Learning unit 1 Philosophising in education

Introduction
In this introductory learning unit we explore what it means to use philosophy in
education and what the value could be for the professional educator. We will see that
philosophy is not an abstract activity, but that it is closely involved in educational
practices and assists us to be become more reflective practitioners.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

Understand the nature and value of Discuss what philosophy in education entails
philosophising in education
Demonstrate an appreciation for the value of
philosophising in education

Explain the relation between philosophising and

educational practices

Provide an outline of the main areas of philosophy

of education

This section provides an orientation by discussing the following questions:

What is philosophising in education?

What is the value of philosophising?

What is the relation between philosophising and educational practices?

How do we philosophise in the African context?

What are the areas of philosophising in education?

Philosophising
Philosophising is something we all do when we wonder about fundamental questions
such as what does it mean to be human, what is good, what is true, what is valuable or
what is just? Your response to these questions reveals the kind of person (subjectivity)
you are, how you relate to others and how you act. Our responses to these questions are,
however, seldom articulated since we do not think about them in an explicit way. These
implicit responses are embedded in our habitual cultural practices or what we call
‘common sense’. We normally go about our daily lives without thinking about these
issues. We only start to think about such questions when we encounter a problem or a
crisis.
This happens when the normal flow of actions is interrupted by an event that does not fit
our expectations or our mental schemes. An event is something that makes us think. One
such a recent event was the Feesmustfall movement in 2016/7 in some SA universities.
The movement was triggered by various forms of inequalities and exclusions and the
eventual nature of this movement could be related to the question about accessible,
relevant and inclusive education. This event forces us to rethink questions such as the
purposes of education in our context, the relevance of educational knowledge and
suitable pedagogies.
Although philosophical conceptualisation and theorisation may appear at times distant
from our lives, they could help us to understand better, and to explore how to live
differently or to imagine a different world. The large bodies of knowledge from the
human, social and natural sciences do not directly address such fundamental questions.
Although these philosophical insights do not tell us exactly how to live, they open our
eyes to understand better and to live differently.
Philosophising is an important element in becoming a professional educator.
Professionalism entails that our knowledge and insights go beyond and at times against
‘common sense’. Although there are often deep insights and wisdom in common sense, it
could also be influenced by ‘fake truths’ and misinformation.

Philosophising
Philosophising in education entails the ability to identify and formulate philosophical
questions related to education, and to think philosophically about these questions. It
requires a close engagement with educational practices and good sense informed by
observation and experience of issues in education. It entails the problematisation of
common beliefs and practices. In this process one critically engages with authors who
have thought about these questions and who develop theories which may help us to
understand the issues better.
You will encounter different exercises in thinking philosophically in education. We start
with our educational practices where we may experience a sense of unease and wonder.
Through the identification and problematisation of the assumptions behind the roles of
participants and their practices, philosophising in education enables us to think
differently in education which may lead to different practices.

Philosophy and educational practices

The way we educate, how we teach, organise learning events or assess assumes answers
to fundamental philosophical questions such as the aims of education, the learning
process or knowledge. Although these answers make our practices possible they are
usually hidden even to ourselves as practitioners. When asked, we could explain why we
do certain things, but even that does not fully or accurately capture what we do. This
articulation is valuable when educators want to reflect on their practices – when they
step back to think about what they are and why they do it. The what and why do not refer
to more efficient ways to achieving a pre-set goal but consider whether the goal itself is
worth pursuing. Philosophising helps us to articulate these deep-seated assumptions by
making them an explicit object of reflection. If, for example, our ontology of the student
(learner) entails that s/he is an empty vessel that needs to be filled with knowledge, our
educational practices will consist of transmitting knowledge. If we conceptualise freedom
in terms of ‘doing what you want’, then education must respond to the needs as expressed
by the learners.
Philosophical questions arise from our encounter with the world. You may, for example,
feel uneasy about the disciplinary practices in the school because they do not seem to
change the behaviour of learners. If you reflect on the disciplinary practices you may
discover that they are based on certain assumptions about the aims of education, the role
of the educator, the pedagogical process or the nature of learners. One such assumption
may be that disciplining is a precondition for education – learners must be disciplined
before education can take place.
You may want to question some of these assumptions, such as those related to corporal
punishment, in the process of developing your own theories about these aspects of
education. You may, for example, realise that disciplining in the school context is related
to disciplinary techniques in society. These theories may enable you to see discipline in a
very different light and to practice certain techniques that relate to your theorising. These
techniques may or may not work which may lead you to rethink or refine your theories
and your practices.
Philosophising will not provide you with new techniques of disciplining, but it will help
you to think about a different approach and to develop your own techniques. Philosophy,
for example, does not ask about the best form of discipline, it rather asks what discipline
is and how it relates to education. By asking these questions we may gain new
perspectives on what discipline in education is and about the most appropriate
approaches. Philosophy does not provide quick answers to practical problems such as the
pragmatic notion of ‘what works best’. It rather asks the questions what ‘working’ means
and why it works. The notion of ‘what works best’ must be understood in a broader
context of the aims of education. Philosophy has a practical value, not in the sense of
providing clear instructions on what to do, but by developing theories and concepts
practitioners may draw on in their response to the dynamic and complex educational
events.
This process illustrates the entanglement between educational practices and
philosophising. While educational philosophising is triggered by problems we encounter
in education, it returns to the practices to establish the value of the theorising.

