PROCESS OPTIMIZATION USING DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT

CONCEPT IN THE INPUT MATERIAL OF THE PVA DISPERSER

UNIT AT ASTRA PAINTS

BY WINNIE MUTENHABUNDO

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF A MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE

In

THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

We accept that this report is conforming to the required standard

SUPERVISOR: MR CHIRINDA

EXTERNAL EXAMINER:…………………………….

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

JUNE 2012
Process optimization using Design for Environment concept in the input material of the
disperser unit

DECLARATION
In presenting this reporting in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science at the University of Zimbabwe, I do hereby declare that this research
project is my original work except where sources have been acknowledged. I agree that
permission for extensive copying of this report for scholarly purposes be granted by the
head of my department or by his/her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this report for financial gain shall not be allowed.

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

University Of Zimbabwe

P.O. Box Mp 167

Mount Pleasant

Harare

Zimbabwe

Date: 7 June 2012

Signature:………………………

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Process optimization using Design for Environment concept in the input material of the
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Astra Paints management for granting the
permission to carry out my research work at their company and its staff who worked
beyond their job descriptions in making the project a success.
It would have been impossible for me to successfully complete this research work
without the guidance of my supervisors, Mr Chirinda and Mr Chikuku. Thank you very
much for the light, I am so grateful.
To Mr Mugwindiri, your guidance and patience is not found in many, I appreciate that
and may you continue with the good spirit.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Harare Institute of Technology staff for
their unwavering support during the studies, thank you guys.
To Irene Kamutero, thank you for opening the avenues, God bless.
I am most indebted to my husband, Rodgers, for the support throughout the study, i know
it wasn’t easy neither was it a nice experience for you.

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Process optimization using Design for Environment concept in the input material of the
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ABSTRACT
This project is aimed applying the Design for Environment concept for the optimization
of the input material operation of the PVA paint disperser. Initially, waste streams were
identified; the levels of powder raw material dust emissions were assessed as well as their
impacts to the plant operator. The researcher set their objectives seeking to reduce these
negative effects.

DFE tools were applied thus a Cleaner Production Assessment was done to identify,
quantify and find options to minimize wastes. Dust emission levels were determined
using the air sampling pump technique. ISO 14 001 was used as a tool to improve
environmental performance. Life Cycle Assessment was done to assess the
environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with the feeding process.
Emphasis was made on the reduction and recovering options to reduce environmental
impact.

The assessments of Cleaner Production and Life Cycle carried out resulted in the
identification of a DFE product that reduces dust emissions. Implementation of ISO 14
001 at Astra Paints improves environmental performance thus consequently reducing
risks and related potential health effects. A DFE product was synthesized and
recommended for further development.
The researcher therefore recommends DFE technology for process optimization not only
at the company under study but other manufacturing entities.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION.............................................................................................................. I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................II
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................III
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................IV
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................ IX
CHAPTER ONE:...............................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................1
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT......................................................................................1
1.2 BACKGROUND....................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Paint manufacturing process.............................................................................2
1.2.2 PVA paint plant.................................................................................................4
1.2.3 Health impacts of powder raw materials..........................................................7
1.3 DESIGN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT...................................................................8
1.4 PROBLEM DEFINITION...................................................................................12
1.4.1 Project Aim and Objectives.............................................................................12
1.4.2 Project Justification.........................................................................................12
1.5 PROPOSITION...................................................................................................13
1.6 PROJECT SCOPE...............................................................................................13
1.7 CORE QUESTIONS............................................................................................13
1.8 METHODOLOGY...............................................................................................13
1.9 PROJECT PLANNING........................................................................................14
1.10 PROJECT BUDGET...........................................................................................15
1.11 PROJECT COMMUNICATION..........................................................................15
1.12 PROJECT CONTROL.........................................................................................16
1.13 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................16
CHAPTER TWO:............................................................................................................17
LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................17
2.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................17
2.1 PAINT MANUFACTURING...............................................................................17
2.1.1 Production processes.......................................................................................17

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2.1.2 Waste generation.............................................................................................22

2.1.3 Health effects of the pigment dust....................................................................23
2.1.4 Waste minimization options in paint manufacturing.......................................25
2.1.5 Air emissions control.......................................................................................28
2.1.6 Spills reduction options...................................................................................29
2.2 DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT.........................................................................30
2.2.1 Why Design for the Environment?...................................................................31
2.2.2 Goals of DFE...................................................................................................31
2.2.3 Drivers for Design for Environment................................................................32
2.2.4 Benefits of Design for Environment.................................................................35
2.2.5 DfE implementation procedure.......................................................................37
2.3 DFE TOOLS........................................................................................................43
2.3.1 Cleaner Production.........................................................................................43
2.3.2 Environmental Management Systems..............................................................61
2.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment......................................................................................70
2.4 PROTOTYPING TECHNIQUES.........................................................................74
2.4.1 Rapid prototyping............................................................................................74
2.4.2 Finite element analysis, (FEA)........................................................................74
2.5 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................76
CHAPTER THREE:........................................................................................................77
METHODOLOGY..........................................................................................................77
3.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................77
3.1 DESIGN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT METHODOLOGY..................................77
3.2 DFE TOOLS........................................................................................................78
3.2.1 Cleaner Production Assessment......................................................................78
3.2.2 ISO 14001........................................................................................................79
3.2.3 Life Cycle Assessment......................................................................................79
3.3 DESIGN FOR EXPERIMENTS...........................................................................80
3.4 RESEARCH METHODS.....................................................................................81
3.4.1 Data collection................................................................................................81
3.4.2 Data presentation and analysis.......................................................................83
3.5 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................84
CHAPTER FOUR:..........................................................................................................85

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CLEANER PRODUCTION............................................................................................85
4.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................85
4.1 PVA PLANT.........................................................................................................85
4.2 CLEANER PRODUCTION ASSESSMENT.........................................................85
4.2.1 Management commitment................................................................................85
4.2.2 Project Team....................................................................................................86
4.2.3 Working Environment and Environmental Issues of the plant........................87
4.2.4 Raw Material Audit.........................................................................................88
4.2.5 Establishing a focus.........................................................................................91
4.2.6 Material balance..............................................................................................91
4.2.7 Pollution Audit of the plant.............................................................................92
4.2.8 Identification for Cleaner Production Opportunities......................................96
4.2.9 Cleaner Production Opportunities..................................................................97
4.2.10 Options of Cleaner Production Opportunities.............................................99
4.2.11 Feasibility Analysis....................................................................................100
4.3 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................101
CHAPTER FIVE:..........................................................................................................102
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM....................................................102
5.0 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................102
5.1 IMPLEMENTING ISO14001............................................................................102
5.1.1 Introduction to Astra Paints..........................................................................105
5.1.2 Environmental management system..............................................................105
5.1.3 Environmental policy.....................................................................................105
5.1.4 Planning.........................................................................................................106
5.1.5 Implementation and operation......................................................................107
5.1.6 Checking and corrective action.....................................................................111
5.1.7 Management review.......................................................................................112
5.2 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................113
CHAPTER SIX:.............................................................................................................114
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS............................................................................................114
6.0 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................114
6.1 METHODOLOGY FOR LCA............................................................................114

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6.1.1 Goal and scope definition..............................................................................114

6.1.2 Life cycle........................................................................................................115
6.1.3 Scenarios.......................................................................................................117
6.1.4 Results............................................................................................................119
6.2 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................123
CHAPTER SEVEN:......................................................................................................124
PRODUCT SYTHESIS.................................................................................................124
7.0 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................124
7.1 DEVELOPING THE PRODUCT......................................................................124
7.1.1 Management Commitment.............................................................................124
7.1.2 Product Design..............................................................................................124
7.2 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................131
CHAPTER EIGHT:.......................................................................................................132
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................132
8.0 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................132
8.1 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................132
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS....................................................................................133
8.2.1 Health surveillance........................................................................................133
8.2.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)..........................................................133
8.2.3 Risk Assessment.............................................................................................133
8.2.4 Training.........................................................................................................134
8.3 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................134
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................136

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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Table1.1: Project schedule………………………………………………………………. 12
Table 1.2: Project budget................................................................................................... 13
Table 1.4: Project control document................................................................................. 14
Table 2.1: Paint Manufacturing Process Wastes............................................................... 20
Table 2.2: Waste minimization options............................................................................. 24
Table 2: ISO 14000 series................................................................................................. 59
Table 4.1: Project team…………………………………………………………………. 83
Table 4.2: Process inputs and outputs............................................................................. 84
Table 4.4: Concentration of Dust in Various Sections..................................................... 89
Table 4.3: Limit Values of Dust Exposure (TWA/8hrs)............................... 89
Table 4.5: Comparison of area dust concentration with personal dose concentration.......... 91
Table 4.4: Cleaner Production Opportunities....................................................................... 94
Table 4.5: Cleaner Production Opportunities Analysis........................................................ 95
Table 4.6: Rating of Cleaner Production Options............................................................... 97
Table 6.1: Raw material usage............................................................................................ 115
Table 7.1: Decision matrix………………………………………………………………. 124

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Fig1.1: Smaller Scale Production PVA Plant Layout.................................................... 4
Fig1.2: DFE Implementation Commitment Progression................................................ 9
Fig 1.3: Gantt Chart………………………………………………………………………. 13
Fig 2.1: Paint Manufacturing Process……………………………………………………. 18
Fig 2.2: DFE and Sustainable Development...................................................................... 27
Fig 2.3: Steps to Implement DFE...................................................................................... 34
Fig 2.4: Steps and Tasks in the CPA Process.............................................................. 43
Fig 3.1: The Cleaner Production Assessment Methodology……………………………. 75
Fig 3.2: Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle of the Management System………………………… 76
Fig 3.3: Steps for Life Cycle Assessment………………………………………………… 77
Fig 4.1: Organogram............................................................................................................. 82
Fig 4.2 Material Cost and Usage......................................................................................... 84
Fig 4.3: Paint Manufacturing Process.................................................................................. 85
Fig 4.4: Paint Manufacturing With Raw Material Input, Output and Waste.................... 86
Fig 4.5 Dust Concentration................................................................................................. 87
Fig 4.6: Material Balance................................................................................................... 88
Fig 4.7: Observed Dust Concentration............................................................................... 90
Fig 4.8: Area Dust Concentration versus Personal Dose Concentration.......................... 91
Fig 4.9: Ishikawa Diagram for Dust Creation...................................................................... 92
Fig 5.1: Management Structure............................................................................................ 103
Fig 6.1: Life Cycle of Feeding Process................................................................................ 111
Fig 6.2: Dust Concentration.................................................................................................. 114

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Fig 6.3: Material Consumption for SUP1, DUP1 and ACW............................................... 115
Fig 6.4: Air Emissions of the Feeding Operation Life Cycle - Comparison of Scenarios.... 116
Fig 7.1: Pneumatic Vibro-Feeder.......................................................................................... 119
Fig 7.2: Vertcal Screw Conveyor.......................................................................................... 121
Fig 7.3: Pin Feeder................................................................................................................ 123

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CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Astra Paints commenced business in Harare as Herbert Evans paint in 1947. Through the
years, it merged with other paint companies like Titanium Paints to eventually become
Plascon Paints, whose majority stake was then acquired by the government of Zimbabwe
through the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe in 1983. The paint concern was then renamed
Astra Paints in line with the larger group, Astra Corporation. Astra Paints (PVT) Ltd
operates under a diverse portfolio of business managed by Astra Holdings Limited.
Today Astra Paints, through its Bulawayo and Harare plants, is the country’s largest
comprehensive manufacturer of domestic, industrial, automotive and wood coatings.
Astra Paints Harare is a manufacturer of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) paint, enamel paint and
tints. The total daily production volume for the Harare factory ranges from 4000 to
13000litres.

