a velocity higher than
design or a mass flow lower than design.

Inlet operates at a
velocity higher than the design value
velocity Higher than the design value
 Figure 13.2(c) shows deceleration of the fluid external
to the inlet which will occur at a velocity higher than
design or a mass flow lower than design.

Inlet operates at a
velocity higher than the design value
velocity Higher than the design value

High-Speed Operation (Excess Air for the Engine):

● At high speeds, more air enters the inlet than the engine can use, leading to excess airflow. Some of this
excess air may spill around the inlet, causing some inefficiency.
Static Operation (Figure a):
At very low or zero speeds, the engine’s fan cannot draw in
enough air due to a lack of forward motion. This condition may occur when
the aircraft is on the ground, leading to turbulence and possible airflow
separation at the inlet lip, reducing engine efficiency.

Low-Speed Operation (Figure b):

As the aircraft begins to move, the inlet starts to work
effectively. The airflow smoothly enters the inlet without separation or
turbulence. This condition reflects a balanced airflow, where the amount of
air entering the inlet matches the engine's demand, leading to efficient
operation.

High-Speed Operation (Figure c):

At high speeds, such as in cruise flight or supersonic conditions,
the inlet may receive more air than the engine can process. This causes
spillage of the excess air, as seen with the airflow lines spreading outside
the inlet. This is a sign that the inlet is getting more air than needed, and it
can lead to shock waves or pressure losses at supersonic speeds,
making the inlet less efficient.
 Design variables for the inlet and nacelle
(i) Inlet total pressure ratio and drag during cruise

(ii) Engine location on wing or fuselage

(iii) Aircraft attitude envelope

(iv) Inlet total pressure ratio and distortion levels required for engine operation

(v) Engine-out windmilling airflow and drag

(vi) Integration of diffuser and fan flow path contour

(vii) Integration of external nacelle contour with thrust reverser and accessories

(viii) Flow field interaction between nacelle, pylon, and wing

(ix) Noise suppression requirements

Inlet Total Pressure Ratio and Drag During Cruise: Ensuring minimal pressure loss and
drag at cruising speed to optimize fuel efficiency and engine performance.
Engine Location on Wing or Fuselage: Placement affects aerodynamics, engine
performance, and structural integrity.
Aircraft Attitude Envelope: The range of flight angles, including pitch and roll, where the
inlet and nacelle must perform effectively.
Inlet Total Pressure Ratio and Distortion Levels for Engine Operation: Ensuring smooth
airflow to avoid engine performance issues, like compressor stalls, at various speeds.
Engine-out Windmilling Airflow and Drag: When the engine is off, airflow through the
engine (windmilling) generates drag; this needs careful management.
Integration of Diffuser and Fan Flow Path Contour: Ensuring efficient airflow through the
fan and diffuser for better engine performance.
Integration of External Nacelle Contour with Thrust Reverser and Accessories: Proper
integration ensures aerodynamic efficiency, especially during landing when thrust reversers
are used.
Flow Field Interaction Between Nacelle, Pylon, and Wing: Understanding how these
components interact aerodynamically to minimize drag and turbulence.
Noise Suppression Requirements: Incorporating designs to reduce engine noise, critical for
meeting regulatory standards.
Design Considerations for Subsonic Inlets in Aircraft Engines
➢ Subsonic inlets are designed to provide smooth airflow to the engine's compressor

or fan.

➢ Inlet Mach numbers range from 0.4 to 0.7, for efficient performance with transonic
compressors.

➢ Diffusion occurs upstream of the inlet, reducing the Mach number from around 0.85
to 0.6.

➢ The design prevents boundary layer separation and minimizes stagnation pressure
loss.

➢ The inlet must handle pitch and yaw movements of the aircraft without airflow
disruption.

➢ Poor design can cause vibrations and affect compressor performance.

Internal flow and Stall in subsonic inlets
Flow Patterns
Depending on the
flight speed and
the mass flow demanded by the engine, the inlet may
have to operate with a wide range of incident stream
conditions
Figure shows the
streamline patterns for two typical subsonic conditions and
Thermodynamic path of an "average" fluid particle
Depending on the flight speed and the mass flow demanded by the engine, the inlet may
have to operate with a wide range of incident stream conditions.