The value of philosophising

The value of philosophy for educators and for education lies in the way it enables us to
think in a certain way. It enables the professional educator to think creatively and
critically about his/her/their educational practices. This contributes towards the
educators’ autonomy as a professional in the face of the many ways in which this
professionality is being undermined.
Although philosophical thinking does not follow a particular method or arrive at
definitive answers, it contributes to better insight into what we do and why we do it.
Philosophical thinking does not take anything for granted, it does not start from first
principles or foundations that are presumed to be natural, necessary or obviously true. It
conceptualises and theorises through the critical and construction analysis of concepts
and theories.
Contextualising philosophy in education
Although philosophy is mainly a form of thinking, it is not a luxury that takes flight in
theoretical speculations. It is centrally involved in making sense of our world in order to
make this world more habitable (just, equal) for everyone. Philosophy wants to
contribute to our active participation in the continual renewal of the world (Arendt,
1961) is needed. In order to participate it is necessary to both understand the world and
to be able to change it (Marx & Engels, 1969).
While we find ourselves in various contexts, we are not victims of forces outside our
control. Through the process of contextualising we relate ourselves and our task to forces
from outside. Throughout the processes of contextualising we look for ways in which our
active agency is impacted by and could be enhanced by these forces. We need to describe
these contexts in a way that opens windows for our interventions.
Philosophising in education responds to issues such as the following that are associated
with the ‘risk society’(Beck, 1992). Philosophising in education is triggered by what we
encounter in the world that makes us rethink our practices.
• Social conditions (violence, poverty, human displacement)

• Environmental depletion

• Democracy and Political turmoil

• Global economy

• Globalisation

• Africa

The African context which prompts our educational philosophising has become
increasingly important in the post-colonial world. Our philosophising in education in this
module accepts the indigenous, decolonial and African challenges to move away from the
Cartesian view of thinking and certainty where a certain form of (Western, male)
rationality takes precedence.

Areas of philosophising in education

Philosophy in education asks fundamental questions about the aims, the learning and
teaching processes, educational knowledge and the ethics of education. The questions are
fundamental in the sense that they query the basic beliefs and assumption of dominant
educational practices. While philosophy does not tell us exactly what to do and think in a
particular situation or context or set of practices, it helps us to rethink what we are doing
and whether we provide valuable education.
While philosophising in education is a holistic process, we could identify different aspects
of education to use as a focus point. We provide here a brief introduction to these aspects
and will return to them throughout the module.
You will be expected at the end of the module to use these aspects in the articulation of
your own educational philosophy.
You are advised to use these aspects as themes in your reading of the prescribed texts.
Make notes as you work though the module. While these texts are located in a particular
LU and are related to particular activities, they explicitly or implicitly address all the
aspects.
An educational philosophy addresses issues in relation to the following aspects:
Aims and purposes of education

Since education plays such an important role in the shaping of society, the tendency is to
define the aims of education in social terms. We can, however, not see the individual as a
product of the social and have to define the aims of education in individual terms. We will
use the notion of subjectivity to find a way to investigate the relation between the social
and the individual.

Learning and teaching (pedagogy)

This aspect is about the processes of learning and teaching, ontological questions about
the student and the educator as well as the relation between the student and the educator.
It involves questions such as learner-centredness and self-directed learning.
Knowledge in education

It is accepted that education should provide students with powerful knowledge and skills
that would enable them to function fully in society. Questions arise about the relation
between objective and subjective knowledge, or about the relation between different
knowledge traditions (such as the Western, African, Eastern,
to put it simplistically), whether knowledge is perspective- and context-independent, or
whether it is located within a particular context.
Ethics in education

Education itself is an ethical practice since it is associated with notions of improvement

or development both in an individual and in a collective sense. Ethics is also centrally
concerned with relations with oneself, other humans, the living nonhumans and the
nonliving others. Ethics demands respect for all these others, the humanity of other
humans, dignity of the non-human living, the integrity of the non-living others such as
water, trees and minerals. The ethical question in education is about the abilities of
students to develop their values and to live courageously up to these values.
Education and society

Education initiates the young ones into a vision of what a society wants to be. The South
African society wants to be democratic in the sense that the values of participation, equal
rights, freedom and dignity are protected and enhanced. It raises the question about the
kind of education that would contribute towards a democratic society. In a society that
wants to be democratic, the values of democracy permeate every aspect of society such
as schools, religion, culture, and the workplace. What kind of knowledge and skills do
learners need to fully participate in all spheres of society?
Activity 1.1 – Doing philosophy
How do you think could philosophising in education contribute towards your educational
practices?
Post your response in Discussion Forum 1.1.

