Computers - Hardware

CPU Components & Their Function

Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle

What is the purpose of the CPU?

 The purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is

to fetch, decode and execute instructions
 The CPU is the brain of the computer and its job is to take an input, process data
and produce an output

What is the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle?

 The Fetch-Execute Cycle is the cycle that the central processing unit (CPU)
runs through billions of times per second to make a computer work
 A computer takes an input, processes the input and then delivers an output for
the user
o Input: Clicking a button on the gamepad
o Process: The CPU inside the console follows a set of instructions to carry
out the task
o Output: The player moving on screen
The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle stages

Fetch stage

 During the fetch stage of the cycle, the next instruction or data must be
fetched from the computer's memory (RAM)
 The instruction or data is brought back to the CPU

Decode stage

 During the decode stage of the cycle, the CPU needs to work out what is
required from the instruction
 This could be a range of tasks depending on what the instruction or data included

Execute stage

 During the execute stage of the cycle, the CPU will carry out the instruction
that was fetched
 Some examples that would take place at this stage are
o Performing a calculation
o Storing a result or data back in main memory (RAM)
 o Going to main memory to fetch data from a different location

The important things to remember are:

 An instruction or data is fetched from memory

 The instruction is decoded
 The instruction is executed
 The cycle repeats billions of times per second

CPU Components & Their Function

What are the components of the CPU?

 The CPU is made up of 6 key components

o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Control Unit (CU)
o Cache
o Registers
o Clock
o Buses
 Each of the components sits within the CPU
What is the function of each component?

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

 Performs arithmetic operations

 Performs logical decisions
 o IF X > 5 THEN
DO ……….

Control unit (CU)

 Coordinates how data moves around the CPU by sending a signal to control
the movement of the data
 Decodes the instructions fetched from memory

Registers

 Extremely small, extremely fast memory located in the CPU

 Hold small amounts of data needed as part of the fetch-execute cycle
 Each register has its own specific purpose

Cache

 Very small, very fast memory located in the CPU which is used to provide quick
access to frequently used instructions and data

Clock

 Synchronises the actions of the CPU, with each tick of the clock triggering an
operation
 The clock speed is measured in Hertz (Hz)
 The clock speed measures the number of fetch-decode-execute cycles that
can take place in 1 second
 The faster the clock speed, the more instructions can be fetched and executed
per second
 Modern computers have a clock speed in Gigahertz (GHz), meaning billion
 A clock speed of 3.5GHz can perform up to 3.5 billion instructions per second
Buses

 A bus is a set of parallel wires through which data/signals are

transmitted from one component to another
 The wider a bus, the more parallel wires it has, which determines how
many addressable memory locations there are
 There are 3 types of bus:
o Address - unidirectional, carries addresses data is written to/read from
o Data - bidirectional, carries data or instructions
o Control - bidirectional, carries commands and control signals to tell
components when they should be receiving reads or writes etc.

Worked Example

Describe the role of the control unit, the control bus, the data bus and the address bus
when fetching an instruction from memory [4]

Answer

 The address of memory (holding instruction) is placed on the address bus (1)
 The control unit sends a signal (1) on the control bus (to start a read operation)
(1)
 The instruction is/the contents of the memory are placed on the data bus (1).

Von Neumann Architecture

What is the Von Neumann architecture?

 The Von Neumann Architecture is a design of the CPU which was proposed by
Mathematician John Von Neumann in the 1940s, which most general-purpose
computers are built upon
  The Von Neumann Architecture outlines how the computer
memory, input / output devices and processor all work together
 It is known as the stored program concept, storing
both programs (instructions) and data in the same memory (RAM)

Main Memory

Why do you need main memory?

 A computer needs main memory because access times are considerably faster
than secondary storage
 This means the time taken to complete operations such as the Fetch-Decode-
Execute Cycle is dramatically reduced
 Main memory holds the data and instructions that the CPU needs to access
whilst the computer is turned on
 Due to the fast access times, main memory is used as short term, working
memory
 Performance of main memory means a much higher cost which limits the
amount that is used
  For example, RAM is commonly purchased in 16 or 32 gigabytes whereas
secondary storage such as a hard drive is in terabytes

What is RAM?