Deceleration External Acceleration

The Figure shows the streamline patterns for two typical subsonic conditions and the
corresponding thermodynamic path of an “average” fluid particle.
 During level cruise

Deceleration of the
entering fluid External to the inlet
plane and hence low mass
flow rate

[Fig. a]- During level cruise the streamline pattern

may include some deceleration of the entering
fluid External to the inlet plane and hence low
mass flow rate.
During takeoff and climb

During low-speed high-thrust operation (e.g., during

takeoff and climb), the same engine will demand
more mass flow and the streamline pattern
may resemble Fig. b, which illustrates

external acceleration of the

stream near the inlet.
Flow Outside the Inlet:
● The air flowing toward the engine is
coming from outside.

● At high speeds (e.g., in cruise flight),

the engine doesn't need much air. So,
the air entering the inlet decelerates
slightly before entering. This is
minimal external deceleration.

● At low speeds/high thrust (e.g.,

during takeoff or climb), the engine
needs more air. To meet this demand,
the airflow accelerates externally
before entering the inlet.
For given air velocities external acceleration raises the inlet velocity and lowers the
inlet pressure, thereby increasing the internal pressure rise across the diffuser.

air velocities External

acceleration raises inlet pressure thereby increasing the
internal pressure rise
inlet velocity
across the diffuser
 air velocities External
acceleration raises inlet pressure thereby increasing the
internal pressure rise
inlet velocity
across the diffuser

If internal pressure rise across the

diffuser increase is too large, the
diffuser may stall because of
boundary layer separation;

stalling usually reduces the stagnation

pressure of the stream as a whole.

Conversely, external deceleration requires less internal pressure rise and hence a less
severe loading of the boundary layer.
Conversely, external deceleration requires less internal pressure rise and hence a less
severe loading of the boundary layer.

Therefore the inlet area is often chosen so as to minimize external acceleration

during takeoff, with the result that external deceleration occurs during level-cruise
operation. Under these conditions the “upstream capture area” Aa is less than the inlet
area A1, and some flow is “spilled over” the inlet, accelerating as it passes over the
outer surface.
Velocity and Pressure Relationship:
Increasing the inlet velocity lowers the inlet pressure, which in turn increases the internal pressure rise
across the diffuser. However, if this increase is too large, boundary layer separation can occur, leading to
diffuser stall.

Stalling Effect:
Stalling reduces the stagnation pressure of the flow.
To avoid this, less internal pressure rise is required, meaning less external deceleration.

Inlet Area Considerations:

The inlet area is carefully chosen to avoid too much external acceleration during takeoff, balancing
pressures to ensure efficient flow during level cruise.

Capture Area:
During cruise, the upstream capture area (Aa) is smaller than the inlet area (A1), causing some air to "spill
over" the inlet and accelerate over the outer surface.

High-Speed Concerns:
At high subsonic speeds, too much acceleration can cause shock-induced boundary layer separation on
the outer surface, leading to nacelle drag.

Supersonic Flight:
In supersonic conditions, shocks reduce the airflow velocity to subsonic levels, allowing the inlet to properly
Boundary layer separation
 What is Boundary Layer ?
In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate
vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface.
 Boundary layer

boundary layer, in fluid mechanics, thin layer of a flowing gas or liquid in contact with a surface such as that of an
airplane wing or of the inside of a pipe.

The fluid in the boundary layer is subjected to shearing forces.

A range of velocities exists across the boundary layer from maximum to zero, provided the fluid is in contact with the
surface.

Boundary layers are thinner at the leading edge of an aircraft wing and thicker toward the trailing edge.

The flow in such boundary layers is generally laminar at the leading or upstream portion and turbulent in the trailing
or downstream portion.
 Boundary Layer Separation or flow separation
In fluid dynamics, flow separation or boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer

from a surface into a wake.