Conclusion
This LU provided an orientation in educational philosophising. We gained some
perspective on the nature of the relation between philosophy and everyday educational
practices, the need for an own philosophy of education as a professional educator and the
many philosophical issues embedded in our practices.

Additional reading
Learning unit 2: An invitation to philosophise in education

Introduction
This learning unit enables you to philosophise in education by considering the methods
of philosophy in a classroom context. We will see how philosophical skills are integral to
education and could contribute to the development of independent and critical thinking.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

You are invited to philosophise in and about education by achieving the following in this
unit:

Outcomes Assessment criteria

Gain insight into methods and purposes of Evaluate the views of Michalik about
philosophising in education philosophy for children

Appreciate the value of philosophising in Articulate a view on the methods and value of
practising education. philosophy in education

Activity 2.1: Philosophising in education

Study the text of Michalik (2023) and listen to this video on YouTube.
These texts report on how educators and students can philosophise in education by
demonstrating how questions could be asked, a community of enquirers could be
established and the kind of responses that could be generated. It takes philosophy out of
the sphere of complex theories and arguments and into the interactions in the classroom.
While these texts deal with the role of philosophy in the education of children, central
aspects of philosophising emerge that are not only valuable as an integral part of
education itself, but also to the professional practices of the educator.
While reading and listening to these texts, write brief notes on the following:
What kinds of issues are addressed in philosophy?

Comment on the pedagogy in this classroom

What do you think is the educational value of philosophising?

Explain why uncertainty could be valuable in education? Do you think this is

unsettling?

Do you think this uncertainty might assist children to live in the ‘risk society’ as
discussed in LU1?

How does uncertainty influence the roles of students and educators?

 How could philosophising be integrated in the curriculum and the pedagogy of the
school?

Formulate three philosophical questions in education and post them in Discussion

Forum 2.

Conclusion
We have now taken the first steps to explore what it means to philosophise in education
through an engagement with two texts and through our own reflections. You may have
noticed how uncertainty challenges us to think. This unit brings philosophy in the
classroom not as a subject to be taught, but as a way to think beyond the parameters of
fixed knowledge and ready-made answers. The texts also show that philosophy is not
only for philosophers or for adults but is a human activity in which children could
participate.
In this learning unit you have been introduced to the practice of philosophising in
education. In the process you have engaged with authors and started to formulate your
own views. You may also have gained some insight into the value of philosophising for
the professional educator.

Additional reading
Lipman (1982)
Learning unit 3 The educated person

Introduction
After this initial exploration of classroom experiences of philosophy in education, we
proceed to think about one of the central issues in the philosophy of education. This is the
question about educational aims and the ‘educated person’. This is a typical philosophical
question because it asks about the nature of a social practice about which a final answer
cannot be given. The purpose of the investigation is not to arrive at a definite conclusion,
but to gain perspective on what education is about.
We have gained important insights in education from analytic tradition of which RS
Peters is a central figure. He (Peters, 1966) distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic
educational aims. Extrinsic aims separate the educational process from the end result.
Education serves mainly a purpose for something external, such as education for work,
education for citizenship, education for democracy, education for moral living, education
for the economy, education for the 4th Industrial Revolution. In all these cases education
aims at something external to the processes of education.The aim is only reached at the
end of the process and education is instrumental towards such aims. Education is only
useful in so far as it promotes such ends.
Although education will always have such an instrumental role, intrinsic aims refer to
what is achieved during the process of education. For example, education develops
character not as something to be achieved at the end of the process, but inherent to the
very process of educating. The German ideal of education as ‘Bildung’ refers to such an
inherent focus where, according to von Humbolt, a person’s true purpose is ‘the
maximum formation of abilities and skills into a harmonic whole’ (Nordenbo, 2002, p.
345).

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

Critical understanding of different views on the Critically compare different views on the aims of
aims of education education

Articulate your own contextual view on the aims

of education

Activity 3.1: The educated person

The following texts provide different responses to the question about an educated
person. The authors respond to elements in their society/culture/tradition that
undermine educational goals. In the case of Hodgson the idea of the educated person is
contrasted with Western neoliberalism, and in the cases of Jayalakshimi and Rekha, the
authors draw on indigenous (traditional) knowledge to counter the devastating influence
of colonialism. They focus on subjectivity that should be developed in education.
 Hodgson (2010). This student paper responds to the way the regime of
governmentality in the knowledge economy of the West affects education. It
draws on insights from Foucault to critique the ways education promotes the
visibility of an ‘entrepreneurial self’. She argues that an understanding of this
context is needed to develop a different notion of the self as the aim of education.
Hodgson develops a view of an educated person through an engagement with
key philosophers such as Plato and Foucault. Here we can see how the
conceptualisation of an educated person responds to a particular context.