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

There is more than 7.8mg/m3 of respirable dust emissions on the disperser feeding site in
the PVA paint plant. The threshold limit value according to American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygiene, (ACGIH) is 5mg/m 3. Exposure to this pigment dust is
a health hazard to the employee and the environment.

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1.2 BACKGROUND

1.2.1 Paint manufacturing process

There are many different types of paints but they all generally follow a similar production
or manufacturing process flow. The manufacturing process comprise of eight steps that
include the following;

a. Measurement of raw materials

Raw materials are measured out as per batch card from the raw materials section and
sent to the factory.

b. Premix

In general two mixes are made for each product, (the mill base and the let down
vehicle).The mill base is a premix of the pigment with resin, solvents, and additives to
form a paste. Premixing is done using high speed dispersion mills which are commonly
referred to as the diafs.

c. Pigment Dispersion
This is a physical process where particles of the pigment are ground and dispersed
throughout the mixture. The functions of dispersion are disruption, wetting, mixing and
stabilisation of the pigments. If the paint is to be for industrial use, it usually is then
routed into a sand mill, a large cylinder that agitates tiny particles of sand or silica to
grind the pigment particles, making them smaller and dispersing them.

d. Dispersion tests
Experience will tell the operator approximate time required for dispersion to be
completed. A sample of the batch is taken to the laboratory to test the degree of
dispersion. The most commonly used test of dispersion is the grind gauge. If the

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dispersion fails the test the process goes back to disperse a bit longer. If it passes the
process moves on to the next stage for colour tests.

e. Colour tests

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However before colour testing is done there is need to let a sample of mill base down,
(dilute/thin it) with some let down vehicle. This is done because the let-down process
may affect the particle size if it is not properly done, and this will in turn change the
optical properties of the paint. Colour testing is done mainly by visual comparison of the
test sample and a standard specimen held by the Quality control department. The use of
computers in colour testing (colour eye) has also being taken up widely in the paint
manufacturing. If the batch fails the test there might be need to make more additions of
pigment and the process goes back to dispersion to correct the defect.

f. Let-down
If the batch passes colour tests, let-down of the whole batch then follows. It is important
to first have the batch pass colour tests before letting down because it is not usually
possible to re-disperse the batch since the viscosity will be too low.

g. Specification tests
The complete pain now goes through specification tests set by the customer’s
specification for example coming up with a special tint to suit the customer’s special
colour requirements. If these tests fail there has to be a decision to whether the batch can
be reworked into something saleable, this can mean going back to work on the
reformulation. A highly costly scenario may happen if the batch can not be reworked into
any other product, this will mean the batch will have to be disposed.
h. Filling
If all tests have been passed the final product goes to filling where it is packaged in
respective appropriate containers and finally sends to the dispatch warehouse or direct to
the customer.

1.2.2 PVA paint plant

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This plant for water-based paints has two sections. The first section is for large volume
production and it is on ground floor. It consists of a huge master mix tank, two let down
tanks and water pipes. The other section is on the first floor where smaller quantities of
water-based paints are produced. This plant consists of two dispersers, a dust extractor,
an elevator and water pipes. The layout of the plant is shown in Fig 1.2 that follows.

800L dispersion tanks

Water from tank

Mass flow meter

valve
valve

Hoist carrying raw

materials from
ground floor

Finishing tanks

Gate valve

To filling bay
filter pump

Figure 1.1: Smaller scale production PVA plant layout

Raw materials used

The raw materials used in PVA paint manufacturing include pigments, medium (water)
and additives. The pigments are white or coloured fine, solid particles, insoluble in the
liquid or solid medium in which it is dispersed for paint production to provide colour and
opacity. These pigments can be divided into two major types; organic and inorganic.

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Inorganic pigments include earth, ochres, clay, clay, titanium dioxide, strontium
chromate and mineral compounds. The medium is the liquid or solid material in which
the pigment is dispersed and suspended to produce the complete formulation of the
coating and for the PVA paints, water is used as a medium. Additives are a wide variety
of ingredients added in small amounts for a variety of purposes. Types of additives
include polymerisation modifiers, viscosity modifiers and surface tension modifiers. The
major powdered raw materials used in the plant include Amorphous Silica, Titanium
oxide, dolomite, chromium oxide and kaolin.

Production operations
PVA paint is manufactured at both large and small scale and the operations involved are
as follows;
 Large scale production
For large scale production, a forklift carries one tonne palletized raw materials from
the storeroom, elevate them to a 4metre height and then deposit them at a floor
surrounding the master mix tank rim. There are four operators who work in this
section. Two people will take a bag (40 or 25kg in weight depending on the material
being fed) and had it over to other two people who will open them up and pour into
the mixer. The empty bags are piled on the empty pallet and then taken by a forklift to
the waste bin.

 Small scale production

During smaller scale production, the weighed raw materials bags placed on pallet are
taken up to first floor using an elevator. There are two operators in the plant who
receive palletized raw material bags from the elevator, tow the pallet closer to the
tanks, open up the bags and load the dispersion tanks. A dust extractor sucks some of
the dust that is emitted at the tanks.

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As the operators load powders into mixing vessels, a lot of dust is emitted and some
spillages occur as well. The powders that fly out as dust and the spills result in pollution
and wastes. The exposure to powders through breathing or body contact is a health
hazard to the operator and the environment.

Some of the pigments may influence the body on a more subtle level to produce cancer
and these are called carcinogens. Toxin is another class of hazardous pigments which the
body does not excrete and can build up to a dangerous dose; e.g. lead. Other pigments are
not toxic but are nevertheless harmful as they may have an irritating action which the
body responds to much more slowly than to a really toxic material.

1.2.3 Health impacts of powder raw materials

Though the operators haven’t yet been send for medical examination to ascertain the
health effects of the chemicals they get exposed to, there are various health effects
associated with them according to the Material Safety Data Sheets, (MSDS).

i. Silica
It is very adsorbent and may have a drying effect on skin and eyes. When the
occupational exposure limit is exceeded, a mechanical burdening of the system is
possible.

ii. Titanium Dioxide

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified titanium
dioxide as being possibly carcinogenic to humans. MSDS states that titanium
dioxide can cause some lung fibrosis at fifty times the nuisance dust, defined by
the US Department of Labour as 15 mg/m cubed (OSHA) or 10 mg/m cubed
(ACGIH Threshold Limit Value).
iii. Chromium Oxide

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Acute hazards or symptoms include cough when inhaled and when there is skin
contact, and then skin becomes reddish. Repeated or prolonged contact with skin
may cause dermatitis. Lungs may be affected by repeated or prolonged exposure,
resulting in fibrosis, chronic bronchitis, and pneumoconiosis.

iv. Georgia Kaolin

The side effects of kaolin, inhalation of kaolin through occupational exposure
may cause pneumoconiosis whilst for its toxicities inhalation may predispose
miners to pulmonary diseases.
v. Mica 300
In some people, mica can have the immediate effect of irritating the eyes and skin,
causing redness and itching. Inhaling mica can cause wheezing, coughing and
shortness of breath as it irritates the mucous membranes lining the lungs.
Repeated high exposure to mica can cause fibrosis in the lungs.

1.3 DESIGN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

Design for the Environment Program (DfE) is a United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) program, created in 1992, that works to prevent pollution, and the risk
pollution presents to humans and the environment.

There are three main concepts that fall under the Design for Environment umbrella.

I. Design for environmental packaging: This ensures that the materials used in
packaging are environmentally friendly, which can be achieved through the reuse
of shipping products, elimination of unnecessary paper and packaging products,
efficient use of materials and space, use of recycled and/or recyclable materials.

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II. Design for disposal or reuse: The end-of-life of a product is very important,
because some products emit dangerous chemicals into the air, ground and water
after they are disposed of in a landfill. Planning for the reuse or refurbishing of a
product will change the types of materials that would be used, how they could
later be disassembled and reused, and the environmental impacts such materials
have.

III. Design for environmental processing and manufacturing: This ensures that
raw material extraction (mining, drilling, etc.), processing (processing reusable
materials, metal melting, etc.) and manufacturing are done using materials and
processes which are not dangerous to the environment or the employees working
on said processes. This includes the minimization of waste and hazardous by-
products, air pollution, energy expenditure and other factors.

DfE employs a variety of design approaches that attempt to reduce the overall human
health and environmental impact of a product, process or service, where impacts are
considered across its life cycle. The common design approaches are;

Option 1: Redesign of products

 Consider function rather than the object:

 Can this function be met with a smaller product, with a more benign product?
 Or, at the limit, could it be met as a service without any material product?

Barriers:
- Technological (alternative is not technically feasible)
- Ergonomic, Safety (alternative may be a misfit or unsafe)
- Societal (people may not be prepared for the alternative)

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Option 2: Redesign of processes

 Many times the only way to approach the redesign (ex. paper, steel)
 Rethink what enters the manufacturing (entry materials)

 Rethink technology of specific processes (e.g. solvents)

 Consider what goes out besides the product itself

Barriers:
- Technological (alternative is not technically feasible)
- Ergonomic, Safety (alternative may be a misfit or unsafe)

Of these options the order of difficulty and commitment on the part of the company to
implement is illustrated in Fig 1.4 that follows.