 RAM (Random Access Memory) is main memory that is directly connected to

the CPU and holds the data and instructions that are currently in use
 RAM is volatile which means the contents of RAM are lost when the power is
turned off
 For the CPU to access the data and instructions they must be copied from
secondary storage
 RAM is very fast working memory, much faster than secondary storage
 RAM is read/write which means data can be read from and written to
 In comparison to ROM, it has a much larger capacity

What is ROM?

 ROM (Read Only Memory) is main memory that holds the first instructions a
computer needs to start up (Bootstrap)
 ROM contains the BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
 ROM is a small memory chip located on the computers motherboard
 ROM is fast memory, much faster than secondary storage but slower than RAM
 ROM is non-volatile which means the contents of ROM are not lost when the
power is turned off
 ROM is read only which means data can only be read from
 In comparison to RAM, it has a much smaller capacity

Worked Example

A smart television allows the user to search the Internet and watch videos online.

The smart television uses RAM

Give two examples of data that the smart television could store in RAM [2]

How to answer this question

 Think about the main function of a smart television, watch channels, use apps to
stream content and browse the web etc.
 For each function, try to think of what data would have to be in the RAM whilst
you were actually doing it (in use!)

Possible answers

 Current channel being watched

 Current volume
 Current video/file/tv program being watched
 Web browser/applications that are running
 Data being downloaded/buffered

The Role of Secondary Storage

Why do you need secondary storage?

 A computer needs secondary storage for long term storage of programs and
data that are currently not in use
 Secondary storage is needed as ROM is read only and RAM is volatile
 Secondary storage holds the programs and data whilst the computer is turned
off (non-volatile)
 Performance of secondary storage is slower than primary storage
but capacity is much higher which makes it perfect for backup & archive of data
files

What are the characteristics of secondary storage?

 Capacity - What is the maximum amount of data that can be stored?

  Speed - How fast can data be read from and written to? (R/W)
 Cost - How much does it cost?
 Portability - How easy is it to move around? What is the physical size? Weight?
 Durability - How robust is the storage?
 Reliability - What is the probability that the device will consistently perform its
function

Worked Example

A games console has secondary storage.

State, using an example, why the games console needs secondary storage [2]

How to answer this question

 They keyword is 'why', why does a games console need secondary storage?
give an example, do not just describe what secondary storage is!

Answer

 To store data once the power is turned off / permanently // for non-volatile
storage
 Examples could include:
o Storing games
o Save games
o User data / profiles
o Downloaded content / applications / updates

 Storage devices are non-volatile secondary storage, that retain digital data
within a computer system
 They provide a means of storing, accessing, and retrieving data, which can
include software applications, documents, images, videos, and more
 There are 3 types of storage:
o Magnetic
 o Solid State
o Optical

Magnetic Storage

What is magnetic storage?

 Magnetic storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses magnets (polarity) to

store binary 0s and 1s
 Magnetic drives contain moving parts which eventually fail

Advantages Disadvantages
Capacity - High storage Durability - Moving parts can get damaged if dropped
Portability - Heavy & bulky making them less
Cost - Low per gigabyte
convenient for transport
Speed - Moderate read/write
Reliability - Prone to mechanical failure (moving parts)
access
Noise - Loud (spinning disks)

Solid State Storage

What is solid state storage?

 Solid state storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses electronic

circuits to store binary 0s and 1s
 Solid state contain no moving parts
 Advantages Disadvantages
Capacity - Medium/high storage Cost - Very high per gigabyte
Speed - Very fast read/write access Reliability - Limited read/write cycles
Durability - No moving parts
Portability - Small and no moving parts
Noise - Silent

Optical Storage

What is optical storage?

 Optical storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses lasers to burn the
surface of a disk, creating pits and lands suitable for storing binary 0s and 1s

Advantages Disadvantages
Cost - Very low per gigabyte Capacity - Very low
Durability - No moving parts Speed - Very slow read/write access
Portability - Small and no moving parts Reliability - Prone to scratches
Noise - Silent

Suitable Storage Devices

How do I choose the right storage device?