Jayalakshmi and Rekha (2022). The authors discuss the notion of the personal
(subjectivity) by drawing on the Indian educational and philosophical traditions.
Education is for them centrally about knowledge of the self and the relation with
the world. They also develop arguments for an education in harmony with the
world. They develop a view of education for a democratic society today that
draws on age-old traditions.

Wiredu (2004). This author also opposes colonial education by drawing on African
traditions. While he develops a contextual philosophy of education the value of
the article lies more in the strategy he uses to develop such a philosophy. In this
process he invites others to develop their own philosophical perspectives in
response to their educational contexts.

Guiding questions:
How do each of the authors in their own way develop a contextual view of an
educated person in contrast to oppressive regimes of power?

How do each of the authors draw critically on their traditions (Greek/Western,

Indian, African) to develop a view of education for today?

Do you think these particular perspectives are relevant to your own thinking about
the aims of education?

Conclusion
We notice from these perspectives that a final and universal answer to the question about
educational aims and the educated person cannot be provided. The responses of the
authors show how their understanding of education speaks to their contexts and to the
kinds of challenges that are being encountered. We can, however, learn from the ways
they respond to their contexts and how they draw on their traditions.
We have seen above how conceptions of the educated person do not aim to be universal
but respond to a particular context. Philosophy takes seriously the context where
education takes place and aims to develop insights that would assist us to become
participants in the shaping of our world.

Additional reading
Learning unit 4 Knowledge and sensemaking

Introduction
We noticed in the previous LU that at least a certain level of knowledge and skills are
included in the notion of an educated person. The acquisition of powerful knowledge and
skills enables the student to not only participate in the economy but mainly to develop a
sense of self and to participate in democratic processes through which all aspects of
society are shaped.

Outcomes and Assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

The ability to critically reflect on educational Provide a critical perspective on aspects of

knowledge and the curriculum educational knowledge and the curriculum.

Explain the limitations of ‘common sense’ in

education.

Understand how sensemaking could be part of the Explain the possibilities of ‘sensemaking’ in the
generation of knowledge in education projects of Africanisation and Decolonisation

Educational knowledge
The generation of knowledge is a central aspect of education and educational research.
Educational knowledge is often understood as developing and querying common sense.
Common sense is understood here as the commonly agreed on knowledge. This is not the
same as ‘popular sense’ which refers to all kinds of knowledge, often misinformation,
superstition that circulates freely. There are, however, many examples of how education
goes against common sense such as scientific concepts. Common sense is also a weak
basis of education in the light of ‘post truth’ misinformation.
It is a part of education to develop common sense, the knowledge of the common world
as understood by Arendt includes everyday knowledge and the accumulated knowledge
of humanity. This means that students must be initiated into the knowledge practices and
traditions of the different disciplines such as History and Mathematics. These knowledges
are powerful since they enable us to function in society.
But, is the ability to successfully function in society the main aim of education? Should
education not also enable subjectivities that would contribute towards the renewal of
society? Is it adequate for education to transfer existing knowledge and known skills?

Introducing Deleuze
Snir discusses the relevance for education of Deleuze’s notion of ‘making sense’. Making
sense is opposed to the dogmatism of rationalism which takes the cogito for granted, and
the dogmatism of ‘common sense’, the uncritical acceptance of every knowledge. The
anti-dogmatic renewal of thought is based on the recognition of differences. When
representation replaces an object with a concept, differences between objects are ignored
and identity (sameness) is confirmed. This affirmation of identity constitutes ‘good sense’
and ‘common sense’. It refers to the familiarity of everyday experiences, as well as
accepted scientific knowledges.
Deleuze and Guattari asserts that education as bound to common sense neutralises
unorthodox thinking. This is for them a necessary part of education since we have to
recognise and agree on concepts and objects. They claim, however, that this act of
recognition does not constitute thinking, and education limited to common sense is not
real education.
Real education starts to take place when we go against common sense and we start to
make sense. Making sense is different from saying something meaningfully. A statement
is meaningful if it could be understood by others in relation to what is known, such as
‘this is a table’. A typical example of common sense in education is when a teacher asks a
question of which the answer is already known by the teacher. Students are initiated into
what is already known.
We make sense, however, when we state something important that makes a difference
and that goes against common sense. Deleuze draws on Kant’s notion of the sublime to
refer to this kind of knowledge. It is not the kind of thinking that recognises something as
familiar or the same as something else. Real thinking is triggered when one encounters
an event, something in the world that is startling, puzzling, not recognisable ̶ a problem
for which no predefined solutions exist.
Education is partly about the acquisition of common sense, but cannot be limited by that
since it only succeeds to make us part of what exists (status quo). Making sense is a
disruptive (political, decolonial) action since it goes against the accepted (dominant)
ideas. The kind of thinking that disrupts the taken for granted is triggered by an
event/encounter. Such events need to be large dramatic encounters, but could be
triggered by every day, mundane experiences such as, according to Proust, could be
uneven paving stones.
Snir discusses Deleuze’s example of learning: swimming in the ocean from which various
aspects of teaching/learning transpire such as the role of the teacher; how learning does
not assume anything solid or certain; the holistic experience (body and mind) of learning.