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Process optimization using Design for Environment concept in the input material of the
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Figure 1.2: DFE implementation commitment progression

Since DfE works to prevent pollution, and the risk pollution presents to humans and the
environment, its adoption in the PVA plant will help reduce pollution in the form of
emissions and spills thereby reducing health risks to the operators. Different software
tools have been developed to assist designers in finding optimized products (or
processes/services) thus there will be an increase in plant productivity which results in
gain in competitive advantage.

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1.4 PROBLEM DEFINITION

1.4.1 Project Aim and Objectives

The aim of the project is to apply the Design for Environment concept for the
optimization of the input material operation of the PVA paint disperser. To achieve this
aim, the following objectives were set;
1 To come up with a design that will reduce dust emissions by 56%.
2 To reduce potential health hazards in the plant by 50%.
3 To improve plant productiveness thereby increasing competitive advantage.

1.4.2 Project Justification

There is pollution in the PVA plant from pigments dust emissions and spillages. A
number of potential hazards are associated with the exposure to these pigments. Some
pigments may be carcinogenic, some may cause delayed effects involving the respiratory
system such as chronic bronchitis, pneumoconiosis whilst others cause pulmonary
diseases. There is need to reduce exposure of operators to these chemicals through
pollution prevention. The DFE approach will prevent pollution, and the risk pollution
presents to humans and the environment.

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1.5 PROPOSITION
The application of DFE technology to the PVA plant will;
 reduce the quantities of dust emissions and spills
 reduce exposure to hazardous materials and associated risks
 improve productivity
The working environment will be cleaner and safe thereby reducing health hazards.

1.6 PROJECT SCOPE

The major wastes that the paint industry must manage to prevent pollution are empty raw
material packages, dust, off-specification paint, spills, and equipment cleaning wastes.
This research will focus on dust and spills as major wastes. Though there are several
approaches to pollution prevention, this research will focus on Design for Environment to
eradicate pollution in the PVA plant thereby reducing pollution risk to humans and the
environment.

1.7 CORE QUESTIONS

 What causes dust accumulation in the plant?

 What are the levels of dust accumulation in the plant?
 What are the effects of dust emissions and spillages in the plant?
 What are the levels of contact of the operator with chemicals in the plant?
 What are the associated risks of getting in contact with chemicals during
production?
 How can pollution from spillages and emissions be controlled in the plant?

1.8 METHODOLOGY
Both quantitative and qualitative methods will be used. These will include;

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 Data gathering tools such as interviews, questionnaires and field study through
participant observation and experiments
 Design for the Environment approach
 Cleaner Production Assessment methodology
 ISO 14001
 Life Cycle Assessment
 Design for Experiments

1.9 PROJECT PLANNING

The scheduled tasks and their dates start and end dates are shown in the table that
follows.

Table1.1: Project schedule

Task Description Start Date End Date Responsibility
1 Project compilation and Approval 2/9/2012 2/20/2012 WM, PS

2 Literature Review 2/21/2012 3/5/2012 WM

3 Company audit (CPA)-Astra paints 3/6/2012 4/10/2012 WM

4 Results and Discussion 4/11/2012 5/25/2012 WM

5 Recommendations and conclusion 5/26/2012 6/5/2012 WM

Key: PS – Project Supervisor, WM – Project Researcher

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Fig 1.3: Gantt chart

1.10 PROJECT BUDGET

Capital will be required to secure materials and subcontracting some the work that cannot
be accomplished in-house but the total costs to be incurred are expected to be very low.
The actual figures are not yet known but will be determined at the detailed design stage.
Table 1.2: Project budget
Item Cost
Fieldwork $500
Prototype $50
Documentation $30
Total $580

1.11 PROJECT COMMUNICATION

The researcher will communicate every two days with the supervisor either physically or
electronically.

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1.12 PROJECT CONTROL

Records of e-mails will be kept as proof of correspondents. However, a project control
document will also be used to record the discussions with the Project supervisor.
Table 1.4: Project control document
ITEM DATE DESCRIPTION DURATION SUPERVISOR COMMENTS
OF ACTIVITY
(days) SIGNATURE

1 2/9/2012 Project title 3

2 2/12/2012 Project proposal 11

3 2/12/2012 Proposal correction 5

4 2/20/2012 Proposal approval 1

1.13 CONCLUSION
The Design for Environment technology will be applied to prevent pollution from dust
emissions and spillages in the plant. With the DFE approach, some tools will be used to
identify, quantify and find options to minimize wastes and improve environmental
performance. The identified option for DFE product will be developed with the aid of
finite element analysis softwares so as to come up with optimized products or processes.
The PVA plant will be cleaner and safe thereby reducing potential health hazards.

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CHAPTER TWO:

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is on literature of paint manufacturing, the wastes that are generated, the
impacts of these and how they can be eradicated. Further to this technologies to reduce
pollution due to these wastes were explored.

2.1 PAINT MANUFACTURING

Paint is a term used to describe a number of substances that consist of a pigment
suspended in a liquid or paste vehicle such as oil or water.

2.1.1 Production processes

In general, the first step in making paint involves mixing the pigment with resin, solvents,
and additives to form a paste. If the paint is meant for industrial use, it usually is then
routed into a sand mill, a large cylinder that agitates tiny particles of sand or silica to
grind the pigment particles, making them smaller and dispersing them throughout the
mixture. In contrast, most commercial-use point is processed in a high-speed dispersion
tank, in which a circular, toothed blade attached to a rotating shaft agitates the mixture
and blends the pigment into the solvent. The batch process production of paint involves
four major steps:
I. Preassembly and premix
II. Pigment grinding/milling
III. Product finishing/blending
IV. Product filling/packaging

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Some of the equipment used to accomplish these manufacturing steps include roller mills;
ball and pebble mills; attritors; sand, bead, and shot mills; horizontal media mills; and
high-speed disk dispersers, (U.S. EPA, 1992).

Raw Materials

Paint is composed of pigments, solvents, resins, and various additives. The pigments give
the paint colour; solvents make it easier to apply; resins help it dry; and additives serve as
everything from fillers to anti-fungicidal agents.
 Pigments
Pigment is the most obvious part of the paint and is normally a solid material
composed of very fine particles which are insoluble in the vehicle (or binder). Its
presence affects the flow, gloss and durability of the paint and other properties such
as corrosion resistance, fire resistance, antifouling etc. It must remain suspended in
the paint and not settle to form hard sediment (www.apmf.asn.au/index.php).
Hundreds of different pigments, both natural and synthetic, exist. The basic white
pigment is titanium dioxide, selected for its excellent concealing properties, but also
used are zinc oxide, lithopone (a mixture of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate) and
antimony oxide. The black pigment is commonly made from carbon black. Other
pigments used to make paint include iron oxide and cadmium sulphide for reds,
metallic salts for yellows and oranges, and iron blue and chrome yellows for blues
and greens.
 Solvents
The solvent or diluent is the material with which the binder and pigment are mixed in
order that the paint may be of the correct consistency when applied to the surface by
brush, roller, spray, dipping and other methods. Solvents are various low viscosities,
volatile liquids. They include petroleum mineral spirits and aromatic solvents such as

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benzol, alcohols, esters, ketones, and acetone. Water is the main diluent for water-
borne paints, even the co-solvent types.
 Resins
These are binders, solid or liquid material, commonly referred to as vehicles that are
used to bind together the pigment particles to form a tough, continuous and adherent
film, (SAPMA 2010). The natural resins most commonly used are lint-seed, coconut,
and soybean oil, while alkyds, acrylics, epoxies, and polyurethanes number among
the most popular synthetic resins.
 Additives
Additives are materials which are added to the paint, usually in small quantities to
serve many purposes. Some additives are polymerization modifiers which act as
initiators, catalysts, accelerators and stabilizers, others are viscosity modifiers which
are thickeners or fine particle extenders, whilst there are surface tension modifiers
which can reduce gloss, promote flow, wetting agents, and dispersion stabilizers.
Some, like calcium carbonate and aluminium silicate, are simply fillers that give the
paint body and substance without changing its properties. Other additives produce
certain desired characteristics help it dry more quickly or flow out evenly to remove
brush marks and to stop skinning in the can. One example is silicone; this makes the
surface of the paint film more resistant to marking and scratching.

Production process
A block flow diagram of the steps involved in manufacturing paint is presented in Fig 2.1
that follows.

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Fig 2.1: Paint manufacturing process

Products
At a typical plant in the paint production industry, there are two main products: solvent-
based paint and water-based paint, (U.S EPA, 1990).

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a. Solvent-based paint
The production of solvent-based paint (or enamel) begins by mixing some of these:
resins, dry pigment, and pigment extenders, in a high speed mixer. During this operation,
solvents and plasticizers are also added. Following the mixing operation, the batch
frequently is transferred to a mill for additional grinding and mixing. The type of mill is
dependent on the types of pigments being handled, so that no one style is universal. Next,
the paint base or concentrate is transferred to an agitated tank where tints and thinner
(usually a volatile naphtha or blend of solvents) and the balance of the resin are added.
Upon reaching the proper consistency, the paint is filtered to remove any non-dispersed
pigment and transferred to a loading hopper. From the hopper, the paint is poured into
cans, labeled, packed, and moved to storage.

b. Water-based paint
The water-based paint (the polyvinyl acetate paint, PVA) production process is very
similar to that of solvent-based paint. The major difference is the substitution of water for
solvent and the sequencing of material additions. Preparation of water-based paint begins
by mixing together water, ammonia, and a dispersant in a mixer. To this mixture, dry
pigment and pigment extenders are added. After mixing, the material is ground in a mill
and then transferred to an agitated mix tank. Four additions of materials occur in this
tank. First, resin and plasticizers are added to the mixture; second, a preservative and an
antifoaming agent are added; third, a polyvinyl acetate emulsion is added; and fourth,
water is added as a thinner. Following this mixing operation, the handling of the paint is
similar to that for solvent-based paints. At many facilities the grinding and the mixing
and grinding operation may be bypassed with all the dispersion operations occurring in a
single high-speed mixer.