 Choosing the right storage device depends on:

o Capacity - How much data needs to be stored?
o Speed - How quickly can the data be read from/written to?
o Cost - How much does it cost?
o Portability - Does the data need to be transported? What is the physical
size? Weight?
 o Durability - How robust is the media?
o Reliability - Does the device to be accessed over and over again?
 In different scenarios, different storage devices are more suitable

Scenario 1 - army laptop

 The army would like a new portable computer than can used whilst 'in the field', it
must be robust enough to withstand a few bumps and easy to transport to new
places. Money is no object

 In this scenario a solid state device would be most suitable

 A solid state device has a high durability which means it can withstand any
bumps or drops, it is small in size and weight which is perfect for a device that
needs to be portable and because money is no object, the high cost is not a
concern

Scenario 2 - school backups

 A school wants to backup all students work twice a day and keep it safe in case
of any emergencies. The cost of the device is very important as the school
 budget is tight and they want a device that can hold terabytes of data in one go to
minimise the amount of devices they would need to buy

 In this scenario a hard disk drive (HDD) would be most suitable

 A hard disk drive has the highest capacity and would limit the amount of devices
they would need to buy, it is also relatively cheap per gigabyte compared to solid
state. Reliability could be an issue but as this is being used for backing up data it
will not be used constantly and would be less of a concern

Scenario 3 - new game release

 An international game studio wants to distribute it's new release for the latest
games consoles. This could potential involve many millions of copies being sold
so the device would have to extremely portable and cheap enough to produce so
that the company do not make a loss. The device needs to be durable enough to
withstand being handled regularly
  In this scenario a Blu-ray (optical) would be most suitable
 A Blu-ray disc is highly portable due to its size and weight and durable enough
because it has no moving parts. The cost is low which is perfect in this scenario
as the company could potentially be selling millions of copies

Embedded Systems

What is an embedded system?

 An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function, inside a

larger mechanical unit
 Its purpose is to control a device and allow a user to interact with it
 Some embedded systems are microcontrollers meaning they are part of an
integrated circuit with built in memory
 Embedded systems often have firmware which is software built into the system
which cannot be reprogrammed by the user.
 Software may be able to be updated e.g. GPS software in a car navigation
system
 Embedded systems usually have some form of analogue or digital input

 Automatic windscreen wipers on a car is an example of an embedded system:

o Rain sensors detect rain
o A signal is sent to the microcontroller
o The microcontroller sends a signal to the wiper motor (type of actuator)
o The wiper motor adjusts power to the motor, controlling wiper speed
 Examples of other embedded systems include
o Heating thermostats
o Hospital equipment
o Washing machines
o Dishwashers
o Coffee machines
o Satellite navigation systems
o Factory Equipment
o Traffic lights
What are the properties of an embedded system?

 They generally use less power than a general-purpose computer, this is a

major consideration for the design of an embedded system
 They are generally small in size
 They generally have a lower cost
 They can operate in real time and respond to inputs very quickly

What is the Internet of Things?

 The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical devices with the ability
to transfer data without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer
interaction
 The IoT is made up of a vast network of embedded devices
 Devices could include:
o Consumer electronics
o Building sensors
o Wearable devices (fitness trackers etc.)
 o Industrial machinery
 The advantages of the IoT include:
o Increased efficiency - automating tasks and processes
o New opportunities - evolving to create new opportunities for business &
individuals
o Convenience - Simply daily lives by automating tasks in the home or
workplace
o Decision making - data collected can drive decision making by providing
valuable insights
 The disadvantages of the IoT include:
o Security - networked devices provide more opportunities for hackers, how
secure are the devices?
o Privacy - Who has access to the data collected/exchanged using these
devices? What actual data is collected? Where is it used?

Worked Example

1) Tick two boxes below to show which are an example of an embedded

system [2]

Is it an example of an embedded system

Laptop
Washing Machine
Mobile Phone
Car Engine Management System
2) Justify your choice to question 1 [2]
1) Tick two boxes below to show which are an example of an embedded system. [2]

Is it an example of an embedded system

Laptop
Washing Machine ✓
Mobile Phone
Car Engine Management System ✓

2) Justify your choice to question 1 [2]

Any two of:

 A washing machine and car engine management system are not general-purpose
computers [1]
 A washing machine and car engine management system have a single purpose
and are both housed inside a larger mechanical unit [1]
 A washing machine and car engine management system have a
microcontroller[1]