Road Materials and Pavement Design

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Feasibility study of milled and crushed reclaimed

asphalt pavement for application in unbound
granular layers

Ana Cristina Freire, José Manuel Coelho das Neves, António José Roque,
Isabel Milagre Martins & Maria de Lurdes Antunes

To cite this article: Ana Cristina Freire, José Manuel Coelho das Neves, António José Roque,
Isabel Milagre Martins & Maria de Lurdes Antunes (2021) Feasibility study of milled and
crushed reclaimed asphalt pavement for application in unbound granular layers, Road
Materials and Pavement Design, 22:7, 1500-1520, DOI: 10.1080/14680629.2019.1701539

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2019.1701539

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Road Materials and Pavement Design, 2021
Vol. 22, No. 7, 1500–1520, https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2019.1701539

Feasibility study of milled and crushed reclaimed asphalt pavement for

application in unbound granular layers
Ana Cristina Freire a , José Manuel Coelho das Neves b∗
, António José Roque a
, Isabel
Milagre Martinsa and Maria de Lurdes Antunes a
a LaboratórioNacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisboa, Portugal; b CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

(Received 5 March 2019; accepted 23 November 2019 )

The assessment of performance is vital to ensure confidence in recycled materials. This paper
presents a technical and environmental feasibility study of using reclaimed asphalt pave-
ment (RAP), processed by milling and crushing, in pavement unbound granular layers. An
experimental programme was undertaken to address the geometrical, physical, mechanical
and environmental properties. The crushed RAP showed the best performance whereas milled
RAP has had to be mixed with a natural aggregate to improve its properties. The laboratory
and lysimeter leaching tests indicated that RAP does not pose environmental risk. The overall
results highlighted the viability of using both RAP types for the aforementioned purpose.
Keywords: pavement; reclaimed asphalt pavement; unbound granular material; lysimeter;
leaching test

Introduction
The construction sector is a representative example of a linear model of economy leading to sig-
nificant and unnecessary loss of resources. Nevertheless, the increased awareness of resource
efficiency has led, in recent years, to a shift towards a circular economy by changing the
behaviours of consumption, utilisation and recovery of resources in construction activities.
In this respect, noteworthy are the efforts made by the European Commission (EC) to acceler-
ate the appropriate management of construction and demolition waste (CDW). Particular mention
is made of the Waste Framework Directive, 2008/98/EC (Official Journal of the European Union,
2008), which sets a target of 70% for preparing CDW for reuse, recycling and other recovery
operations, and the European Union (EU) CDW Management Protocol (European Commission,
2016), which fosters confidence in recycled materials from CDW. Recently, the EC has reviewed
waste management legislation applied in the EU with a view to promote the circular economy
regarding the products life cycle by recycling and reusing materials, with significant impact on
the environment (European Commission, 2015).
CDW recycling is increasingly becoming a common sustainable engineering practice with
relevant benefits from the technical, environmental, economic and social viewpoints, in partic-
ular as regards transport infrastructures (Arulrajah, Disfani, Horpibulsuk, Suksiripattanapong,
& Prongmanee, 2014a; Arulrajah, Piratheepan, Disfani, & Bo, 2013; Ayan, Limbachiya, Omer,
& Azadani, 2014; Camargo, Wen, Edil, & Son, 2013; Cerni, Cardone, & Bocci, 2012; EAA,

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1501

2015; EAPA, 2016; FHWA, 2016; Fische & Werge, 2009; Limbachiya, 2010; Medina, Zhu,
Howind, Frías, & Sánchez de Rojas, 2015; Sangiorgi, Lantieri, & Dondi, 2015; Saride, Puppala,
& Williammee, 2010; Vieira & Pereira, 2015). Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), one of the
most common CDW in transport infrastructures, is a good example of this when used in wear
layers (closed loop recycling). However, it is noted that other solutions need to be sought to
avoid excess of CDW even though they may correspond to open loop recycling. Their use in
unbound granular layers (base, sub-base and capping layers) of road pavements, as well as in
unpaved roads, can be one of the applications, avoiding the extraction of non-renewable natural
aggregates (Jiménez, Ayuso, Galvín, López, & Agrela, 2012; Vieira & Pereira, 2015) and perme-
able pavement systems (Rahman, Imteaz, Arulrajah, Piratheepan, & Disfani, 2015; Saride et al.,
2010). Promoting the use of recycled aggregates in transport infrastructures necessarily involves
determining the properties and performance of materials, by prescribing specifications and design
methods conducive to improved road pavements (Ebrahimi, Kootstra, Edil, & Benson, 2012;
Edil, 2011).
Recycled aggregates obtained from crushed concrete and crushed mixed concrete, represent
an important source of civil engineering construction materials. In fact, several studies have
confirmed that these types of recycled materials are a good alternative to the use of natural aggre-
gates for road pavement layers (Barbudo, Agrela, Ayuso, Jiménez, & Poon, 2012; Blankenagel
& Guthrie, 2006; Camargo et al., 2013; Gabr & Cameron, 2012; Jiménez et al., 2012; Jiménez,
Agrela, Ayuso, & López, 2011; Leite, Motta, Vasconcelos, & Bernucci, 2011; Melbouci, 2009;
Poon & Chan, 2006; Vegas, Ibañez, Lisbona, Sáez de Cortazar, & Frías, 2011).
Actually, most roads worldwide consist of asphalt concrete, and, hence, RAP deriving from
the crushing and milling processes is a common material in road rehabilitation and reconstruction
(EAPA, 2016). In addition to applications in asphalt mixtures (Daniel, Pochily, & Boisvert, 2010;
El Sharkawy, Wahdan, & Galal, 2017; Howard, Doyle, & Cox, 2013; Valdés, Pérez-Jiménez,
Miró, Martínez, & Botella, 2011; Xie et al., 2017; Zaumanisa, Mallicka, & Frank, 2014) or
cement-based materials (Mathias, Sedran, & Larrard, 2009; Nguyen et al., 2017; Shi, Mukhopad-
hyay, & Zollinger, 2018; Xuan, Molenaar, & Houben, 2015), the use in unbound granular layers
is a sustainable alternative for the application of RAP material (Alam, Abdelrahman, & Schram,
2010; Anand, Puppala, Saride, & Williammee, 2012; Arulrajah, Piratheepan, & Disfani, 2014b;
Bilodeau, Doré, & Depatie, 2013; Hoppe, Lane, Fitch, & Shetty, 2015; Luo, 2014; Melton &
Kestler, 2013; Montepara, Tebaldi, Marradi, & Betti, 2012; Stolle, Guo, & Emery, 2014; Wu,
2014).
During the last two decades, several important research projects regarding the promotion of
CDW have been developed. The project ALT-MAT – ALTernative MATerials in road construc-
tion project – aimed to encourage the wider use of alternative materials in road construction.
This project was intended to provide information to bridge the gap between laboratory tests
and field behaviour. The objective was to define the methods by which the suitability of alter-
native materials for use in road construction could be evaluated. The methods covered aspects
such as mechanical properties, functional requirements, leaching potential and long-term stabil-
ity of materials and was mainly focused on unbound granular materials (European Commission,
2001). The project SAMARIS – Sustainable and Advanced MAterials for Road InfraStructure
– in the part – Pavement stream – intended to promote the use of recycled and secondary mate-
rials in pavements by specifying how such materials are to be selected and tested in order to
ensure an adequate performance, from both the environmental and the functional viewpoints.
Another key objective, also supporting the case for an increased and more appropriate use
of both recycled and alternative materials, was to prepare for the standardisation challenge of
changing the specifications of materials from a recipe based approach to a performance based
1502 A.C. Freire et al.