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2.1.2 Waste generation

Typically, paint facilities segregate and store waste only to the degree required by the
waste disposal contractor. Since the degree of segregation can affect the amount of
material having to be classified as hazardous, and the cost of disposing of hazardous
material is increasing, paint facilities are taking a more active role in waste management.
The major wastes that the paint industry must manage are empty raw material packages,
dust from air pollution control equipment, off-specification paint, spills, and equipment
cleaning wastes. Equipment cleaning wastes are a dominant waste stream. The primary
specific wastes associated with paint manufacturing are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Paint Manufacturing Process Wastes
Waste Description Process Origin Composition

1. Leftover raw materials Unloading of materials Paper bags with a few

containers into mixing tanks ounces of left over
pigments
2. Pigment dusts from air unloading of pigment Pigments
3. Off-specification Colour matching(small Paint
scale production)
4. Spills Accidental discharge Paint, raw materials

5. Waste rinse water Equipment cleaning using Paint, water, caustic

water and/or caustic
solutions
6. Paint sludge Equipment cleaning, sludge Paint, water,
removed from cleaning caustic, solvent
solution

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(Adapted from EPA/625/7-90/005, 1990, Guides To Pollution Prevention: The Paint

Manufacturing Industry)

2.1.3 Health effects of the pigment dust

Silica
This is a synthetic, odourless white powder which is non-toxic. It is an amorphous silica
substance with special treatment and is chemically and biologically inert. Though it is
non-toxic, the product is very adsorbent and may have a drying effect on skin and eyes.
When the Occupational exposure limit is exceeded, a mechanical burdening of the system
is possible, (EC Safety Data Sheet, 1993)

Titanium Dioxide
Titanium dioxide is a white, opaque and naturally- occurring mineral found in two main
forms: rutile and anatase. When used as a pigment, it is called titanium white or Pigment
White 6. Titanium dioxide is regarded as an inert, non-toxic substance by many
regulatory bodies such as the MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and others charged
with the responsibility of safeguarding the health of occupational workers and public
health. The ACGIH states that titanium dioxide is "not classifiable as a human
carcinogen". Titanium dioxide dust, when inhaled, has been classified by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as an IARC Group 2B carcinogen;
possibly carcinogenic to humans. The findings of the IARC are based on the discovery
that high concentrations of pigment-grade (powdered) and ultrafine titanium dioxide dust
caused respiratory tract cancer in rats exposed by inhalation and intracheal instillation.
MSDS states that titanium dioxide can cause some lung fibrosis at fifty times the
nuisance dust, defined by the US Department of Labour as 15 mg/m cubed (OSHA) or 10
mg/m cubed (ACGIH Threshold Limit Value).

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Chromium Oxide
Chromium Oxide, Cr2O3, is a brown-black powder in appearance. According to National
Institute of Occupational Health and Safety, NIOSH, acute hazards or symptoms include
cough when inhaled and when there is skin contact, and then skin becomes reddish.
Repeated or prolonged contact with skin may cause dermatitis. Lungs may be affected by
repeated or prolonged exposure, resulting in fibrosis. From the MSDS, Potential Acute
Health Effects include hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact
(irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation. Potential chronic health effects involve its
hazardousness in case of inhalation and slightly hazardous in case of skin contact
(sensitizer). For the carcinogenic effects it is coded A4 (Not classifiable for human) by
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, (ACGIH), and coded 3
(Not classifiable for human.) by international Agency for Research on Cancer, (IARC).
Mutagenic effects include mutagenic for mammalian somatic cells and mutagenic for
bacteria and/or yeast. The substance may be toxic to upper respiratory tract, skin.
Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage. As
noted by ACGIH, in their publication, "Documentation of Threshold Limit Values"
repeated and prolonged exposures may cause delayed effects involving the respiratory
system such as chronic bronchitis, pneumoconiosis.

Georgia Kaolin
Kaolin is a hydrated aluminium silicate and the name Georgia Kaolin indicates that it is
kaolin from Georgia. Kaolin has traditionally been used internally to control diarrhoea.
Kaolin has also been used topically as an emollient and drying agent. Specifically, it has
been used to dry oozing and weeping poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac rashes.
For the side effects of kaolin, inhalation of kaolin through occupational exposure may

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cause pneumoconiosis whilst for its toxicities inhalation may predispose miners to
pulmonary diseases.
Mica 300
Mica is a colorless, odorless solid that easily flakes into powder. It is typically used in
industrial settings as electrical insulation, and in the production of roofing shingles,
wallpaper, paint and plastics. As a powder, it is pearlescent and satiny- a quality that also
makes it a common ingredient in mineral cosmetics where it provides a glittery effect.
Though mica is harmless as a solid, its powder or dust can cause both short and long term
health problems. In some people, mica can have the immediate effect of irritating the
eyes and skin, causing redness and itching. Inhaling mica can cause wheezing, coughing
and shortness of breath as it irritates the mucous membranes lining the lungs. Repeated
high exposure to mica can cause fibrosis in the lungs, where the constant irritation from
inhaling mica dust causes scarring of the lung tissue. This results in the chronic coughing
and shortness of breath typical of pneumoconiosis, a disease often seen in people who
work in mines where they are exposed to coal dust. The carcinogenic effects of mica are
unclear, but considering other known health effects it is probably best to avoid exposure
as much as possible. (www.ehow.com/info_8551607_harmful-effects-powdered-
mica.html#ixzz1pZa9EJ1z)

2.1.4 Waste minimization options in paint manufacturing

Wastes generated by the industry are usually managed in one of four ways: onsite reuse,
on-site recycling, off-site recycling, and off-site treatment/disposal. On-site reuse
involves the reuse of waste (without treatment) as a feed or wash material for producing
other batches of paint. Also included is the sale or in-house use of off-specification paint
as utility paint. On-site recycling involves the reclaiming of solvent by distillation or
recovery of heating values by incineration. Usually, on-site recycling is performed by
large companies (those that produce more than 35,000 gallons of solvent waste each year)

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while small companies (those that produce 20,000 gallons or less per year) send the waste
to an off-site recycler. The fourth option, off-site treatment/ disposal, involve incineration
or land disposal and equipment cleaning wastes. Equipment cleaning wastes are a
dominant waste stream, (EPA, 1990).
There various ways that can be employed to mitigate waste highlighted in the previous
section are described in Table2.2 that follows.

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Table 2.2: Waste minimization options

Equipment cleaning wastes Use mechanical wipers on mix tanks.
(rinse water, solvent and sludge) Use high pressure wash systems.
Install Teflon liners on mix tanks.
Use foam/plastic pigs to clean lines.
Reuse equipment cleaning wastes.
Schedule production to minimize need for
cleaning.
Clean equipment immediately.
Use counter current rinse methods.
Use alternative cleaning agents.
Increase spent rinse settling time.
Use de-emulsifiers on spent rinses.
Spills and off spec paint Increase use of automation.
Use appropriate cleanup methods.
Recycle back into process. Implement better
operating practices.
Leftover inorganic pigment in bags and Use water soluble bags and liners.
packages Use recyclable/lined/dedicated containers.
Air emissions, including pigment dust Modify bulk storage tanks.
Use paste pigments.
Install dedicated baghouse systems
Obsolete products/customer returns Blend into new products.

(Adapted from EPA/625/7-90/005, 1990, Guides To Pollution Prevention: The Paint

Manufacturing Industry)

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2.1.5 Air emissions control

The two major types of air emissions that occur in the paint manufacturing process are
volatile organic compounds and pigment dusts. Volatile organics may be emitted from
the bulk storage of resins and solvents and from their use in open processing equipment
such as mix tanks. Since most existing equipment is of open design, reducing or
controlling organic emissions from process equipment could require substantial
expenditures in retrofit costs. Additional work on control methods appears to be
warranted in this area, and as a result, the following measures only address bulk storage
and pigment handling.

Control bulk storage air emissions.

Many methods are available for reducing the amount of emissions resulting from fixed
roof storage tanks. Some of these methods include use of conservation vents, conversion
to floating roof, use of nitrogen blanketing to suppress emissions and reduce material
oxidation, use of refrigerated condensers, use of lean-oil or carbon absorbers, or use of
vapour compressors. When dealing with volatile materials, employment of one or more
of these methods can result in cost savings to the facility by reducing raw material losses.
Some of the dusts generated during the handling, grinding, and mixing of pigments can
be hazardous. Therefore, dust collection equipment (hoods, exhaust fans, and baghouses)
are provided to minimize a worker’s exposure to localized dusting and to filter ventilation
air exhaust.

Use of pigments in paste form instead of dry powders.

Pigments in paste form are dry pigments that have been wetted or mixed with resins.
Since these pigments are wet, less dust or no dust is generated when the package is
opened. In addition, most pigments in paste form are supplied in drums (which can be

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recycled) and therefore would eliminate the waste due to empty bags. While this method
would increase the amount of pigment handling occurring at the supplier’s facility, it can
be argued that the overall number of handling/transfer points for dry powder will be
greatly reduced along with the probability of spills and dust generation.

Dedicated bag house system for pigment loading area.

At Daly-Herring Co., in Kinston, N.C., (while Daly- Herring is engaged in the
formulation of pesticides and not paints, there are many material handling problems
common to both industries) dust streams from several different production areas were
handled by a single bag house. Since all of the streams were mixed, none of the waste
could be recycled to the process that generated them. By installing separate dedicated
baghouses for each production line, all of the collected pesticide dust could be recycled
(Huisingh and Martin 1985). This example doesn’t imply that most of the dust generated
by the paint industry can be recycled; rather it does show the overall importance of
keeping waste streams segregated.

2.1.6 Spills reduction options

Spills are due to accidental or inadvertent discharges usually occurring during transfer
operations or equipment failures (leaks). Spilled paint and the resulting clean up wastes
are usually discharged to the wastewater treatment system or are directly drummed for
disposal. If the plant has floor drains, large quantities of water may be used to clean up
water-based paint spills. Dry cleaning methods are employed for cleaning of solvent-
containing spills or for water-based spills where floor drains are not available.
Waste reduction methods similar to those for spills and off-spec paint include:
 Increased automation through process re-design
 Better operating practices in the plant, (EPA, 1990)

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2.2 DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT

Design for the Environment Program, (DfE) is a United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) program, created in 1992, that works to prevent pollution, and the risk
pollution presents to humans and the environment. The EPA DfE program provides
information regarding safer electronics, safer flame retardants, safer chemical
formulations, as well as best environmental practices. DFE is a tool for sustainable
development as illustrated in Fig 2.2 that follows.

Fig 2.2: DFE and Sustainable Development

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2.2.1 Why Design for the Environment?

There is a growing demand for cleaner, greener products. This demand highlights the
commercial potential of Design for the Environment. Growing sophistication among
consumers provides the ‘market pull’ for products with lower environmental impacts.

Design for the Environment can also provide a method of compliance with increasingly
stringent environmental regulations (both present and future) for products. Market entry
can now be explicitly dictated by the regulation of environmental performance. For New
Zealand manufacturers to export to Europe, they are already faced with this issue due to
explicit regulations concerning packaging, electronics and restricted substances. Non-
compliant products can now be denied access to the valuable European market. As a
result, manufacturers and brand owners can gain commercial advantage by addressing
compliance issues through Design for the Environment.