In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing
along the surface.

https://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/336L/Fluidhtml/node116.html
 Boundary Layer Separation

the flow pattern of a high Reynolds number irrotational fluid around a cylindrical obstacle

It can be seen that a stagnation point, at which the flow velocity is locally zero, forms in front of the obstacle.

Moreover, a thin boundary layer covers the front side of the obstacle.

The thickness of this layer is smallest at the stagnation point, and increases towards the back side of the obstacle.

However, at some point on the back side, the boundary layer separates from the obstacle's surface to form a vortex-filled wake
whose transverse dimensions are similar to those of the obstacle itself. This phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation.
Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer travels far enough against an adverse pressure gradient that
the speed of the boundary layer relative to the object falls almost to zero. The fluid flow becomes detached
from the surface of the object, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices. The boundary layer
separation increases drag on the body.

Separation takes place due to excessive momentum loss near the wall in a boundary layer trying to move
downstream against increasing pressure, i.e which is called adverse pressure gradient.
 What are the conditions for flow separation to occur?

Flow separation occurs when the pressure gradient is positive and

the velocity gradient is negative.
 Boundary layer Separation in Actual engine inlet
➢ In the actual engine inlet, separation can take place in any of the three zones shown in Fig. 2.

➢ Separation of the external flow in zone 1 may result from local high velocities and subsequent deceleration over
the outer surface.

➢ Separation on the internal surfaces may take place in either zone 2 or zone 3, depending on the geometry of the
duct and the operating conditions.

➢ Zone 3 may be the scene of quite large adverse pressure gradients since the flow accelerates around the nose of
the center body, then decelerates as the curvature decreases.
Flow separation can get initiated at three possible locations

1.External to the intake on the nacelle

2.Within the diffuser internal surface

3.On the centerbody or the hub

https://archive.nptel.ac.in/content/st
orage2/courses/101101002/downlo
ads/Lect-28.pdf
Flow separation can get initiated at three possible locations

1.External to the intake on the nacelle (Separation on the nacelle would lead to increase in overall drag of the aircraft)

2.Within the diffuser internal surface (Separation within the diffuser geometry may lead to higher stagnation
pressure losses and therefore lower diffuser efficiency.)

3.On the centerbody or the hub

Zone 1: External Separation (Outside the Inlet)
● As air flows over the outer surface of the inlet, it can slow down (decelerate) due to high
speeds and friction.
● This can cause the air to separate from the surface, leading to external flow separation and
increased drag.

Zone 2: Internal Separation (Within the Inlet)

● Inside the inlet, if the air is not guided properly (due to geometry), it can separate from the
walls of the duct.
● This leads to internal separation, disrupting airflow to the engine.

Zone 3: Nose of the Inlet (Center Body Separation)

● As air flows around the nose of the center body (inlet’s front part), it accelerates and
decelerates.
● If deceleration is too sharp, the air can separate near the nose
Major features of external flow near a subsonic inlet
Figure shows a typical streamline pattern for large external deceleration. In flowing over the lip of the inlet, the external flow is accelerated to high velocity, much as the flow is
accelerated over the suction surface of an airfoil. This high velocity and the accompanying low pressure can adversely affect the boundary layer flow in two ways:

For entirely subsonic flow, the low-pressure region must be followed by a region of rising pressure in which the boundary layer may separate. Hence one might expect
a limiting low pressure Pmin or, equivalently, a maximum local velocity Umax, beyond which boundary layer separation can be expected downstream.

For higher flight velocities (or higher local accelerations), partially supersonic flow can occur. Local supersonic regions usually end abruptly in a shock, and the shock-wall
intersection may cause boundary layer separation. One might expect a limiting local Mach number that should not be exceeded.
This diagram and explanation are focused on how air behaves when it flows over the lip of an aircraft engine's inlet,
particularly during high-speed flight. break it down simply:

1. Air Flow and Speed:

When air flows into the engine, especially at high speeds, the air pressure can drop significantly. This drop
can cause problems for the thin layer of air close to the surface of the aircraft, called the "boundary layer."