approach (SAMARIS, 2004). HISER – Holistic Innovative Solutions for an Efficient Recycling
and Recovery of Valuable Raw Materials from Complex Construction and Demolition Waste, a
most recently developed project, has as main objective to develop and demonstrate innovative
cost-effective holistic solutions, considering a higher recovery of raw materials from continually
more complex construction and demolition waste and taking into consideration circular economy
approaches throughout the building value chain (HISER, n.d.).
The project SUPREMA – Sustainable Application of Construction and Demolition Recycled
Materials in Road Infrastructures, carried out by the National Laboratory for Civil Engineering
(LNEC), in cooperation with the University of Lisbon (UL), aimed to assess the feasibility of
using CDW recycled aggregates in the base, sub-base and capping layers of road pavements, and
to respond to the issues raised by the national and international technical community concerning
their recycling. This study included a detailed experimental programme, comprising a laboratory
characterisation aimed to evaluate the geometrical, physical and mechanical features, as well as
in-situ tests, which were performed on instrumented experimental test sections built with several
selected CDW materials and a reference natural aggregate. The studied aggregates consisted of
crushed and milled RAP, crushed mixed concrete and natural crushed limestone aggregate as
reference material. In-situ loading test series were performed with the Falling Weight Deflec-
tometer (FWD), for measuring deflections of the base layer constituted by both recycled and
natural aggregates (Freire et al., 2013; LNEC/IST, 2013).
Besides the assessment of the technical performance of road infrastructures, their envi-
ronmental performance was also evaluated to prevent the potential contamination of surface
water, groundwater and soil due to the use of recycled materials. The ALT-MAT project used
different tools, a column leaching test and a batch leaching test, to study in laboratory the
release of dangerous substances from granular materials applied in road construction (Euro-
pean Commission, 2001). The column test results have provided a more realistic replication
than the batch test (European Commission, 2001), since the conditions for carrying out the
column test are closer to the field conditions. However, several authors (LNEC/IST, 2013;
SAMARIS, 2004) have reported that batch tests provide reliable results, although possibly con-
servative compared to those obtained in column tests and in field leaching tests carried out in
lysimeters.
Regarding the environmental behaviour of the CDW selected for SUPREMA project, leaching
tests also assessed the release of contaminants. From among the wide range of standardised
leaching tests (Cappuyns & Swennen, 2008; CEN, 2004; Delay, Lager, Schulz, & Frimmel, 2007;
Ecke & Åberg, 2006; Galvín, Ayuso, Agrela, Barbudo, & Jiménez, 2013; Grathwohl & Susset,
2009; Hage & Mulder, 2004; Van der Sloot & Dijkstra, 2004), lysimeters were made to compare
the release of contaminants in-situ with the outcomes from the batch test performed in laboratory
according to the standardised procedures of EN 12457-4 and EN 1744-3.
Literature review have revealed, in general, the feasibility of using RAP obtained from milling
processes in unbound granular layers, but rarely for RAP obtained from crushing processes. The
chief goal and novelty of this paper is to analyse not only the technical feasibility but also the
environmental feasibility to use both milled and crushed RAP as unbound granular materials for
constructing road pavement layers on the basis of their geometrical, physical, mechanical and
environmental properties. It also presents a comparative assessment of the properties of these two
recycled aggregates with the RMC and the AGE. Regarding the recycling process, crushed RAP
showed the best geometrical, physical, and mechanical properties. In the case of milled RAP, it
was necessary to mix it with the AGE to improve its properties. The laboratory and lysimeter
leaching tests also point to the fact that the two recycled aggregates from asphalt recycling do
not pose environmental risk. The overall results highlighted the feasibility of using both recycled
aggregates in unbound base, sub-base and capping layers of road pavements.
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1503