2.2.2 Goals of DFE

The three main goals of DFE are:

 Promoting green cleaning and recognizing safer consumer and industrial and
institutional products through safer product labeling.
 Defining Best Practices in areas ranging from auto refinishing to nail salon safety.

 Identifying safer chemicals, including life cycle considerations, through

Alternatives Assessment.

To achieve these goals, there are three main concepts that fall under the DFE umbrella
and they include design for environmental processing and manufacturing, design for
environmental packaging and design for disposal or reuse

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Design for environmental processing and manufacturing: This ensures that raw material
extraction (mining, drilling, etc.), processing (processing reusable materials, metal
melting, etc.) and manufacturing are done using materials and processes which are not
dangerous to the environment or the employees working on said processes. This includes
the minimization of waste and hazardous by-products, air pollution, energy expenditure
and other factors.

Design for environmental packaging: This ensures that the materials used in packaging
are environmentally friendly, which can be achieved through the reuse of shipping
products, elimination of unnecessary paper and packaging products, efficient use of
materials and space, use of recycled and/or recyclable materials.

Design for disposal or reuse: The end-of-life of a product is very important, because
some products emit dangerous chemicals into the air, ground and water after they are
disposed of in a landfill. Planning for the reuse or refurbishing of a product will change
the types of materials that would be used, how they could later be disassembled and
reused, and the environmental impacts such materials have.

2.2.3 Drivers for Design for Environment

Motivation to implement Design for the Environment can come from within the company
itself (internal drivers) and, increasingly, it will come from the immediate and global
marketplace (external drivers).

Internal Drivers

(a) Need for increased product quality — a high level of environmental quality may
also raise product quality in terms of functionality, reliability in operation,
durability and/or reparability.

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(b) Image improvement — communicating a product’s environmental quality to

users through an environmental ‘seal of quality’, such as the Environmental
Choice Label or a good report in consumer tests, can improve a company’s image
significantly.

(c) Need to stimulate innovation — Design for the Environment can lead to radical
changes at the product system level – the combination of product, market and
technology. Such innovations can provide entry into new markets.

(d) Need to reduce costs — Companies can use DfE strategies to deliver financial
benefits by:

• purchasing fewer materials for each of its products;

• using energy and auxiliary materials more efficiently during production;

• generating less waste and lowering disposal costs; and

• reducing the need to dispose of hazardous waste.

(e) Employee motivation — Morale generally increases when employees are

empowered to help reduce the environmental impact of the company’s products
and processes. DfE can also boost employee motivation by improving
occupational health and safety.

(f) A sense of responsibility — there is a growing awareness that business plays an

important role in working towards sustainable development.

External Drivers

(a) Government policies — Product-oriented environmental policy is growing

rapidly worldwide. The following are some examples and trends:

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• Development of a product stewardship policy by the New Zealand government.

This policy may result in legislation requiring producers to take more
responsibility for their products when they reach the end of their life.

• Extended producer responsibility legislation passed by the European Union that

includes a take-back obligation for all electronic and electrical goods, and others
such as cars and packaging

• Introduction of mandatory eco-labelling programmes for products or product

groups

• Requirement to provide environmental information on products and processes,

requiring business to pursue more pro-active environmental communication
policies

• Development of industrial subsidy programmes to stimulate Design for the

Environment activities and encourage companies to carry out research into
potential environmental improvements.

(b) Market demand/competition — the needs/wants of suppliers, distributors and

end-users are powerful drivers for environmental improvement. The following
are some examples and trends:

• Some companies are systematically reviewing their entire supply chain and
imposing new environmental standards or other measures of environmental
performance.

• Increased implementation of environmental management programmes in many

industries has resulted in more companies experiencing cleaner production. In
cases where intense competition exists for a particular product, companies with a

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good environmental profile can create an ‘edge’ by promoting their environmental

point-of-difference.

• The development of a more environmentally-friendly product may give a

company access to new markets. There is strong growth in environmentally
conscious consumerism worldwide and Design for the Environment may provide
an opportunity to tap into this market.

(c) Trade/industrial organisations — these organizations often encourage member

companies to take action towards environmental improvement. Most
organisations are supporting and encouraging the introduction of more
environmentally focused programmes, initiatives and standards. The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14000 series is an example of
international standards for environmental management systems, life-cycle
assessment, environmental auditing of processes, environmental labelling and
environmental performance evaluation.

(d) Waste charges — Waste processing charges such as landfill costs are constantly
increasing. The prevention of waste and emissions and re-use and recycling will
consequently become more attractive and make economic sense.

(e) Environmental requirements for design awards — several respected design

competitions have now stipulated that contestants must provide specific
environmental information on their products.

2.2.4 Benefits of Design for Environment

Companies that apply Design for the Environment enjoy a number of business benefits
which are seen in the following aspects:

i. The bottom line — Cuts costs of raw materials and waste disposal

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ii. Customer expectations — Meets user needs/wants by exceeding current

expectations for price, performance and quality

iii. Environmental marketing — some customers now include Design for the
Environment issues in tender documentation and a ‘greener’ image can increase
market share

iv. Enhanced reputation — demonstrating good environmental performance can

enhance the company’s standing with shareholders, investors and other
stakeholders

v. Improvements in workplace health and safety — through reduced waste and

emissions

vi. Increased staff morale — there is a growing awareness among staff that
businesses play an important role in working towards sustainable development.
This can provide a strong personal incentive to pursue Design for the
Environment.

vii. Environmental performance of products — reduces the environmental impact of

products throughout their life cycle

viii. Efficiency — Optimizes raw material consumption and energy use

ix. Environmental performance of processes — Improves waste management or

pollution prevention systems

x. Innovation — Encourages good design and drives innovation.

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2.2.5 DfE implementation procedure

Fig 2.3: Steps to implement DFE

1. Analyse Opportunities

Review products and markets

This can be through an investigation of the product development process within the
company, the product market and incentives for adopting DFE by:

 identifying drivers behind product design (for example, are product specifications
driven by engineering or by marketing?)

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 identifying the roles of individuals in the product development process;

 researching the product market and the competitive climate (information may
already exist within the company);
 identifying anticipated environmental regulations (for example, through our
industry association or State/Territory environment protection authorities, or by
looking at the regulations that affect our industry in other countries).

Analyse company capacity

Investigate company’s resources and capabilities by:
 identifying skills and knowledge that already exist within the company that will
help implement DFE;
 identifying existing programs that can provide complimentary structures and
resources for DFE

Identify DFE opportunities

DFE can be implemented by:
 finding out which products may be ready for upgrading or redesign;
 identifying new products that are being designed but have not yet moved into the
production phase,
 identifying simple changes that can be made to existing products,

Identify potential benefits

The potential benefits of providing a powerful incentive for adopting DFE should be
found. You have to:
 identify measures that cost little to implement but have the potential for
significant cost savings

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 identify ways to comply with anticipated regulations now, to avoid future

problems and allow products to compete in the global marketplace; e.g.
compliance now, to ISO 14001, when such certification may become statutory in
future.
 analyse our market research to determine if there are potential benefits from
environmental initiatives
 identify moves by major competitors to embrace environmental approaches, it
may be easier to convince an organisation to adopt DFE if competitors are also
taking new initiatives.

Identification of a suitable product

Selection of a product for the DFE program and creation of a detailed picture of the
product by: All are involved in the process; concurrent engineering.
 identifying a suitable product for redesign or a new product for DFE; and
 building a background dossier on the product, including the market and company
information gathered earlier as well as the product details, design features,
production processes, etc.

2. Promote DFE within the Company

DFE implementation by:

 gaining commitment from senior management, for example, by providing

examples of success stories, by bench-marking, and identifying incentives, e.g.
bigger market share, less liabilities, salary increases.
 ensuring senior management officially launches the company’s DFE program;
 providing DFE information and success stories in an accessible format, for
example, on the company’s internal communications network;

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 talking with individuals who have an interest in DFE or an incentive to adopt it,
for example, a marketing manager interested in green consumer preferences
 finding and supporting a DFE ‘champion’ in the company, and departmental
representatives, who comprise the team to promote DFE and ensure its
consideration within their section;
 providing training and education for those involved with DFE.

3. Setting Goals and Identifying Strategies

Having identified potential DFE opportunities and raised awareness within the company,
there is a need to develop goals and strategies for implementing DFE. Organisational
goals and strategies can be set first before working at the level of specific products. These
can help to gain commitment within the company and raise awareness of the scope,
implementation and likely outcomes of a DFE project. It is essential that the DFE
strategies and goals are closely aligned with the organisation’s overall strategic direction.
This could be through:

 holding a strategy formulation session for staff at various levels who have been
informed about DFE;
 identifying realistic goals and targets for DFE implementation, environmental
improvements and economic performance based on DFE initiatives;
 identifying the resources available for implementing DFE and seek additional
resources if necessary;
 setting goals for specific products, business units or divisions;
 ensuring DFE strategies are aligned with overall company directions or redirect
company where necessary;
 developing strategies for achieving the targets;
 identifying time-oriented milestones and areas of responsibility.

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4. Applying DFE Tools

Find suitable tools

Different tools shall be used in implementing DFE; Cleaner Production; life cycle
assessment programs, simple checklists, guidelines and scoring matrices, and especially
ISO 14001.

There is need to:

 explore the available tools, consider the level of sophistication needed, the
resources available to invest in tools, the complexity of the product and the
amount of design time available;
 determine which other DFE tools are suitable, both for the tasks and the people
using them;
 evaluate tools and select the most appropriate ones;
 start with simple DFE tools and work towards more complex ones;
 bring in external assistance and/or training if needed.

Assessing the life cycle of the product

A preliminary analysis of the life cycle can reveal where the greatest environmental
impacts occur and the opportunities for improvement. This is achieved by:

 identifying the inputs, outputs and wastes of each stage of the product’s life cycle;
 identifying environmental impacts through an initial simple analysis, for example,
by brainstorming with other staff;

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 identifying ‘upstream’ impacts before our company gets involved and

‘downstream’ impacts, following our involvement, and which stages our company
can influence;
 assessing environmental impacts at each stage.

5. Developing the Product

Having moved through all or some of the previous stages, the next step is to begin
designing, developing and prototyping the new product.