Activity 4.1: The creation of sense

Read Snir (Snir, 2018)
The following questions could guide your reading:
How does Deleuze criticise ‘common’ and ‘good’ sense?

How does ‘making sense’ differ from ‘common sense’ and ‘good sense’?

How is ‘difference in itself’ a trigger for innovative thinking?

How is learning different from thinking?

 How can learning to swim be an example of education?

Are there similarities between ‘making sense’ and African forms of learning?

Have you experienced encounters that made you think? Can you think of anything ‘in
the world’ that makes you think?

Conclusion
This LU provides a perspective on the role of thinking in education and how thinking goes
beyond accepted knowledge and traditions. Education for thinking cold potentially
contribute to the multiplication of knowledge that respond creatively to the many
challenges we experience.

Additional reading
Bogue (2008)
Learning unit 5 Pedagogy

Introduction
The term ‘pedagogy’ originally means the leading out of the child. As an academic
discipline in education it has been associated more narrowly with the methods of
teaching. We will use the concept pedagogy here in the original sense. Pedagogy is
centrally about the relation between the educator and the student and the transactions
that take place. Who is the educator in this relation and what is his/her/their role? What
is the status and role of the student?

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

Articulate an own view on pedagogy Discuss how inequalities are being perpetuated in
education.

Critically evaluate Rancière’ s pedagogy of

equality

A pedagogy of equality
In his overview of the ideas of Rancière, Biesta (2010) shows how his theory of politics
relates to the principles of equality and emancipation in education. Education cannot be
separated from democratic politics since it develops a subjectivity that disrupts all forms
of inequality and exclusion. A central issue in the pedagogy of Rancière is the Kantian
paradox: ‘How do I cultivate freedom through coercion?’ Rancière wants to overcome the
Kantian ‘pedagogy of emancipation’ that is based on the inequality between educator and
student.
In this section we focus on Rancière pedagogy. He traces the origins of social inequalities
to a pedagogical relation where the student is seen as ignorant and in need of
enlightenment and the educator is knowledgeable. Rancière bases his pedagogy on the
principle of equality. He asserts the equality of the intelligence of those deemed unequal,
such as the educator and the student. Once equal intelligence is recognised, the role of the
educator in the pedagogical relation is questioned. You will notice that Biesta emphasises
two tasks of the emancipated educator: s/he/they interrogates and verifies.

Activity 5.1: Equal intelligence

Read Rancière (2010)
Your reading could be assisted by the following questions
How are inequalities in the ‘pedagogical society’ perpetuated? How could this be
related to inequalities related to ‘race’ and ‘gender’?

How could the concept ‘equal intelligence’ contribute to equal education?

 In what sense must the educator be ‘ignorant’?

What is the role of the educator in emancipatory education?

What are the pedagogical strategies of the emancipatory educator?

In which sense is the notion of ‘equal intelligence’ present in traditional African

culture?

How does the ‘authority of the will’ enhance the exercise of equal intelligence?

Conclusion
While the notion of intellectual equality brings us to the heart of the pedagogical relation,
it should not be equated with a popular democratic idea of equality that undermines the
role of the teacher. A careful reading of Rancière (2010) shows how the educator’s
‘authority of the will’ enables the intellectual emancipation of the student.

Additional readings
Galloway (2012)
Hallward (2005)
Vlieghe (2016)
Learning unit 6 Education and equality

Introduction
We encounter in education various kinds of inequalities in relation to race, class, gender,
place, etc. Not all students have the same opportunities, access to the same quality of
teaching, resources and infrastructure. The division between the groups is so deep that
there are actually two education systems in South Africa: a minority of the schools
(private and state) for the privileged, and the majority of schools for the underprivileged
(Right to Education).
Various manifestations and causes of these inequalities have been investigated and
solutions have been proposed. In this LU we investigate the issue from a critical-
philosophical perspective.
While its analysis of the root causes of inequality is important, the philosophical issues
relate to the aims of education, pedagogy (the educational processes), the relation
between the educator and the student, and critical literacy.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

An understanding of the role of education in the An explanation of the basic elements of a social
promotion of social justice justice pedagogy

Discussion of ways in which social justice could be

enhanced in the classroom and the school

A critical-philosophical perspective
Critical perspectives are motivated by the values of equality, justice and human dignity.
Paulo Freire is one of the first educators to draw on critical theories to develop an
education for liberation.

Activity 6.1 – education and social justice

Parker (2015) draws on the views of Karl Marx and Paulo Freire to develop a pedagogy
of social justice.
Read Parker and respond to the following questions:
How does Parker present the relation between education and society?

Which encounters trigger Parker’s thinking about education?