Materials and methods

Two RAP samples from different recycling processes were included in the experimental
programme (Figure 1): a crushed RAP (c-RAP) (Figure 1(a)) and a milled RAP (m-RAP)
(Figure 1(b)), obtained from crushing of leftovers related to bituminous mixtures production
and from wearing course milling, respectively. In addition, two other crushed aggregates were
included in the laboratory assessment as reference materials: a mixed concrete aggregate (RMC)
(Figure 1(c)), and a natural limestone aggregate (AGE) (Figure 1(d)).
The laboratory characterisation of recycled aggregates was based on the requirements of the
Portuguese Technical Specifications LNEC E 473 (2009) and LNEC E 474 (2009), which were
used as guides for the application of recycled aggregates from CDW. LNEC E 473 (2009) estab-
lishes the requirements that the recycled aggregates covered by EN 13242 + A1 and EN 13285
must meet in order to be used in unbound sub-base and base pavement layers. LNEC E 474
(2009) establishes the requirements that CDW must meet in order to be used in capping pave-
ments and embankment layers. The lysimeter tests were carried out in the field according to the
internal procedure of LNEC described later in this paper.
The laboratory tests used for assessing the geometrical, physical, mechanical and environ-
mental properties of the materials are presented in Table 1, and were performed after the proper
selection of representative test samples, according to the procedures indicated in EN 13286-1.

Figure 1. Recycled and natural aggregates.

1504 A.C. Freire et al.

Table 1. Testing methods.

Standard Designation

Geometrical properties
EN 933-1 Determination of particle size distribution –
Sieving method
EN 933-3 Determination of particle shape – Flakiness index
EN 933-4 Determination of particle shape – Shape index
EN 933-8 Assessment of fines – Sand equivalent test
EN 933-9 Assessment of fines – Methylene blue test
EN 933-11 Classification test for the constituents of coarse
recycled aggregate
Physical and mechanical properties
EN 1097-1 Determination of the resistance to wear
(micro-Deval)
EN 1097-2 Determination of resistance to fragmentation (Los
Angeles)
EN 1097-6 Determination of particle density and water
absorption
EN 13286-1 Introduction, general requirements and sampling
EN 13286-2 Proctor compaction
Environmental properties
EN 1744-3 Preparation of eluates by leaching of aggregates
EN 12457-4 One stage batch test at a liquid to solid ratio of
10 l/kg for materials with particle sizes below
10 mm (without or with size reduction)

The particle size distribution was determined after aggregate washing for removal of clay
particles and other fine aggregate particles. The exception was the m-RAP, which was analysed
without aggregate washing, taking into consideration the Note 2 of EN 933-1, which allows dry
sieving without washing for aggregates free from particles that can cause agglomeration, such as
clay. In the case of particle density and water absorption, the samples were dried in a ventilated
oven at a temperature of 40 °C, due to the presence of bituminous materials. The compaction
characteristics of the selected materials were evaluated under specified test conditions using the
modified Proctor compaction test. This method makes it possible to estimate the material density
that can be achieved in the experimental test sections, in particular in the lysimeters, and provides
a reference parameter for assessing the quality control of the construction.
Table 1 shows the standard tests used for the leaching characterisation of the aggregates in
laboratory. The specifications LNEC E 473 (2009) and LNEC E 474 (2009) make provisions for
carrying out leaching tests according to EN 12457-4. Nevertheless, within the European Commit-
tee for Standardization CEN/TC 154-Aggregates the harmonised European standard EN 13242,
applicable to aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound materials for use in civil engi-
neering works and road construction, indicates that leaching of aggregates should be performed
according to EN 1744-3. Therefore, the two leaching procedures, EN 12457-4 and EN 1744-3
were performed.
The leachate samples used to determine heavy metals were placed in high-density polyethy-
lene (HDPE) plastic recipients and were acidified with nitric acid (pH < 2). Those used to
determine chloride, sulphate and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were simply kept in HDPE
plastic recipients. All of them were preserved at temperatures less than or equal to 4 °C, until
analysis. The concentration of metals has been determined by mass spectrometry or optical
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1505

Figure 2. Construction and quality control of the compacted layers of the lysimeters by the sand
replacement method.

emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma, chloride and sulphate by ion liquid
chromatography, and DOC by infra-red detection or wet oxidation.
The pH was measured immediately after eluate sampling in accordance with EN 16192.
Field leaching tests were performed in lysimeters built in June 2012, on LNEC campus, in
accordance with an internal procedure of LNEC. Leachate collection took place from September
2012 to February 2017. Figure 2 shows the construction and quality control of these lysimeters.
Recycled and natural aggregates were compacted, without size reduction, in HDPE boxes, with
an area of 1 × 1 m2 (Figure 2(a)). The optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density
of the materials obtained in the modified Proctor compaction tests were used in the compaction
of the unbound granular layers of the experimental test sections (Figure 2(b)). Ultrapure water
was used to achieve the optimum moisture content, so that no chemical species were added to
the materials to leach. Compaction quality control of the layers was carried out using the sand
replacement method, LNEC E 204 (1967) (Figure 2(c)) and the moisture content test, EN 1097-
5. After the leaching period, both the moisture content and the dry density of the layers were also
obtained.
Polyethylene (PE) containers, with a capacity of 65 L, were used to collect the leachates
produced by percolation of rainwater through the tested materials. The connection between the
HDPE box and the PE reservoir was achieved by a PolyVinyl Chloride (PVC) pipe. All plastic
1506 A.C. Freire et al.