2. Boundary Layer Behavior:

For planes flying at subsonic speeds (slower than the speed of sound), the boundary layer should stay
attached to the surface. However, if the pressure becomes too low, the boundary layer can separate or
peel off from the surface. This separation causes drag, which slows the plane down and reduces efficiency.

3. Supersonic Flow:

When the plane reaches higher speeds (close to or faster than the speed of sound), shockwaves (sudden
changes in pressure) can form. These shocks can further disrupt the boundary layer, leading to separation,
which is bad because it can cause even more drag and loss of control.

4. Goal:

The key idea here is to manage the flow of air to prevent boundary layer separation, which helps keep
the engine and aircraft operating smoothly.
DIFFUSER
 DIFFUSER

The diffuser is an important element of a compressor or pump.Its purpose is to reduce the velocity of The flow
leaving the impeller resulting in an increase in pressure.The diffuser can be depicted as a channel diverging in
the direction of flow
Pa P1

Ta T1

Poa Po1

Toa To1

Mi M1

Ci C1
Station
. (a)
.
ma Station
ma
(01)
Toa Stagnation Temperature at station a

Poa Stagnation Pressure at station a

Pa P1

Ta T1

Poa Po1

Toa To1

Mi M1

Ci C1
Station
. (a)
.
ma Station
ma
(01)
 DIFFUSER

The diffuser is an important element of a compressor or pump.Its purpose is to reduce the velocity of The flow
leaving the impeller resulting in an increase in pressure.The diffuser can be depicted as a channel diverging in
the direction of flow
The diffuser can be depicted as a channel diverging in the direction of flow as in figure.
Two Mechanical problems in Diffuser.
1.The primary problem is the tendency of the boundary layers to separate from
the diffuser walls if the local rate of diffusion is too rapid resulting in flow mixing
and large losses in stagnation pressure.

2.if the diffusion rate is too low, the fluid is exposed to a long length of wall and
fluid friction losses again become excessive.

1.Diffusion is too rapid - flow mixing and large losses in stagnation pressure.

2.Diffusion rate is too low-fluid is exposed to a long length of wall and fluid friction losses
 Rate of diffusion

The diffusion rate depends on several factors:

➢ The concentration gradient (the increase or decrease in concentration from one point to
another);

➢ The amount of surface area available for diffusion; and

➢ The distance the gas particles must travel.

https://iu.pressbooks.pub/openstaxchemistry/chapter/9-4-effusion-and-diffusion-of-gases/
What is the solution for Diffuser
problems?

There has to be an optimum rate of diffusion between

these two extremes for which the losses are minimised.
 What is the Solution:
Test results indicate that a diffuser with an included angle of about 7° or 8° gives the optimum recovery
for both two-dimensional and conical diffusers.
Flow
If you want to avoid flow separation, you either need a longer
diffuser (higher L/H) or a smaller divergence angle 2θ.
Vortex generators are small devices that create vortices to prevent flow separation
by reenergizing the boundary layer.
The trailing vortex they create mixes fast-moving airflow with slower boundary-layer
flow, which helps keep the flow attached to the surface and prevents performance losses
caused by separation.
They are crucial in many aerodynamic applications to improve efficiency, reduce drag,
and maintain stability.
Fig: Chart Depicting Flow Regimes for two-Dimensional Diffusers
Diffuser Efficiency
 Definition of Diffuser Efficiency

ηD = Actual change in enthalpy to the

isentropic change in enthalpy.
The diffusion process can be
represented on a Mollier diagram,

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-85617-793-1.00007-9
The diffusion process can be represented on a Mollier diagram, Figure, by a change
of state from point 1 to point 2, and the corresponding changes in

pressure from p1 to p2 and

velocity from c1 to c2 .

Several ways are available for expressing diffuser performance in compressible flow:

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-85617-793-1.00007-9
The flow within the inlet is required to undergo diffusion in a divergent duct.

This reduction in flow velocity creates an increase in static pressure that interacts with the boundary layer.