There is need to:

 gain company agreement on specific product strategies and development

directions to be pursued;
 prepare a brief for detailed design, development and prototyping;
 provide the production team with DFE tools and information in a format
consistent with other production specifications;
 appoint the external consultant to evaluate the design for compliance with
environmental goals,

6. Marketing the Product

Much of the ability of the DFE process to add value to the product will eventually come
down to marketing by:

 using the DFE process to develop credible, accurate and substantiated

environmental information for the consumer;
 becoming involved in appropriate rating schemes (such as water efficiency
ratings) that help to market environmentally preferred products;

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 finding ways to inform and educate consumers about the environmental benefits
of our product;
 considering forming partnerships with retailers, local governments, environment
and consumer groups to help with marketing.

7. Evaluating

With any new process there are risks: we may find unanticipated environmental impacts
or other reasons that an aspect of the DFE project may not be completely successful.
However, implementing DFE is a continuous learning process and knowledge gained
from the experience can improve the next product or process. At this stage there is need
to:

 adopt a formal feedback process to improve the learning ability of our company,
any person involved in product development should be able to comment on
successes and problems;
 evaluate progress against our initial goals and milestones;
 ensure feedback is incorporated into new designs or follow-on products;
 regularly audit the level of implementation within each business unit and provide
incentives for adoption.

2.3 DFE TOOLS

2.3.1 Cleaner Production

Cleaner production is defined as the continuous application of an integrated preventive
environmental strategy applied to processes, products and services to increase overall
efficiency, and reduce risks to humans and the environment (UNEP, 1989). On the other

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hand, Yacooub et al (2006) define CP as a preventive, company-specific environmental

protection initiative, which is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize
product output.

The earlier concepts of "ignore", "dilute" and "treat" pollution changed to "prevent
pollution", "re-utilize wastes or generated by-products" and finally "treat" and "dispose
of" residues in a secured manner. For production processes, cleaner production results
from one or a combination of the following - conserving raw materials and energy,
substituting toxic/hazardous materials by more benign ones and reducing the quantity
and/or toxicity of all emissions and wastes before they leave a production process.

2.3.1.1 Benefits of Cleaner Production

Cleaner Production carries great importance in the field of environmental policy and
management. Environmentally, Cleaner Production approaches provide a concrete and
long-term technique to eliminate and/or reduce such emissions as carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide.

 Cleaner Production programs are beneficial because they reduce operating costs.
For example, the costs involved with waste treatment, storage, and disposal are
often reduced through Cleaner Production programs and the savings can be used
to offset the development and implementation costs of the program. Material,
energy, and facility cleanup costs can also be reduced through Cleaner Production
programs. Material, energy, and facility cleanup costs can also be reduced through
Cleaner Production programs.

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 Cleaner Production programs reduce ecological damage from raw material

extraction and refining operations, and the risk of emissions during the production
process and during recycling, treatment, and disposal operations.
 Cleaner Production programs improve company image. For example, employees
are likely to feel more positive toward their company when they recognize that
management is committed to providing a safe working environment
 Participation in Cleaner Production activities can reduce risk of both civil and
criminal liability by minimizing the amount of waste generated. This benefit is
particularly important if the waste products are hazardous or toxic in nature.
Cleaner Production makes compliance with national, provincial, and local
regulations easier.
 Cleaner Production program can also lessen the exposure of employees to harmful
substances, thus decreasing risk and saving money.

2.3.1.2 The Cleaner Production Assessment, (CPA)

CP is implemented through a structured process. It involves identification of options and
methods of a reasonable cost, the implementation of which can lead to economic and
environmental gains. Cleaner Production Assessment is a systematic and planned
procedure for identifying, quantifying and finding options to minimize wastes,
(Weerathunga, D.M.U.A)

These steps and the related tasks of a typical CPA process are shown in Figure 2.4 that
follows.

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Figure 2.4: Steps and Tasks in the CPA Process

i. Planning and organisation

The objective of this phase is to obtain commitment to the project, initiate systems,
allocate resources and plan the details of the work to come. A project has more chance of
success if this groundwork is done well.

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 Obtain management commitment

Experience from companies throughout the world shows that Cleaner Production results
in both environmental improvements and better economic performance. However, this
message has to reach the management of the company. Without management
commitment the Cleaner Production assessment may be only a short-term environmental
management tool.

 Establish a project team

It is best to establish a project team as early in the process as possible. The project team is
responsible for coordinating the assessment and will normally undertake the following
tasks:
· Analysis and review of present practices (knowledge);
· Development and evaluation of proposed Cleaner Production initiatives (creativity);
· Implementation and maintenance of agreed changes (authority).

 Develop environmental policy, objectives and targets

The environmental policy outlines the guiding principles for the assessment. It acts to
focus efforts in a way considered most important by management. The environmental
policy can be refined as the project team gains more insight into the Cleaner Production
possibilities within the company. The policy contains the company’s mission and vision
for continuous environmental improvement and compliance with legislation. Objectives
describe how the company will do this. For example, objectives could include reducing
consumption of materials and minimising the generation of waste. Targets are measurable
and scheduled, and are used to monitor if the company is proceeding as planned. An
example of a target might be a 20% reduction in electricity consumption within 2 years.
In general, objectives and targets should be:
· Acceptable to those who work to achieve them;

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· Flexible and adaptable to changing requirements;

· Measurable over time (targets only);
· Motivational;
· In line with the overall policy statement.

 Plan the Cleaner Production assessment

The project team should draw up a detailed work plan and a time schedule for activities
within the Cleaner Production assessment. Responsibilities should be allocated for each
task so that team members involved in the project understand clearly what they have to
do. It is also wise to anticipate any problems or delays that may arise and plan for them
accordingly. Lengthy delays and problems arising out of poor planning erode motivation
at both the worker and management level.

ii. Pre-assessment
Checklist of Questions to be asked During the Walkthrough
Work floor or shop floor -
• Is the floor dirty or pounded?
• Can the workers move about easily? Is there unnecessary piling of raw materials and
stocks?
• Is the layout optimum; i.e. can the workflow be improved to minimize movement of
materials and walking time?
Storage areas -
• Is the storage system FIFO (i.e. first in first out; raw material is utilized based on the
date of procurement, giving preference to old stock) or LIFO (last in first out; fresh raw
material is utilized first, while the old stock of raw material remains unutilized)?
• How are the received raw materials checked for quality?

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• Are there frequent instances of receiving raw materials that do not meet the required
specifications? What happens to the rejects?
Equipment and process -
• Is the process operated as per the Standard Operating Practice laid down by the
equipment/technology provider? What are the reasons if there are any variations?
• Is the equipment upkeep regularly conducted? What are the operating efficiencies of the
equipment? Are machine breakdowns or problems recorded and their causes corrected
regularly?
• Are quality assurance / quality control done for the finished and intermediate products?
How frequently? What are the current results?
Boiler and steam distribution system -
• Are there any leaking joints, glands, valves, safety valves?
• Is the condensate being returned to the maximum extent possible?
• Are the condensate return lines and feed tanks jacketed or lagged?
• Are steam traps of correct types being used for each process?
• What is the fuel used? Is it of a consistent quality and composition?

• What is the source of water? Is the raw water treated before use?
• What is the type of boiler (e.g. single pass / double pass, etc.)? How frequently does the
boiler blow down?
Waste and emissions -
• Is the waste properly collected, segregated and transported?
• Is the waste generation continuous or in spurts?
• Are any measurements made of waste generated or emissions emitted?
• Are any valuable raw materials or products wasted as part of the emissions? Is it
possible to reuse or recycle them if recovered?

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iii. Assessment
 Preparation of detailed material & energy balance
It is probable that the cleaner production team finds substantial discrepancies in the
preliminary M&E balance. This may require re-discussing the assumptions behind the
numbers, conducting measurements, and making whatever revisions are necessary to the
data used for inputs and outputs. Hence, the next task for the team is to prepare detailed
material and energy balances around certain parts of the PFD. Developing a detailed
material balance for each operation is neither practical nor relevant. While assigning a
monetary value to the materials or waste streams, the team should consider the following:
 The cost of raw materials / intermediate products / final products lost in the waste
streams (e.g., the costs of unexhausted dye in waste dye liquor);
 The cost of energy in waste streams, in terms of the energy consumed to heat or
chills them;
 The cost of treatment / handling / disposal of waste streams, including tipping or
discharge fees if any;
 The costs incurred, if any, in protecting the workers and maintaining safe working
conditions (e.g., shop floor exhaust systems);
 The potential liability costs from a possible accidental spill, discharge, or leakage

 Cause diagnosis through the fishbone diagram

The cleaner production team now needs to start generating cleaner production options.
This will be possible through conducting what is known as a cause diagnosis. As the
name suggests, the cause diagnosis exercise involves asking the question “why?”; i.e.
“why did such a problem or outcome occur?”. It is essentially an exercise to hypothesize
over the root causes of any problem. The team can more effectively conduct a cause
diagnosis by using a tool known as the fishbone diagram. The fishbone diagram is an
excellent tool for cause diagnosis in complex situations where a number of factors are

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likely to be involved. Once such a diagram has been prepared, the team can effectively
use it for the generation of cleaner production options

 Allotting priorities to the causes identified in the fishbone diagram

The causes identified in the fishbone diagram are only “probable” causes. Thus, the next
step is to calculate the extent to which each particular cause contributes to the principal
problem. Tools such as Pareto analysis may be used if a number of primary and
secondary causes are to be analyzed. The Pareto analysis is used to separate the most
important causes of a problem from the many trivial ones, and thereby identify the most
important problems for the team to concentrate on.

 CP option generation
Once the points of action and priorities are understood and listed, the cleaner production
team should move on to the logical next phase; i.e. option generation. Cleaner production
options could fall under one of the following categories:
Housekeeping – Improvements to work practices and methods, proper maintenance of
equipment etc., fall under this category. Efficient housekeeping can provide significant
benefits in terms of saving resources. These options are typically low cost and provide
low to moderate benefits8. A simple example of good housekeeping in a dyeing operation
is to clean the floors and machines of dirt, grease, rust, etc. regularly, which will reduce
the possibility of accidentally soiling the fabric, and thus minimize the need for extra
washing.
Management and personnel practices – Management and personnel practices include
effective supervision, employee training, enhancing operator skills, and the provision of
incentives and bonuses to encourage employees to conscientiously strive to reduce waste
and emissions. These options are typically low cost and can provide moderate to high
benefits.

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Process optimization – Process optimization involves rationalization of the process

sequence, combining or modifying process operations to save on resources and time, and
improve process efficiency. For instance, certain washing operations may not be required
due to changes in raw materials or product specifications.