materials used in the construction of the lysimeters were carefully washed prior to use, to elimi-
nate any source of contamination. The washing sequence was: jets of tap water, 10% nitric acid
solution, distilled water, and ultrapure water.
To facilitate the percolation of leachates from the HDPE boxes to the PE containers, a drainage
layer was built at the base of the compacted layers. Drainage layer comprised a bottom layer in
coarse river gravel (thickness of 5 cm), and a top layer in fine river gravel (thickness of 5 cm).
Both coarse and fine gravels were previously washed in this sequence: jets of tap water, distilled
water, and ultrapure water. A plastic mesh was applied to the top of the HDPE boxes to protect
the compacted layers. To prevent the entry of local runoff water, the HDPE boxes were placed
0.15 m above the level of the natural ground and their perimeter was surrounded by river coarse
gravel (Figure 2(d)).
For each lysimeter, seven leachate samples were collected for chemical analysis, correspond-
ing to the liquid/solid (L/S) ratios established by EN 14405 (CEN, 2004): 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0,
5.0 and 10.0 l/kg dry matter (l/kg dm). The time required to collect the amount of leachate nec-
essary for each L/S fraction varied as a function of the fraction volume to be collected and of the
rainwater. Considering the increase in the L/S ratio throughout the test, the time between sam-
pling and the analyses of leachates also increased. Sample preservations and chemical species
analysed in the leachates were the same as those considered for the laboratory leaching tests. The
pH and the electrical conductivity (EC) of the leachates were measured in accordance with EN
16192.

Results and discussion

Constituents of recycled aggregates
The constituents of coarse recycled aggregates were classified according to EN 933-11, by hand
sorting the particles of the different constituents, except for the floating particles, and their pro-
portion was expressed as a percentage by mass. For the floating particle content, the result was
expressed as a volume by mass. Table 2 presents the proportion of the constituents in the recycled
aggregates.
Table 3 presents the classifications of these materials in both guides [60, 61] as a function
of the content of their constituents: classes B and C, for recycled aggregates to be used in base
and sub-base pavement layers [60] and classes B, MB and C, for recycled aggregates to be used
in capping pavements and embankment layers (LNEC E 474, 2009). Taking into account the
constituent proportions for the recycled aggregates included in Table 2, the RMC belongs to
class C and it means that this type of recycled material is adequate for unbound layer. For both
milled and crushed RAP (m-RAP and c–RAP) materials, the proportion of constituents does not
allow them to be included in any class for base and sub-base layers, but conversely, they can be
included in class MB for capping pavements and embankment layers.

Geometrical, physical and mechanical properties

Figure 3 presents the results of the particle size distribution performed on the analysed recycled
and natural aggregates, as well as the grading envelope recommended in the technical specifi-
cations of the Portuguese Road Administration (IP, 2014). The particle size distribution of both
c-RAP and RMC is similar and complies with the requirements. In the case of the m-RAP sam-
ple, as it presents a particle size distribution that falls outside the grading envelope, a combination
with the selected AGE was adopted to overcome the absence of fines. The new composition uses
an incorporation rate of 30% of m-RAP and 70% of AGE (AGE + m-RAP). This mixture leads
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1507

Table 2. Proportion of the constituents in the recycled aggregates.

Constituents c-RAP m-RAP RMC

Rc [%] Concrete, concrete 6.1 0.0 60.0

products, mortars
Ru [%] Unbound aggregate, natu- 29.0 0.0 24.0
ral stone, hydraulically
bound aggregates
Ra [%] Bituminous materials 64.0 99.0 12.0
Rb [%] Clay masonry units 0.9 0.0 3.9
(i.e. bricks and tiles),
calcium silicate
masonry units, aerated
non-floating concrete
Rs [%] Soils 0.0 0.0 0.0
Rg [%] Glass 0.0 0.0 0.0
Xa [%] Other: cohesive materials 0.0 1.0 0.1
(i.e. clay and soil),
plastics, rubbers,
metals (ferrous and
nonferrous), non-
floating wood, gypsum
plaster
FL [cm3 /g] Floating particles 0.0 0.0 0.0
a Applicable only for LNEC E 473 (2009); when used for LNEC E 474 (2009) the identification does not include cohesive
materials.

Table 3. Classification of the recycled aggregates.

LNEC E 473 (2009) LNEC E 474 (2009)

Constituents Class B Class C Class B Class MB Class C

Rc + Ru + Rg [%] ≥ 90 ≥ 50 ≥ 90 ≤ 70 No limit
Rg [%] ≤ 5 ≤ 5 ≤ 10 ≤ 25 ≤ 25
Ra [%] ≤ 5 ≤ 30 ≤ 5 ≥ 30 ≤ 30
Rb [%] ≤ 10 ≤ 10 – – –
Rb + Rs [%] – – ≤ 10 ≤ 70 No limit
X [%] ≤ 1 ≤ 1 ≤ 1 ≤ 1 ≤ 1
FL [cm3 /g] ≤ 5 ≤ 5 ≤ 5 ≤ 5 ≤ 5

to a material classified as class C (Table 2), according to the technical specification LNEC E
473 (2009), which has been evaluated in this project and as class MB, in accordance with the
technical specification LNEC E 474 (2009) (Table 2).
Table 4 contains the results as follows: apparent particle density, particle density on a satu-
rated and surface-dried basis (SSD particle density), particle density on an oven-dried basis (OD
particle density) and water absorption. These results were obtained in the tests performed on
both recycled and natural aggregates. The values obtained for the particle density are slightly
lower than those obtained for the AGE used, and, in general, for other natural aggregates, in
which the particle densities are within a range between 2.650 and 2.990 Mg/m3 . Regarding water
absorption results, the values obtained for the RAP aggregates are within the range of values
usually observed for the natural materials, i.e. between 0.4% and 1.5%. Nevertheless, the values
obtained for the RMC are higher than those usually found in natural aggregates, possibly due to
1508 A.C. Freire et al.