How could educators move away from ‘banking education’ towards ‘problem-
posing’ education?
 How does your reading of these texts assist you to experience new encounters that
help you to think about the underlying causes of inequalities? Post your answer
to this question in Discussion Forum 6.

Conclusion
We see in this LU how thinking is triggered by encounters in the world (as discussed in
LU 1). Our thinking goes beyond the observations of inequalities and social injustices to
identify the underlying conditions, mechanisms and ideas in society that perpetuate and
maintain such inequalities and injustices.

Additional readings
McLaren (McLaren, 2005)
Giroux (2005)
Learning unit 7 Democracy, freedom and human rights

Introduction
We have seen in LU 1 that democracy is one way to contextualise our work as educators.
While a notion such as ‘education for democracy’ points to an instrumentalist view of
education, we need to explore how education and democracy are internally related. This
means that the principles and dispositions of democracy are developed in education.
Democracy is centrally about the active participation of all in the establishment of the
common world. It is in opposition to an oligarchy where a small group determines society.
Various formal defining features are used such as free media, regular elections, an
independent legal system, human rights, civil society. These elements do, however, not
guarantee that a society is democratic in the sense that everyone participates in an equal
way or that the freedom, equality and dignity of everyone is recognised.
These important formal elements are present in the South African democracy governed
by the Constitution. None of these formal elements could, however, guarantee democracy.
The press is not free if it is owned by a small group; elections are not free and fair if votes
could be bought; human rights have no teeth if they are not protected, the legal system is
not fair if the rich enjoy preferential treatment, participation is non-existent if
governance takes place by a political elite.
There are no guarantees that a society will remain democratic. The protection and
expansion of democracy is dependent on the ability of ordinary people to understand and
commit to the processes of democratisation and to use these instruments to ensure and
promote democracy.
South Africa is an emergent democracy which means that the constitutional principles of
equality and freedom have to permeate society. Education is part of the process of the
democratisation of society. This relates to all aspects of education such as the way
knowledge is generated and distributed, educational institutions are governed, the
curriculum is created, and classrooms are managed, and the nature of pedagogy and
assessment. The educational question is about the ways education could contribute
towards the democratisation of society.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

A critical understanding of the relation between Explain how democratic values permeate all
education and democracy aspects of education such as pedagogy,
curriculum and knowledge

Activity 7.1 – education and democracy

Read Dewey (1916) in the light of the following questions:
For Dewey, democratic education deals centrally about the ability to freely associate in a
way that respects differences as well as the search for commonalities.
How does Dewey critique the Platonic educational ideal?

How does Dewey critique the ‘individualistic’ ideal in education?

How does Dewey critique the ‘national and social’ ideal in education?

Dewey lays down two principles for democratic interaction:

o Principle (1): How numerous and varied are the interests that are
consciously shared?

o Principle (2): How full and free is the interplay with other forms of
association?

Principle (1) refers to the relations within a group and principle (2) to the
relation with other groups.

In relation to principle (1), how could diversity be investigated within groups?

In relation to principle (2), how could similarities between groups be

investigated?

How do these two principles prevent both the tyranny and isolation of groups?

How would you define ‘freedom’ and ‘human rights’ in the light of this reflection on
the views of Dewey?

How could education contribute towards the continuing democratisation of society?

Post your response to this question in Forum 7.

Conclusion
We have investigated in this LU how democracy and education are mutually dependent
on each other: The development of democratic values, skills and dispositions are essential
for the development and projection of a democratic society. Our focus on the nature of
associations suggests a preference for a certain kind of democracy to emerge.

Additional reading
Biesta (2011)
Mattes et al. (2012)
Young (2001)
Learning unit 8 Africanisation and decolonisation in education

Introduction
We have emphasised from the beginning that philosophy responds to and arises from a
particular context. It works with the wisdom within the indigenous knowledge traditions
to deepen insights into modes of being and becoming.
We investigate in this LU how the forces of coloniality suppress attempts to philosophise
context and how sources of wisdom and insight could contribute to philosophies of
education that speak to the African context.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

We work towards the following outcomes and assessment criteria in this LU:

Outcomes Assessment Criteria

A critical understanding of the relation between Articulate an own understanding of the concepts
coloniality, Africanisation and indigenisation coloniality, Africanisation and indigenisation