If the pressure rise due to diffusion occurs more rapidly than turbulent mixing can re-energize the
boundary layer, the boundary layer will assume the configurations shown in Fig

Fig. 13.3 Boundary layer development under adverse pressure gradient

Relation between minimum area ratio and external
deceleration ratio
The Control Volume (Dashed box):
The dashed box represents the control volume surrounding the engine inlet.

Air enters the control volume

from the left side and exits
through the right.
 1. Mass flow rate through the inlet:

This is the air that enters the inlet at velocity ui and area Ai expressed as:

2. Mass flow rate leaving through the outlet:

This is the air leaving the control volume at the velocity ua and the area Amax expressed as:

3. Side flow rate:

The difference between these two flow rates, which represents air that bypasses the inlet, is:

So, the side flow rate represents the air that flows around the inlet instead of entering it. This can occur

because the inlet is not able to capture all the air approaching it, especially if the area or velocity of the flow is
mismatched.
SUPERSONIC INLETS
 SUPERSONIC INLETS

An inlet for a supersonic aircraft, has a relatively sharp lip.

 Why sharp lip inlet for a supersonic aircraft?

The inlet lip is sharpened to minimize the performance losses from shock waves
that occur during supersonic flight.
 What is Shock waves?

When an object moves through a gas,

the gas molecules are deflected around the object.

If the speed of the object is much less than the speed of sound
the density of the gas remains constant and the flow of gas can be described
by conserving momentum and energy.

When the speed of the object increases towards the speed of sound ,
we must consider compressibility effects on the gas.
The density of the gas varies locally as the gas is compressed by the object.
Credits: https://youtu.be/L1GDtAlRo3E
How Compressible and shock wave forming?

Air Directly hits the plane

Plane
 What is Normal shock wave forming?

If the shock wave is perpendicular to the flow direction it is called a normal shock.
https://archive.nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/112104118/lecture-41/41_1_normal_shocks.htm
https://www.slideshare.net/sureshkcet/unit-iii-normal-oblique-shocks
For compressible flows with little or small flow turning, the flow process is
reversible and the entropy is constant.

The change in flow properties are then given by the isentropic relations
Isentropic means "constant entropy".

But when an object moves faster than the speed of sound,

there is an abrupt decrease in the flow area,
the flow process is irreversible and the entropy
increases. Shock waves are generated.
Shock waves are very small regions in the gas where the gas properties
change by a large amount.

Across a shock wave, the

static pressure,
temperature, and
density increases almost instantaneously.

Because a shock wave does

no work, and
there is no heat addition,
the total enthalpy and the total temperature are constant
because the flow is non-isentropic,
 Central cone inlet

Some supersonic inlets, use a central cone to shock the flow down to subsonic speeds.
 Application- Central cone inlet

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_SR-71_Blackbird

Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird

The inlets of the Mach 3+ SR-71 aircraft are specially designed to allow cruising flight at high speed. The inlets of the SR-71 actually
produce thrust during flight.
 Rectangular cross section inlet

Some inlets, use flat hinged plates to generate the compression shocks, with the
resulting inlet geometry having a rectangular cross section.
Application- Rectangular cross section inlet

Grumman F-14 Tomcat

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 Application- Rectangular cross section inlet

McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle

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 Supersonic inlet must have the following characteristics:

(i) Provide adequate subsonic performance,

(ii) Good pressure distribution,

(iii) High pressure recovery ratios, (Total pressure recovery is the ratio of the average total pressure at the exit of the
inlet to the free stream total pressure. A higher pressure recovery indicates a better performing inlet. The maximum possible value of recovery
is 1.0.)

(iv) must be able to operate efficiently at all ambient pressures and temperatures during
take-off, subsonic flight, as well as its supersonic design condition.
The inlet performance characteristics of supersonic inlets

(i) total pressure recovery,

(ii) cowl drag,

(iii) boundary layer bleed flow,

(iv) capture-area ratio (mass flow ratio), and

(v) weight.
Supersonic inlets are usually classified by their percent of internal compression.
Supersonic inlets are usually classified by their percent of internal compression.