Figure 3. Particle size distribution curves.

Table 4. Density and water absorption results.

Parameter c-RAP AGE + m-RAP RMC AGE

Particle size 4.0/31.5 [mm]
Apparent particle density [Mg/m3 ] 2.501 2.502 2.604 2.704
SSD particle density [Mg/m3 ] 2.456 2.470 2.443 2.637
OD particle density [Mg/m3 ] 2.426 2.448 2.343 2.597
Water absorption [%] 1.2 0.9 4.3 1.5
Particle size 0.063/4.0 [mm]
Apparent particle density [Mg/m3 ] 2.496 2.403 2.496 2.685
SSD particle density [Mg/m3 ] 2.396 2.344 2.396 2.627
OD particle density [Mg/m3 ] 2.329 2.303 2.329 2.592
Water absorption [%] 2.9 1.8 2.9 1.3
SSD – saturated and surface dried, OD – oven-dried.

the mortar attached to the aggregate surfaces, as reported in the literature (Etxeberria, Vázquez,
Marí, & Barra, 2007; Sánchez de Juan & Gutiérrez, 2009).
Figures 4–6 present a comparison of the results obtained regarding, respectively, the particle
shape (Flakiness Index, FI and Shape Index, SI), the assessment of fines (Sand Equivalent, SE
and Methylene Blue, MB), and the resistance to wear (micro-Deval, MDE) and fragmentation
(Los Angeles Coefficient, LA).
The shape of the recycled aggregates, depicted in Figure 4 by the Flakiness Index (FI) and the
Shape Index (SI), shows that, regardless of the values for the m-RAP being higher than those
reported for the other materials under study, they are adequate for unbound granular layers, in
accordance with the technical specifications of the Portuguese Road Administration (IP, 2014).
FI values of AGE are higher than those of RMC and c-RAP and lower than m-RAP ones. In the
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1509

Figure 4. Comparative analysis of particle shape characteristics.

Figure 5. Comparative analysis of assessment of fines.

case of SI, the value of AGE is of the same order of magnitude as that of RMC and c-RAP and
less than m-RAP one.
As refers to the assessment of fines (Figure 5), expressed by the parameter MB 0/D, i.e. methy-
lene blue value (g/kg), according to EN 933-9, and multiplied by the fraction passing the 2 mm
sieve (%), RMC presents a higher value than the maximum recommended in LNEC E 473 (2009).
Still, the methylene blue value (MB 0/D) is within the limits of LNEC E 474 (2009) for capping
pavements and embankment layers of transport infrastructures. In the remaining CDW tested,
the values regarding the assessment of fines meet both specifications. The results obtained for
the methylene blue value of the AGE are lower than those obtained for the recycled aggregates.
1510 A.C. Freire et al.

Figure 6. Comparative analysis of resistance to wear and fragmentation.

Concerning the sand equivalent parameter, m-RAP has the highest value, corresponding to the
lower methylene blue value. In the recycled and natural aggregates tested, only the RMC does
not fulfil the minimum requirements established by the technical specifications of the Portuguese
Road Administration (IP, 2014).
Regarding the resistance to fragmentation and wear, expressed by Los Angeles and micro-
Deval coefficients (Figure 6), the three recycled materials meet the minimum requirements
presented in LNEC E 473 (2009) and LNEC E 474 (2009), both in terms of individual val-
ues and in terms of their sum (LA + MDE). For these properties, the RMC presents the highest
values, which are higher than those obtained with the AGE, due to the presence of old cement
mortar in recycled particles.
The results of the Proctor compaction test were used as a basis for defining compaction char-
acteristics to be achieved in the experimental test sections and in the lysimeters. The test results
also allowed a conclusion about the water content at which the aggregate mixtures can be sat-
isfactorily compacted in order to achieve a given dry density. The mechanical compaction was
performed in a large mould with a compaction energy corresponding to the modified Proctor
test. For RMC and c-RAP, given the percentage of material retained on the 31.5 mm sieve, it
was necessary to proceed with the truncation of those materials. Subsequently, the adjustments
prescribed in Annex C of EN 13286-2, regarding the correction for oversize, were applied to the
values of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.
Figure 7 shows the Proctor compaction curves for both recycled and natural aggregates. The
RMC has higher optimum moisture content and lower maximum dry density when compared to
the AGE and, in general, to other natural aggregates. These features were, as expected, due to the
greater water absorption related to the adhesion of cement mortar to the surface of this recycled
aggregate and to the lower particle density. For c-RAP, although the optimum moisture content
is closer to the optimum moisture content of AGE, a similar relationship was not observed for
the maximum dry density. It is noted that the Proctor test was performed on study RAP samples
with incorporation rates of 70% AGE and 30% of other constituents, respectively for m-RAP
and c-RAP, giving them a granular material behaviour.
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1511

Figure 7. Modified Proctor compaction curves.