Encounters
We encounter in education how African learners are alienated from a neoliberal western
(colonial) educational structure, curriculum and way of thinking. The coloniality of the
mind and the body is the most pervasive form of alienation at the root of the high number
of children dropping out or failing. The western world is associated with an unembodied
rationality, individualism and competitiveness. This is in stark contrast to indigenous
forms of thinking and living where community and embodiedness are emphasised.
The #Feesmustfall movement of 2015/6 pointed to the need for full access to education
through the Africanisation and decolonisation of the curriculum. This mostly entails the
inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the curriculum, although different
views exist about the way in which it should be done. The views range from ‘de-linking’
(Mignolo, 2007) indigenous knowledges from the western knowledges to the integration
or infusion of indigenous knowledges into the curriculum.
While all these issues are worth investigating, this LU wants to frame the issues in a
particular way. It uses the notion of ‘styles of reasoning’ as a way to investigate the
relevance of African thinking in education. Hacking (1992) shows how different styles of
reasoning have developed historically in science and how each style introduces new
concepts, criteria of knowledge, objects, etc. The styles of reasoning refer to how
knowledge is generated and what is seen as legitimate.
The central question we will investigate in this unit is how the notion of ‘styles of
reasoning’ provides a way to appreciate the role of indigenous knowledges and
pedagogies in education.
Provocations
Before we investigate this further the following comments are meant to provoke your
thinking:
The unity and diversity of the human race. Styles of reasoning (paradigms) develop
in particular contexts. One could also not divorce the dominance of some styles
from the geopolitical power distribution such as colonialism or coloniality. The
unity of the human race refers to our common destiny on earth and the ethical
notions of equal dignity and intelligence. Since different cultures and languages
develop within geographical locations, reality is seen differently. In the modern
world these cultures are brought close together, which raises the question of
their interrelationship. A notion of knowledge and truth that developed in one
context is different from how it developed in another.

The unity of the human race also refers to the ‘conversation of humankind’ (Rorty,
1979). The conversation does not mean that everybody speaks the same
language or thinks the same – it is exactly the opposite. The conversation is
about the meaning of human life, the values that govern our lives, the best form
of government, valuable knowledge and skills. The conversation continues
amidst the multiple answers that are given. It is necessary for this conversation
that multiple voices participate since an ultimate answer cannot be given to
these questions. During warfare and colonialism some groups attempt to impose
their answers on others. But, as Foucault (1983) reminds us, resistance emerges
within situations of oppression. This is the case with the decolonial and
indigenous movements who resist the answers imposed through domination.

The diversity of responses does not mean that everyone has their own truths since
every ‘truth’ at which we arrive is temporary and open to revision. The
conversation of humankind also means that we can understand each other in
spite of the differences through ‘empathy’.

Identity and culture are dynamic processes. Cultures are not static entities but
change in response to various factors such as interactions with other cultures
and with changing circumstances.

One culture can truly learn from another under conditions of equality. While the
western colonial powers thought they knew the ‘natives’, their position of power
blinded them from understanding and appreciating the cultures they oppressed.

Cultures are ambiguous in the sense that there are both good and bad elements. Not
all the beliefs and practices in a culture are valuable/good for all the members of
the culture or for the environment. This is also the case with education in a
particular culture or society – there are good and bad elements

While judgements of another culture are often made, care must always be taken not
to take the own culture as the norm. An attempt to valorise every element of
 ‘traditional African education’ is as flawed as the uncritical celebration of
‘western’ education.

Education is part of cultural development/renewal/growth. It is part of the way

cultures develop dynamically.

The question one should therefore ask here is about the organising concepts that
would assist African education to decolonise itself and to make a contribution to
the conversation of humankind.

‘Western education’ is a broad concept that cannot do justice to the diversity of

approaches in the West.

Organising concepts are basic metaphors, ideas that structure or experience the
world.

Coloniality
The projects of indigenisation and Africanisation is part of the global project of
decolonisation. Through this project multiple local voices emerge that do not only
challenge the hegemony of coloniality, but that present us with new ethics about our
relations with other humans and with the earth.
The concept ‘coloniality’ differs from the concept ‘colonialism’ since it refers to the
pervasive remnants of colonialism. While colonialism ended with the emancipation of the
colonies, the oppressive remnants within terrains such as the political, economic, cultural
and epistemic persist to expose the erstwhile colonies to continued extraction and
servitude.

Activity 8.1: /Coloniality

Read Maldonado-Torres (2007) who is one of the most articulate proponents of
decoloniality. The following questions could guide your reading:
• Note the difference between coloniality and colonialism.

• While Heidegger finds authenticity in the face of death, death is an everyday

experience of the colonised. Comment.

• How does ‘the cry’ animate theory and critical thought?

• The ‘trans-ontological’ refers to the priority of the relation with the other as
understood by Levinas. How is the ‘trans-ontological’ different from the ‘sub-
ontological’?

• Provide a summary Maldonado-Torres’ view of decolonisation. How would you

define decoloniality. Does decoloniality only refer to the negative processes of
‘de-linking’ and ‘de-colonise’? What are the positive implications?
 • Decolonisation means for Maldonado-Torres, the ‘restoration of the logic of the
gift’. How could this positive meaning of decolonisation contribute to a different
world?

• Describe examples of coloniality in your context. Post your response in

discussion Forum 8.

Activity 8.2: Organising concepts, metaphors and proverbs for education in Africa
In this activity we investigate decoloniality in an African context through the projects of
Africanisation and indigenisation.
Read Goduka (2000)
• Which of the concepts, metaphors and proverbs discussed by Goduka captures
for you the aims and nature of education in an African context? Are there other
African concepts, metaphors or proverbs that describe what education is about?
Explain.