Internal compression refers to the amount of supersonic area

change that takes place between the cowl lip and the throat.
Supersonic inlets are usually classified by their percent of internal compression.

Internal compression refers to the amount of supersonic area

change that takes place between the cowl lip and the throat.

Fig: Supersonic inlet

 supersonic area change

The supersonic area change is the difference between the capture area and the
minimum (throat) area.
The supersonic area change is the difference between the capture area and the
minimum (throat) area.
The supersonic area change is the difference between the capture area and the
minimum (throat) area.

External compression

Internal compression
The supersonic area change is the difference between the capture area and the
minimum (throat) area.

External compression

The area change that occurs in front of the cowl lip is called the
external compression.

Internal compression

The amount of supersonic area change that occurs between the cowl
lip and the throat is called the internal compression.
External compression

The area change that occurs in front of the cowl lip is called the
external compression.
Internal compression

The amount of supersonic area change that occurs between the cowl
lip and the throat is called the internal compression.
Supersonic Inlets Classification by the location of
the supersonic compression wave system

Mixed compression inlet

External compression inlet

Internal compression inlet

INTERNAL COMPRESSION INLET
 INTERNAL COMPRESSION INLET

The internal compression inlet shown in Fig.(a) achieves compression through a

series of internal oblique shock waves followed by a terminal normal shock
positioned downstream of the throat (its stable location).

oblique shock waves

(a)
 INTERNAL COMPRESSION INLET
The internal compression inlet shown in Fig.(a) achieves compression through a series of internal oblique
shock waves followed by a terminal normal shock positioned downstream of the throat (its stable location).

oblique shock waves (a)

Requirement

This type of inlet requires variable throat area to allow the inlet to swallow the normal shock ( during starting).

Fast reaction bypass doors are also required downstream of the throat to permit proper positioning of the
normal shock under varying flight and engine conditions
 unstarted inlet

The unstarted inlet is shown in Fig.(b ). This unstarted condition of the inlet can also be achieved by bringing the
free-stream Mach number from subsonic up to 2.5 without changing the throat area sufficiently to
start the inlet (swallow the normal shock).

(b)
 Inlet starting

Starting of the inlet can be achieved when the area of the throat (flow is choked at the throat) is made large
enough for the normal shock to move back and touch the inlet tip (critical operation), as shown in Fig.(c).

(c)
The external compression inlet completes the supersonic diffusion process
outside the covered portion of the inlet. The normal shock where the flow changes from
supersonic to subsonic and the throat are ideally located at the cowl lip as shown in
figure.
The fixed external compression inlet is designed so that the oblique shock or shocks
intersect the cowl lip as shown in figure.

The normal shock is located at the cowl lip is referred to as critical flow.
 Throat area variation required of an internal compression inlet.

The ratio of the throat area required to start the inlet Ats to the throat area required at normal operation Atr
(corresponding to Mi= 1.2) is obtained from basic one-dimensional flow,

Ats throat area required to start the inlet

Atr throat area required at normal operation

EXTERNAL COMPRESSION INLET
MIXED COMPRESSION INLET
 Starting problem on supersonic inlets

Reference- : Hill Peterson - Mechanics and thermodynamics of propulsion (1992), Page No:227
 HYPERSONIC INLETS
➢ Inlets for hypersonic aircraft present the ultimate design challenge.

➢ For ramjet-powered aircraft, the inlet must bring the high speed external flow down to subsonic conditions in the burner.
● High stagnation temperatures are present in this speed regime and variable geometry may not be an
option for the inlet designer because of possible flow leaks through the hinges.

➢ For scramjet-powered aircraft, the heat environment is even worse because the flight Mach number is higher than that for a
ramjet-powered aircraft.
● Scramjet inlets are highly integrated with the fuselage of the aircraft.
● The flow exiting a scramjet inlet must remain supersonic.

➢ On the X-43A, the inlet includes the entire lower surface of the aircraft forward of the cowl lip. Thick, hot
boundary layers are usually present on the compression surfaces of hypersonic inlets.