Raw material substitution – Primary / auxiliary raw materials can be substituted if better
options exist in terms of costs, process efficiency, and reduced health and safety related
hazards. Such an approach may be necessary if the materials already in use are difficult to
source, or become expensive, or come under the purview of new environmental or health
and safety regulations. In all cases of material substitution, it is crucial to test the
suitability of the new material in terms of environmental and economic benefits, optimum
concentration, product quality, productivity, and improved working conditions. For
instance, sodium sulphide and acidified dichromate tend to be used as auxiliary agents in
the sulphur black textile dyeing
process9. However, both these agents are toxic and hazardous to handle. Their usage may
leave harmful residues in the finished fabric and generate effluents that are difficult to
treat and damage the environment. Both these agents may be safely substituted without a
decline in fabric quality, thus eliminating adverse health and environmental impacts.
Sodium sulphide may be replaced with glucose or dextrose, whereas acidified dichromate
may be substituted with sodium
perborate or ammonium persulphate. The substitution of chemical dyes with natural dyes
may also be cited as an example of raw material substitution.
New technology – Adopting and transferring new technologies can often reduce resource
consumption, minimize wastes, as well as increase the throughput or the productivity.
These options are often capital intensive, but can lead to potentially high benefits.
Modifications in equipment design can be another option, which tends to be slightly less

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or equally capital intensive as the option for new technology, and can lead to potentially
high benefits.
New product design – Changing the product design can cause impacts on both the
“upstream” as well as “downstream” side of the product life-cycle. Product re-design for
instance, can reduce the quantity or toxicity of materials in a product, or reduce the use of
energy, water and other materials during use, or reduce packaging requirements, or
increase the “recyclability” of used components. This can lead to benefits such as reduced
consumption of natural resources, increased productivity, and reduced environmental
risks. Often, this helps in both establishing as well as widening the market. Product
redesign is, however, a major business strategy and may require feasibility studies and
market surveys, especially if the supply-chain around the product is already established
and is complex.
Recovery of useful by-products / resources – This cleaner production option entails the
recovery of wastes as by-products / resources, which may have useful applications within
the industry itself or outside it. This type of options essentially leads to the reuse /
recycle, and thus minimization, of waste as well as to cost savings. A common example
of recovery from a waste stream for many industries is heat recovery through the use of
heat exchangers. Such options are typically medium cost and can provide moderate to
high benefits.
Onsite recycling and reuse – Onsite recycling and reuse involves the return of a waste
material either to the originating process or to another process as a substitute for an input
material.
For instance, in the case of a textile dyeing unit, instead of draining off the last cold
washes, they can be collected in an underground tank, adjusted for pH10, and then
filtered prior to reuse in subsequent washing operations. These options are typically low
to medium cost and can provide moderate to high benefits.

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In reality, many of the options a team will identify result as a combination of the above
categories so as to produce cost-effective and sustainable results. For instance, any option
of new technology should be preceded and followed by improvements in management
and training. In addition, many a time, the option of new technology also requires
substitution of raw materials.

iv. Feasibility Analysis

 Preliminary screening of options
Once the options are identified through brainstorming, it is important to check whether all
causes identified are adequately addressed by the options or whether additional options
are required to resolve any causes that still remain outstanding.
The cleaner production team then needs to undertake a preliminary, rapid screening of the
cleaner production options developed so as to decide on implementation priorities. In
such a screening exercise, the options could be categorized into two classes:
Directly implementable options: Those simple options that are obvious and can be
implemented straightaway. Generally, options related to housekeeping (e.g., plugging
leaks and avoiding spills) or simple process optimization (e.g., control of excess air in
combustion systems) fall into this category. For these options no further detailed
feasibility analysis is required. Furthermore, their immediate implementation gives
management real, tangible benefits in a short period, which makes them more
comfortable with the cleaner production assessment.
Options requiring further analysis: Those options that are technically and/or
economically more complex. Most of the options related to management improvement,
raw material substitution, and equipment / technology change, would fall into this
category. Some of these options could even be put into a sub-category: those that require
much more information collection or are difficult to implement (due to reasons such as

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very high costs, lack of technology, requiring major changes, etc.). These can be left
pending for later consideration.
 Detailed screening of options
The team can now undertake a detailed screening of the options in the category requiring
further analysis in order to determine which of the options are technically feasible, and
ascertain both the economic and the environmental benefits of implementing these
options. Each of these aspects is described below.
 Technical evaluation
The technical evaluation should cover the following aspects:
Materials and energy consumption – For each option, it is important to establish material
and energy balances for conditions before and after implementation to quantify the
materials and energy savings that will result.
Product /by-product quality – there is need to assess the product / by-product’s quality
before and after implementation of the option.
Right First Time (RFT) – Provide estimates on the possible improvement of the RFT
corresponding to before and after option implementation. It is also important to examine
the following aspects from the point of view of implementation.
Human resources required – whether the option can be implemented by in-house staff, or
whether external expertise or collaboration with partner organization is required.
Risks in implementing the option - Some options may not be fully proven and may
require laboratory scale experiments or pilot studies to assess the outcomes before a full-
scale implementation is carried out. Some options may affect the key production process
or product features, so the potential impact on the business if the option does not work as
planned is very high.
Ease of implementation – The technical ease with which an option can be implemented
will depend on such things as the layout of the production processes and of the auxiliary
services such as steam lines, water lines, inert gas lines, etc., the physical space available,

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the maintenance requirements, the training requirements, etc. Also, if options require
working on key production processes, the timing of the options’ implementation becomes
critical. If the option requires major changes in, or interruptions to, production patterns,
any loss in production needs to be factored into the economic analysis of the option.
Time required for implementation – Time required if equipment or material needs to be
procured, installed or commissioned including consideration of shut-down time for
affecting the implementation of the option.
Cross-linkages with other options – Determine whether a particular option is linked to
implementation of other options and/or whether the option is best implemented stand-
alone or in consideration with other options.
 Environmental evaluation
The environmental evaluation of an option should ideally take into account its impacts on
the entire lifecycle of a product or a service, wherever practically possible. In practical
situations, however, the evaluation is often restricted to on-site and offsite
(neighbourhood) environmental improvements. The environmental evaluation should
include estimation of following benefits that each option can bring about:
 Likely reduction in the quantity of waste/emission released (expressed on a mass
basis);
 Likely reduction in the release of hazardous, toxic, or non-biodegradable
wastes/emissions (expressed on a mass basis);
 Likely reduction in the consumption of renewable natural resources (expressed on
a mass basis);
 Likely reduction in consumption of non-renewable natural resources, e.g. fossil
fuels consumed (expressed on a mass basis);
 Likely reduction in noise levels;
 Likely reduction in odour nuisance (due to elimination of an odorous compound);
 Likely reduction in the on-site risk levels (from the point of process safety);

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 Likely reduction in the release of globally important pollutants, viz. ozone

depleting substances, greenhouse gas emissions.

 Economic evaluation
The team must now evaluate the economic benefits of all the reductions in waste
generation and resource consumption that each option can bring about. It must estimate
the immediately obvious savings in the purchase costs of materials and fuels, the
treatment and disposal costs avoided as well as the material and waste stream costs
(identified during the M&E balance earlier). However, it must also estimate less obvious
financial benefits such reduced sick days for workers or generally higher worker
productivity, lower personnel costs from reducing the burden of special management and
reporting of hazardous materials, wastes and pollution, reduced worker and
environmental liability, potential profits from sale of waste as by-product, from carbon
dioxide credits, etc. Experience has shown that such an expanded financial assessment
often helps in considerably improving the economic feasibility of an option.
The team must also estimate the economic costs of each option, in the form of
investments in new technology or equipment, but also in terms of training and other costs
ancillary to the implementation of the option.
These benefits and costs are then analyzed and computed using various evaluation criteria
[e.g. Payback Period, Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), etc.].
A simple Payback Period is evaluated based on a comparison of the annual savings and
the initial investment. It simply indicates the time period to return the initial investment.
It is calculated as,

The payback period should be generally considered only as a ballpark assessment as it

ignores depreciation of the investment made and the time value of money. Usually,

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investment decisions can only be made on the basis of payback period alone if the
investment required is low and / or the returns are high so that the payback period is less
than two years.
If these conditions are not met, a better approach is to use the concepts of NPV or IRR.
These concepts consider the time value of cash inflows and outflows during the useful
life of the investment made. This kind of economic evaluation requires information on:
 The capital costs associated with any investments required;
 Net revenue, which is computed as a difference between total revenue (that could
be higher than the base case) and the operating costs (that are typically lower in
the changed scenario); and
 Rates of interest and depreciation to enable computation of the Present Value.
The following are the equations that can be used for computation of NPV:

The I 's are income amounts for each year. The subscripts (which are also the exponents
in the denominators) are the year numbers, starting with 0, which is this year. The
discount rate -- assumed to be constant in the future -- is r. The number of years the
investment lasts is n. For an investment to be financially viable NPV must be greater than
zero.
IRR is essentially that rate of return on an investment that ensures that during the
investment’s lifetime the net cash inflows (i.e. inflows – outflows) are equal to zero, i.e.,
IRR is the value of r that gives zero as the value of NPV thus given the (period, cash
flow) pairs (n, Cn) where n is a positive integer, the total number of periods N, and the net
present value NPV, the internal rate of return is given by r in:

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This problem is solved by assuming r and then following an interpolation procedure. The
IRR is then compared with the rate of interest of the borrowings that may be needed from
the market. Typically, if the IRR is lower than the market borrowing rate, then the
investment is not considered to be financially viable.
It is useful to carry out a sensitivity analysis to understand the “ruggedness” of an option.
This can be done by varying the expected efficiencies or yields, prices that the by-
products may fetch in the market, or the capital costs of new equipment, and see how
much of an effect these have on the outcome. This can help in building both optimistic
and pessimistic scenarios to test how sensitive the IRR or NPV are to the data assumed in
the economic analysis.

v. Implementation of Cleaner Production Options

The three evaluations help to eliminate options that are not viable. The remaining options
may be considered in the preparation of a cleaner production implementation plan.
 Prioritization of cleaner production options
In most cases, after conducting the feasibility analysis, it will emerge that different
options have differing levels of technical feasibility, economic viability, and
environmental performance. Since it is not desirable to implement all the options at the
same time it will be necessary for the team to prioritize the cleaner production options.
To assist the process of prioritization, a common evaluation framework will be necessary.
A weighted-sum method could be considered for this purpose.
In this method, the team will assign weights to each of the three aspects of the feasibility
analysis (technical feasibility, economical viability, environmental performance). These
weights could be decided through a brainstorming session and involving the top
management. The weights will vary from enterprise to enterprise, depending on their
technical competence, financial conditions, environmental sensitivity etc. For example, a
financially healthy small-scale enterprise facing considerable environmental pressures

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may decide to give the highest weightage to environmental performance (say, 50%), less
to technical feasibility (say, 30%) and least to financial viability (the remaining 20%).
This indicates that the enterprise is most keen to reduce pollution load but does not have
high levels of capability to undertake technically involved options.
Once weights are assigned, simple indicators such as “scores” can be developed to assess
the relative performance of each option. For example, economic viability could be
assessed based on the payback period / NPV / IRR. Environmental performance could be
assessed based on percent pollutant load reduction. Technical feasibility could be
assessed based on technical complexity, requirements for new equipment / technology,
requirement of additional technical skills, etc. Each option is then evaluated on a
subjective basis and scores assigned to each of the three aspects. Scores could have a
range such as 0 to 10 where lower scores will imply poor attainment of the performance
etc. For example, two options may have IRR of 15% and 33% respectively and hence
may be assigned scores of 8 and 5 on the aspect of economic viability.
The weighted sum of the scores will give an index for each option, on the basis of which
priorities may be assigned. It should be noted that the intention is not to prioritize each
option individually but to group them into categories such as “top priority”, medium
priority”, and “low priority”. This exercise would then be the basis for preparing the
implementation plan.