Read Ewert (1981)

• How could the metaphors of the orange tree and the doctor be understood to
address the problem of coloniality?

• Reflect on the role of indigenous knowledges in decoloniality.

Respond to the following question in Discussion Forum 9 through your engagement with
the two texts.
• How could these insights assist you to transform the curriculum and pedagogy?

• Do you think these insights could assist to bring community and school in closer
proximity?

Conclusion
African cultures are rich in concepts, traditions, metaphors and stories that should not be
prematurely captured by organising ideas. This module does not aim to impose such
organising ideas, but rather exposes you to a variety of perspectives that might resonate
with indigenous knowledges and philosophies.
African thinking has been suppressed for ages and is only now slowly awakening by
discovering itself. This is inevitably a slow process that cannot be accelerated through
shortcuts and hasty solutions.

Additional reading
Goduka (2005)
Learning unit 9 Ethics in Education

Introduction
We encounter in education many instances of unethical practices, behaviour and systems.
We encounter the absence of ethics in inter alia the high levels of violence and abuse in
schools, student experiences of forms of alienation and exclusion, the subjection of
students’ subjectivities to the dominant discourses of neoliberalism.
We have seen in previous LUs that education is an ethical practice since it aims to
improve, empower and equip the individual, and to contribute to the betterment of
society. Education is also a very sensitive practice since it mostly engages young people
in their forming years. It is therefore important for educators to consider the ethical
issues in education.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

An understanding of ethical issues in education Articulate the personal and social good education
aims to promote.

Activity 9.1 – The ethics of the self

Reread where Hodgson (2010) explains Foucault’s notion of the self.
You have also encountered in the text of Maldonado-Torres (2007) in LU 7 a discussion
of Levinas’ ethics of the gift that is contrasted with the ‘non-ethics of war’.
Read in particular Ollson (1999) on Foucault’s ethics of the self.
Guiding questions:
What is the relation between ethics and morality?

What is the ‘aesthetics of the self’?

What is the relation between ethics and freedom? Identify various forms of
‘enslavement’ in areas such as education, modern and traditional culture,
religion.

How is ‘ascesis’ possible in a fast-pacing world overlaid by media messages?

In what sense is ethics political?

How could the ethics of the self contribute towards the development of a powerful
(activist) subjectivity (autonomy)?

What is the difference between ‘care for the self’ and ‘narcissism’?
 How is knowledge of the world intrinsically linked to ‘care for the self’?

What are the differences between ‘care for the self ’ and modern (Western)
individualism? What is the relation between care for the self and care for others?

Which ‘techniques of the self’ are present in African cultures?

What do you think is the relation between care for the self and educating the self?

How could listening skills be developed?

Why is writing important for care of the self?

How could we foster ethics in education? Post your response in Discussion Forum
10.

Conclusion
The ethics of the self is a key element of ethics in education. You will have noticed that
the focus on the self is not a preference for the individual in isolation of the social, since
the care for the self is bounded to the care for others. The importance of the other is
highlighted by Levinas’ notion of the ethics of the gift. These perspectives on ethics could
be related to Ubuntu.

Additional reading
Learning unit 10 Towards an own philosophy in education

Introduction
In the introduction to the module you have been exposed to the key areas of philosophy
of education (aims, teaching and learning, knowledge, society, ethics). Throughout the
module you have engaged with texts that focus on one or more of these areas. Although
the authors seldom explicitly state which of these areas they address, one could detect
the different components of a philosophy of education while studying the texts. It is also
clear from the reading of the various texts that these elements cannot be neatly separated
when we develop a philosophy of education.
You received the task at the beginning of the module to make notes related to all these
aspects of an educational philosophy. These notes will be valuable for this LU.
The purpose of this LU is to provide an opportunity to develop an own philosophy of
education in which all the areas are addressed. Any of these areas could be used as an
entry point, or a framework.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Outcomes Assessment criteria

The articulation of an own philosophy of Write a coherent philosophical essay in which an

education own view of education is presented

Engage critically with the authors encountered in

the module

Draw on the own context and knowledge

traditions in an authentic response

Activity 10.1: Engaging with educational philosophies

To assist you in the articulation of your own philosophy of education, study the
following three texts where such a philosophy is formulated:
Dewey: My pedagogic creed (1897)

Biesta and Säfström: A manifesto for education (2011)

Hodgson, Vlieghe and Zamojski (2017, pp. 15–22)

Identify in each of the above texts the authors’ views on the following aspects of an
educational philosophy:
Aims of education

Pedagogy (teaching) and learning, including views on the nature and roles of the
educator and the student
 Educational knowledge and the curriculum

Ethics in education

Education and society (democracy)

Provide your response to any of these tasks in Discussion Forum 11.

Conclusion
You had the opportunity in this LU to start articulating your own philosophy of education.
This is the focus of the last assignment.

Additional reading