23-09-2022

Variation

• Variation is natural - it is inherent in the world around

us.

Statistical Process Control • No two products or service experiences are exactly the
same.

• With a fine enough gauge, all things can be seen to

differ.
• One of the roles of management is work with all
employees to reduce variation as much as possible.

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The Presence of Variation Types of Variation

Common Cause Variation: The variation that naturally occurs

and is expected in the system
8’ -- normal
-- random
-- inherent
Measuring -- stable
4’ 4’ 4’ 4’ Device
4’ 4’ 4’ 4’ Tape Measure Special Cause Variation: Variation which is abnormal -
indicating something out of the ordinary has happened.
4.01’ 4.01’ 4.01’ 4.00’ Engineer Scale -- nonrandom
4.009’ 3.987’ 4.012’ 4.004’
-- unstable
Caliper
-- assignable cause variation

4.00913’ 3.98672’ 4.01204’ 4.00395’ Elec. Microscope

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Type of Variation
Total Product or Process Variation
Travel Time to Work Example
Measurement of Interest: Time to get to work.
Total variation = Common Cause + Special Cause
Common Cause Variation Sources:
-- traffic lights To reduce Total Variation
-- traffic patterns
-- weather First reduce or eliminate special cause variation
-- departure time
Reduce common cause variation
Special Cause Variation Sources:
-- accidents Identify the source and remove the causes
-- road construction detours
-- petrol refills

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Statistical Quality Types of

Control Statistical Quality Control
 Measures performance of a process
 Uses mathematics (i.e., statistics) Statistical
Quality Control
 Involves collecting, organizing, &
interpreting data Process Acceptance
Control Sampling
 Objective: provide statistical when
assignable causes of variation are
present Variables Attributes
Variables Attributes
Charts Charts
 Used to
– Control the process as products are produced
– Inspect samples of finished products

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Quality Statistical Process

Characteristics Control (SPC)
Variables Attributes  Statistical technique used to ensure
 Measured values;  Has or Has not/Good process is making product to standard
e.g., weight, length, or Bad/Pass or  All process are subject to variability
volume,voltage, current etc.
Fail/Accept or Reject – Natural causes: Random variations
 May be in whole or in Characteristics for
 – Assignable causes: Correctable problems
fractional numbers which you focus on  Machine wear, unskilled workers, poor
 Continuous random defects material
variables  Categorical or  Objective: Identify assignable causes
discrete random  Uses process control charts
variables

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Comparing Distributions Production Output Distributions

Production Output Example What is the Difference?

Units Produced

Frequency
Plant A Plant B Plant A
99 90
100 90
100 100
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
100 110
101 110

Frequency
X
X 
500
 100 X
X 
500
 100
Plant B
n 5 n 5
No Differences!???
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

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The Concept of Stability

Measure of Variation (Sigma)
S = Standard Deviation 99.7%
95%

S
(X  X ) 2
X - 3S X - 2S X - 1S
68%
X +1S X +2S X + 3S
Plant A n 1 Plant B
X (X  X ) ( X  X )2 X (X  X ) ( X  X )2
99 99-100 = -1 12 = 1 90 90 -100= -10 -102 =100
100 100-100 = 0 02 = 0 90 90 -100= -10 -102 =100
100 100-100 = 0 02 = 0 100 100 -100 = 0 02 = 0
100 100-100 = 0 02 = 0 110 110 -100 = 10 102 =100
101 101-100 = 1 12 = 1 110 110 -100 = 10 102 =100

 0  2   0   400
2 400 X
S  .707 S  10
4 4 X
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2 400
Plant A S  .707 Plant B S  10
4 4
X  2S  98.586 X  2S  80
X  1S  100.707 X  3S  102.121 X  1S  110 X  3S  130

X X

X  100 X  100
X  1S  99.293 X  1S  90
X  2S  101.414 X  2S  120
X  3S  97.879 X  3S  70
Under Normal Conditions: Under Normal Conditions:
68.26 percent of the time output will be between 99.293 and 68.26 percent of the time output will be between 90 and 110
100.707 units units
95.46 percent of the time output will be between 98.586 and 95.46 percent of the time output will be between 80 and 120
101.414 units units
99.73 percent of the time output will be between 97.879 units 99.73 percent of the time output will be between 70 units and
and 102.121 units 130 units