Environmental properties
Batch tests
The results of the batch tests carried out according to EN 12457-4 are presented in Table 5.
Similarly to the environmental criteria used in other European countries (Böhmer et al., 2008),
LNEC E 473 (2009) and LNEC E 474 (2009) enable the application of CDW when the content of
contaminants in the eluates, prepared according to this standard, meet the leaching limit values of
the Portuguese legislation in force, transposed from the Council Decision 2003/33/EC (Official
Journal of the European Union, 2003) on acceptance of waste in landfills for inert waste. The
contents of all parameters, in particular those obtained for the parameters not included in Table 5
(antimony, Sb, arsenic, As, barium, Ba, mercury, Hg, molybdenum, Mo, selenium, Se, phenol
index and total dissolved soils, TDS) comply with the Portuguese regulations. Table 5 compares
the contaminant contents obtained with the acceptance criteria. Chromium content in RMC eluate
is the closest to the threshold values and, even then, it is approximately four times lower than
the limit value. It should be emphasised that the very low short-term release of contaminants, for
the different recycled aggregates, points to the feasibility of their use as alternative materials to
natural aggregates in road construction, from an environmental point of view.
Table 6 lists the results of the parameters evaluated on the eluates obtained from the four dif-
ferent materials, in the batch tests carried out according to EN 1744-3. For this test, no criteria
were established for assessing the leaching results and, hence, the values obtained for the recy-
cled aggregates were compared with the values obtained for the AGE. The release of Cd, Pb
and Ni is below the limits of quantification in all eluates and the contents of Cr, Zn, Cu, Cl−
and SO2−4 are higher in the recycled aggregates than in the natural aggregate, except for the zinc
content in the m-RAP eluate.
When comparing the results from these batch tests, it is clear that the eluates prepared accord-
ing to EN 1744-3 present lower pH values in relation to eluates prepared according to EN
12457-4. This variation in pH, which influences the leachability of chemical species, could be
attributed to procedural differences, in particular the particle size distribution, which affects the
1512 A.C. Freire et al.

Table 5. Batch test results according to EN 12457-4.

Parameter Leaching limit
[mg/kg dm] c-RAP m-RAP AGE + m-RAP RMC AGE values

Cadmium, Cd < 0.005 < 0.005 < 0.005 < 0.005 < 0.005 0.04
Chromium, Cr 0.046 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.126 < 0.010 0.5
Lead, Pb < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.024 0.5
Zinc, Zn < 0.006 < 0.006 0.039 0.010 0.035 4
Copper, Cu 0.030 < 0.014 < 0.014 0.045 < 0.014 2
Nickel, Ni < 0.026 < 0.026 < 0.026 < 0.026 < 0.026 0.4
Chloride, Cl− 35 35 26 44 44 800
Sulphate,SO2−
4 124 13 50.4 267 145 1000
Dissolved organic carbon, C 71 94 33 46 71 500
pH [–] 10.95 9.67 8.96 11.29 7.90 –

Table 6. Batch test results according to EN 1744-3.

Parameter
[mg/kg dm] c-RAP m-RAP RMC AGE

Cadmium, Cd < 0.005 < 0.005 < 0.005 < 0.005

Chromium, Cr 0.022 < 0.010 0.103 < 0.010
Lead, Pb < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.024
Zinc, Zn 0.023 0.053 0.035 0.021
Copper, Cu 0.016 < 0.014 0.022 < 0.014
Nickel, Ni < 0.026 < 0.026 < 0.026 < 0.026
Chloride, Cl− 53 35 53 35
Sulphate, SO2−
4 163 17.5 343 159
pH [–] 8.12 8.14 9.96 6.86

phenomena controlling the release of contaminants. In fact, using particle sizes up to 32 mm or

up to 10 mm, for EN 1744-3 and EN 12457-4 respectively, will not allow reaching the chemical
equilibrium in the first case (Van der Sloot & Mulder, 2002).
Regarding the content of contaminants, no generalised trend could be established, although
some aspects are noteworthy: Zn and SO2– 4 contents in the batch test performed in accordance
with EN 1744-3 were higher in relation to those released in the leaching test carried out in
accordance with EN 12457-4, while Cr and Cu contents were lower. Since the leaching test
results are the average of two replicate tests and taking into account the corresponding standard
deviation, these apparent trends are not relevant.
Focusing only on the environmental behaviour of m-RAP, both batch tests showed lower
leachability of inorganic contaminants in relation to the other CDW materials, namely c-RAP,
and the AGE. As shown in Table 2, the m-RAP main constituent is bituminous material, around
99%, for which it was expected a lower release of inorganic species.

Lysimeter tests
Table 7 shows a summary of the characteristics of the compacted layers in the lysimeters, built
with the selected recycled and natural aggregates. The thickness of the layers ranged from 11.0–
14.0 cm and the degree of compaction from about 87% to 100%. At the end of the leaching
period, the dry density and the moisture content of the layers were revaluated. As demonstrated
by the results presented in Table 7, the changes in the initial dry density were insignificant, with
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1513

Table 7. Characteristics of the compacted layers in the lysimeters.

Field (Sand Laboratory (Modified
replacement method) Proctor test)
Moisture Maximum Optimum
Dry density content Compaction dry moisture
Layer thickness (initial-final) (initial-final) degree density content
Material [cm] [g/cm3 ] [%] [%] [g/cm3 ] [%]

c-RAP 12.5 2.057–1.866 6.1–3.7 99.7 2.060a 5.8a

AGE + m-RAP 11.0 2.222–1.749 3.6–1.6 100.0 2.085 4.0
RMC 11.0 1.945–1.740 9.7–7.4 95.3 2.054a 8.7a
AGE 14.0 1.988–1.846 4.1–2.7 87.3 2.277 5.8
a Corrected value (particle size fraction 60/31.5 mm has a high water absorption value, increasing the adjusted moisture
content).

Table 8. Lysimeter results for L/S = 0.1 l/kg dm (first fraction volume of the leachate).
Leaching limit
values for inert
Parameter [mg/L] c-RAP AGE + m-RAP RMC AGE waste landfilla

Cadmium, Cd < 0.0005 < 0.0005 < 0.0005 < 0.0005 0.02
Chromium total, Cr < 0.005 < 0.005 0.0358 < 0.005 0.1
Lead, Pb < 0.001 < 0.001 0.003 < 0.001 0.15
Zinc, Zn < 0.002 0.002 0.002 < 0.002 1.2
Copper, Cu 0.003 0.002 0.003 < 0.001 0.6
Nickel, Ni < 0.003 < 0.003 < 0.003 < 0.003 0.12
Chloride, Cl− 18.60 7.32 38.00 10.20 460
Sulphate, SO2−4 335.00 31.20 484.00 279.00 1500
Dissolved organic carbon, C 26.80 10.50 11.40 3.50 160
pH [–] 7.48 7.74 7.25 7.46 –
Electrical conductivity, EC [μS/cm] 858 247 1374 721 –
a Setto the first leachate (C0) of the up-flow percolation test carried out in accordance with EN 14405, a compliance test
included in Directive 2003/33/EC (Official Journal of the European Union, 2003).

reductions below 10%. The exception occurred in the AGE + m-RAP mixture, in which the
decrease corresponded to about 20%. Moreover, the decrease in the moisture contents were the
most significant, with the final moisture content being about 24% to 55% less than the initial
moisture content.
Tables 8 and 9 summarise the contents obtained on leachates collected in the lysimeter tests
for the first fraction volume (L/S = 0.1 l/kg dm) and for all fraction volumes (L/S = 10.0 l/kg
dm), respectively. Figure 8 shows the variation in the leached cumulative contents for Cl− , SO2–
4 ,
DOC and Cr-total.
The six heavy metal contents presented in Tables 8 and 9 were very low, sometimes below the
reporting limits of the method used. Comparing the results obtained in the first fraction volume
of the leachate (L/S = 0.1 l/kg dm) with the C0 leaching limit values of Directive 2003/33/EC
(Official Journal of the European Union, 2003), none of the contents, of all components, was
higher than the maximum limit established for acceptance of waste in landfills for inert waste.
The same was verified by comparing, for all components, their cumulative contents obtained
for the L/S ratio equal to 10.0 l/kg dm, with the leaching limit values defined by the Portuguese
1514 A.C. Freire et al.

Table 9. Lysimeter results for L/S = 10.0 l/kg dm (seven fraction volumes of the leachate).
Leaching limit
values for inert
Parameter [mg/kg dm] c-RAP AGE + m-RAP RMC AGE waste landfilla

Cadmium, Cd < 0.0005 < 0.0005 < 0.0005 < 0.0005 0.04
Chromium total, Cr < 0.005 < 0.005 0.108 < 0.005 0.5
Lead, Pb < 0.001 < 0.001 0.010 < 0.001 0.5
Zinc, Zn < 0.002 0.026 0.02 0.028 4
Copper, Cu 0.028 0.018 0.019 0.011 2
Nickel, Ni < 0.003 < 0.003 < 0.003 < 0.003 0.4
Chloride, Cl− 88.2 69.3 100.1 72.2 800
Sulphate, SO2−4 352.3 82.3 819.5 415.8 1000
Dissolved organic carbon, C 77.4 28.0 42.8 18.8 500
pH [–] 7.99 7.50 7.53 7.49 –
Electrical conductivity, EC [μS/cm] 281 161 313 241 –
a Set to the batch test carried out in accordance with EN 12457-4, a compliance test included in the Portuguese regulations
and in Directive 2003/33/EC (Official Journal of the European Union, 2003).

regulations and the Directive 2003/33/EC (Official Journal of the European Union, 2003) on
acceptance of waste in landfills for inert waste.
The pH values of the leachate in the seven fraction volumes collected in each lysimeter
were neutral to slightly alkaline, with values between 7.20 and 8.13. Their values remained
approximately constant over the seven fraction volumes collected in each lysimeter.
Concerning the electrical conductivity (EC) of the leachates, their values decreased gradually
from the first to the sixth fraction volume (L/S = 5.0 l/kg dm), in all lysimeters, and increased
slightly from the sixth to the seventh fraction volume (L/S = 10.0 l/kg dm). This increase may
be due to the influence of external conditions that overlaps the concentration of substances still
leachable in the tested materials.