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Control Limits Process Control Limits

Control Limits are the statistical boundaries of a process Special Cause Variation
which define the amount of variation that can be considered
as normal or inherent variation Upper Control Limit UCL= X +3

Common Cause
Average
3 sigma control limits are most common

+ 3S from the mean LCL =X - 3

Lower Control Limit
If the process is in control, a value outside the control
limit will occur only 3 time in 1000 ( 1 - .997 = .003) Special Cause Variation

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Relationship Between Sampling Distribution of

Population and Sampling Means, and Process
Distributions Distribution

Three population distributions Sampling

Distribution of sample means distribution of the
Beta
means
Mean of sample means  x
Normal Standard deviation of x Process
 x 
the sample means n distribution of
the sample
Uniform

 3 x  2  x  1 x x   x  2  x  3 x
(mean)
xm
95.5% of all x fall within  2  x
( mean)
99.7% of all x fall within  3 x

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Theoretical Basis Theoretical Basis

of Control Charts of Control Charts
Central Limit Theorem Central Limit Theorem
As sample size sampling distribution
gets becomes almost
large normal regardless of
Mean Standard deviation
enough, population
x
distribution. X  x 
n

X X
X 
X

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Process Control Limit Concepts Process Control Limit Concepts

(continued)

• Control Limits Define the limits of stability • Measures inside control limits are assumed to come from a stable
• The UCL and LCL are calculated so that, if the process is stable, almost all of the process - Measures outside the control limits are unexpected and
process output will be located within the control limits. considered the result of a special cause
• 3 sigma control limits
• The most commonly used
• UCL is 3 standard deviations above the average
• The control limits are computed directly from the sample data
• LCL is 3 standard deviations below the average
selected from the process -- The limits and the average are not the
• If the process is stable, only about 3 out of 1000 process outputs will fall
choice of management or the operator - Formulas exist.
outside the control limits.
• The control limits define the range of inherent variation for the
process as it currently exists, not how we would like it to be

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Control Chart Purposes Control Chart Types

 Show changes in data pattern Continuous

Control
Categorical or Discrete
Numerical Data Numerical Data
– e.g., trends Charts
 Make corrections before process is out of
control Variables Attributes
 Show causes of changes in data Charts Charts

– Assignable causes
 Data outside control limits or trend in data R X P C
Chart Chart Chart Chart
– Natural causes
 Random variations around average

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Statistical Process
Control Steps X Chart

No
 Type of variables control chart
Produce Good
Start
Provide Service  Shows sample means over time

Take Sample
Assign.  Monitors process average
Causes?
Yes  Example: Weigh samples of coffee &
Inspect Sample Stop Process compute means of samples; Plot
Create
Find Out Why
Control Chart

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X Chart Factors for Computing

Control Limits Control Chart Limits
UCL x  x  A  R From Sample Mean Upper Lower
Size, n Factor, A2 Range, D4 Range, D3
Table
2 1.880 3.268 0

LCL x  x  A  R Sample 3 1.023 2.574 0

Range at 4 0.729 2.282 0
Sample
Time i 5 0.577 2.115 0
n Mean at
6 0.483 2.004 0
 xi Time i n
 Ri 7 0.419 1.924 0.076

x  i  R  i 1 8 0.373 1.864 0.136

n n
9
10
0.337
0.308
1.816
1.777
0.184
0.223
# Samples 0. 184

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R Chart
R Chart Control Limits
 Type of variables control chart UCL R  D 4 R
– Interval or ratio scaled numerical data From Table

LCL R  D 3 R
 Shows sample ranges over time
– Difference between smallest & largest
values in inspection sample
n Sample Range at
 Monitors variability in process  Ri Time i

 Example: Weigh samples of coffee

R  i 1
n # Samples
& compute ranges of samples; Plot

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Out-of-control…when?

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