Comparison of results in the batch and lysimeter tests

The comparative analysis of the contents obtained in both the lysimeter and the batch tests was
partially impaired by the existence of a large number of species, in particular metals, with con-
tents lower than the limit of quantification of the method used. Figure 8 shows the contents of four
analytes obtained in lysimeter and batch (symbols in red) tests: chloride (Cl− ), sulphate (SO2− 4 ),
chromium total (Cr-total), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). It was possible to establish a
relation between the releases occurred in both the lysimeter and the batch tests.
The Cl− contents were higher in the lysimeter tests than in the batch tests for all aggregates
(Figure 8(a)). Considering the batch test as the reference test, it can be observed that the contents
of Cl− in the lysimeters were 30% to 167% higher. The contents of SO2− 4 were also 42% to 207%
higher in the lysimeter tests than in the batch tests (Figure 8(b)). For the DOC, the differences
between the contents obtained in the batch tests and in the lysimeter tests ranged from 6.5% to
74% (Figure 8(d)). In the aggregates RMC, AGE + m-RAP and AGE, the contents were higher
in the batch tests, whereas in the c-RAP they were 9.0% higher in the lysimeter tests. Although
Cr-total contents were very low or lower than the limit of quantification of the method used, as
is the case of the AGE + m-RAP and AGE, in the other aggregates the contents were lower in
the lysimeters.
The experimental observations do not enable to support the conclusions from other studies
(Lind, Norrman, Larsson, Ohlsson, & Bristav, 2008; Thøgersen et al., 2013; Van der Sloot &
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1515

Figure 8. Comparison of the content of four analytes obtained in lysimeter and batch (symbols in red)
tests.

Mulder, 2002), according to which the results of the batch test are conservative, comparatively
with to the results of the lysimeter test. However, the reliability of the batch test mentioned in
those studies was corroborated, i.e. the same conclusion was drawn from the two tests carried
out in this study, i.e. from an environmental point of view, the selected recycled aggregates can
be used in the applications defined by the Portuguese regulations (LNEC E 473, 2009; LNEC E
474, 2009).
The comparison between the pH values obtained in the two tests (batch and lysimeter) shows
that in the lysimeter tests these are lower in the recycled aggregates and higher in the natural
aggregate.

Conclusions
RAP is being extensively studied as recycled aggregates to be used in unbound granular layers
and in bituminous mixtures of road pavements. However, in the literature, this material derives
exclusively from the milling process of existing pavements and, hence, the mechanical properties
are the main issue referring to the performance of the applications. Regarding the application
in unbound granular layers, it may be questionable if the production process can influence the
material properties and consequently the construction processes and material performance. This
is the case of RAP obtained from the crushing process, more similar to that used for virgin
aggregates.
1516 A.C. Freire et al.

This paper has presented a feasibility study of the use of recycled aggregates from RAP of two
origins: milling and crushing. Besides the geometrical, physical and mechanical characterisation
of the aggregates, the paper also presents an extended research on environmental properties based
on laboratory and field tests performed over a five-year period. In order to establish a comparison
between the performance of the different materials, a natural crushed limestone aggregate (AGE)
and a crushed mix concrete (RMC) were also included in the study as reference materials.
The results obtained as regards the geometrical, physical, and mechanical properties of the
recycled aggregates confirm in general the ability of both materials – m-RAP and c-RAP – to
be used in unbound granular layers of road pavements. The particle size distribution analysis
revealed that occasionally it is difficult to fulfil the best particle size distribution for the appli-
cation of recycled aggregates in the unbound granular layers. For m-RAP, it was necessary to
correct the particle size distribution, particularly with regard to the fine fraction, by mixing this
material with the natural aggregate (AGE + m-RAP). Properties as shape index, flatness index,
sand equivalent, methylene blue, wear resistance coefficient (micro-Deval test) and resistance to
fragmentation ratio (Los Angeles test) showed that, in general, both recycled materials are appro-
priate to be used in unbound granular layers of road pavements. However, RAP from crushing
process showed better physical and mechanical properties, in addition to geometrical properties.
With regard to the batch tests, the results demonstrated, from an environmental point of view,
the feasibility of using both crushed and milled RAP as expected. The existence of a large number
of substances with contents below the limit of quantification of the methods used and the absence
of a tendency in the substances, of which the contents allowed comparing batch tests to lysimeter
tests, did not permit to validate the conclusion drawn from several studies, which inferred that
the batch tests are conservative when compared with the lysimeter tests. Nonetheless, it could be
confirmed that the batch tests are reliable, as the same conclusion was drawn from both leaching
tests, which means that, from an environmental point of view, the recycled aggregates – m-RAP
and c-RAP – can be used for these purposes.
In general, the conclusions from this extended laboratory programme support the application
of the studied recycled aggregates in unbound granular layers: all recycled aggregates showed
suitability for use in unbound granular layers; recycled aggregates did not pose any environ-
mental risk; RAP properties proved to be dependent on milling and crushing processes; crushed
RAP showed the best geometrical, physical, and mechanical properties. Nevertheless, the over-
all results of this paper highlighted in general the feasibility of using both recycled aggregates
– crushed and milled RAP – in unbound base, sub-base and capping layers of road pavements,
supported by an adequate characterisation.
Independent of the production process, this paper confirmed that the use of RAP promotes the
circular economy with so many advantages. Mechanical and environmental laboratory tests are
essential for the construction of real applications. In addition, the study in experimental sections
is crucial to encourage greater confidence for decision-makers to increasingly promote the use of
recycled aggregates in transport infrastructures.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the companies “Ambigroup SGPS SA” and “Teodoro Gomes Alho SA”
(Portugal) for supplying the tested materials.

Funding
The study presented in this paper was conducted under the research project “PTDC/ECM/100931/2008 –
SUPREMA – Sustainable Application of Construction and Demolition Recycled Materials (C&DRM) in
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 1517

Road Infrastructures” with the financial support of the Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science,
Research and Technology (FCT) from the Portuguese Ministry of Economy and Employment.

ORCID
Ana Cristina Freire http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7940-2648
José Manuel Coelho das Neves http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7131-7967
António José Roque http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4467-0164
Maria de Lurdes Antunes http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1911-517X

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