 Preparing a cleaner production implementation plan

An implementation plan consists of the organization of the projects required to
implement the options, the mobilization of the necessary funds and human resources, and
logistics. Training, monitoring and establishment of a management system such as EMS
are also often important components of an implementation plan. The implementation plan
should clearly define the timing, tasks and responsibilities. This involves:
 Prioritizing implementation of options depending on available resources;

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 Preparing the required technical specifications, site preparation, preparing bidding

documentation, short-listing submissions, etc.; and
 Allocating responsibilities and setting up monitoring/review schedules.

The cleaner production team should give first priority to implementing options that are
low in cost, easy to implement and / or are a pre-requisite for the implementation of other
options. This should be followed by options that require more investment, laboratory or
pilot trials, or interruption in production schedules. Many a time, options are
implemented during or immediately after the CPAs at enterprises. The very conduct of a
CPA in this form becomes a demonstration for others to follow.

 Sustaining cleaner production assessment

The application of CPA and implementation of cleaner production options will often
require changes in the organization and management system of the enterprise.
The key areas of changes are: integration of new technical knowledge; understanding
new operating practices, laying down revised purchasing procedures, installing and
operating new equipment, or changing the packaging and marketing of the products / by-
products. These changes will include modified preventive maintenance schedules, waste
segregation and recycling practices, etc.
It is important, therefore, to ensure that the CPA is implemented as an on-going activity,
by integrating the concept of cleaner production into the enterprise’s management
system.

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2.3.2 Environmental Management Systems

2.3.2.1 Development of the ISO 14000 series

An EMS is defined by ISO as: “part of the overall management system, that includes
organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures,
processes and resources for developing, implementing, achieving and maintaining the
environmental policy’ (ISO 1996 cited in Federal Facilities Council Report 1999). The
concept of an environmental management system evolved in the early nineties when the
United Nations organized a conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was launched. In 1992, the British
Standard International, BSI, group published the world's first environmental management
systems standard, BS 7750 and this supplied the template for the development of the
International Organization for Standardization, (ISO), 14000 series.

2.3.2.2 What the series cover

The series cover environmental management system, environmental auditing, and
environmental performance evaluation systems, environmental labelling, life cycle
assessment procedures, and product standards as shown in the table that follows.

Table 2: ISO 14000 series

Standard Title / Description

14001 Environmental Management Systems

 Requirements with Guidance for use (framework
for EMS)
 Represents the core set of standards used by
organizations for designing and implementing an

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effective environmental management system.

Environmental management systems – General

guidelines
14004
on principles, systems and support techniques
 provides additional guidance and useful
explanations.

Guidelines for Environmental Auditing

14010
 General Principles of Environmental Auditing

Guidelines for Environmental Auditing-Audit

14011 Procedures-Part 1:
 Auditing of Environmental Management Systems

Guidelines for Environmental Auditing - Qualification

Criteria for Environmental Auditors
14012
 Qualifications for auditors, for both certification
and internal self-auditing.

Guidelines for Environmental Auditing - Audit

14013/15
Programmes, Reviews & Assessments

Environmental Labeling
 eco-labels (seals of approval)
14020/23  self-declared environmental claims
 quantified environmental information about
products and services

14024 Environmental Labeling - Practitioner Programs

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 Guiding Principles, Practices and Certification

Procedures of Multiple Criteria Programs

Guidelines on Environmental Performance Evaluation

 Provides guidance on how an organization can
evaluate its environmental performance.
14031/32
 addresses the selection of suitable performance
indicators, so that performance can be assessed
against criteria set by management

Life Cycle Assessment

 General Principles discussing on pre-production
14040/43 planning and environment goal setting.
 Guide on how to reduce the overall
environmental impact of its products and services

Glossary
14050
 -Terms and Definitions

Guide for the Inclusion of Environmental Aspects in

Product Standards
 Tool to encourage considering the environment
14060
in product design and development and the use of
life-cycle and other methods in developing
standards.

Adapted from the Quality Network paper on International Standard ISO 14000

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The major objective of the ISO 14000 series of norms is "to promote more effective and
efficient environmental management in organizations and to provide useful and usable
tools that are cost effective, system-based, and flexible and reflect the best organizations
and the best objectives and goals and the subsequent monitoring and measurement of
these (IISD 2010).

2.3.2.3 ISO 14001

The standard is not an environmental management system as such but serves as a

framework to assist organizations in developing their own environmental management
system. ISO 14001 can be integrated with other management functions and assists
companies in meeting their environmental and economic goals.

ISO 14001, as with other ISO 14000 standards, is voluntary (IISD 2010), with its main
aim to assist companies in continually improving their environmental performance,
whilst complying with any applicable legislation. Organizations are responsible for
setting their own targets and performance measures, with the standard serving to assist
them in meeting these.

Benefits of implementing ISO 14001

Certification to ISO 14001 allows a company to:

 Demonstrate a commitment to achieving legal and regulatory compliance to

regulators and government
 Demonstrate your environmental commitment to stakeholders

 Demonstrate an innovative and forward thinking approach to customers and

prospective employees

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 Increase your access to new customers and business partners

 Better manage your environmental risks, now and in the future

 Potentially reduce public liability insurance costs

 Enhance your reputation

Steps in implementing of ISO 14001

The key steps in implementing ISO 14001 are:

1. Environmental policy

2. Planning
 Environmental aspects
 Legal and other requirements
 Objectives and targets
 Environmental management program(s)

3. Implementation and operation

 Structure and responsibility
 Training, awareness, and competence
 Communication
 EMS documentation
 Document control
 Operational control
 Emergency preparedness and response

4. Checking and corrective action

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 Monitoring and measurement

 Non-conformance and corrective and preventive action
 Records
 EMS audit

5. Management review

Step 1: Environmental Policy

The company or organisation must write an environmental policy statement which is
relevant to the business activities and approved by top management. Their full
commitment is essential if environmental management is to work. The ISO 14001
Standard clearly sets out what to cover in the policy. Often a one page document is
sufficient. Produce a first issue and expect to amend it several times before assessment
and registration as knowledge grows in the company.

Step 2: Planning
Plan what the EMS is to address. For the environmental aspects, first make lists of the
environmental aspects (issues) that are relevant to the business. The environmental
review mentioned earlier should provide most of this information and the Annex to ISO
14001 provides guidance on the format for doing this. Consider the inputs, outputs and
processes/activities of the business in relation to;
 emissions to air
 releases to water
 waste management
 contamination of land
 use of raw materials and natural resources
 other local environmental and community issues

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Consider both site (direct) and offsite (i.e. indirect) aspects that you control or have
influence over (such as suppliers) and in relation to normal operations, shut-down and
start-up conditions and reasonably foreseeable and emergencies situations. A simple
written procedure is then required to determine which of the aspects identified are really
or probably significant (important) and training needs, outline the key stages of the
project and dates that will lead to the target achievement).
Gradually apply environmental management programme thinking to such things as the
introduction of new products, new or improved processes and other key activities of the
business. In particular, ensure existing projects become environmental management
projects
where there is a significant environmental impact involved, so that the EMS becomes
company wide. This is a frequent oversight found during ISO 14001 assessments. The
EMS must cover the whole business – like a net thrown over the whole business and for
example including such things as engineering and maintenance.

Step 3: Implementation and Operation

Structure and responsibility
Appoint one or more people, depending on the size of the business, to have authority and
responsibility for implementing and maintaining the EMS and provide sufficient
resources. (It’s worth monitoring costs carefully and benchmarking these against key
consumption figures so that improvements delivered by the EMS become apparent).
Training, awareness and competence
Implement a procedure to provide environmental training appropriate to identified needs
for management, the general workforce, project teams and key plant operators. This can
have far reaching benefits on employee motivation. The workforce is usually very
supportive of moves to achieve genuine environmental improvement. Every company has

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its share of cynics but even some of these can be won over with time. Training will vary
from a general briefing for the workforce to detailed environmental auditor training.
Communication
Implement procedures to establish a system of internal and external communication to
receive environmental information and respond to it and to circulate new information to
people that need to know. This will include: new legislation, information from suppliers,
customers and neighbours and communications both with employees and for employees
about progress with the EMS. This process can often generate worthwhile ideas from
employees themselves for future environmental improvements.
Environmental management system documentation
The EMS itself needs to be documented with a manual, procedure and work instructions
but keep it brief and simple. The Standard clearly states where procedures are required.
Eleven system procedures are required to maintain the EMS, plus operating work
instructions but if you already have ISO 9000, this will cover most of six of the
procedures required and a quality system can certainly be expanded to cover ISO 14001
as well. Cross reference the EMS manual to other environmental and quality documents
to link the EMS and to integrate it with existing business practices.
Operational control
Implement additional operating procedures (work instructions) to control the identified
significant (important) aspects of production processes and other activities. Some of these
will already exist but may need a ‘bit of polish’. Don’t forget significant aspects that
relate to goods and services from suppliers and contractors.
Emergency preparedness and response
Implement procedures to address reasonably foreseeable emergencies and to minimise
their impact should they occur. (e.g. fire, major spillages of hazardous materials,
explosion risks etc.).

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Step 4: Checking and Corrective Action

Monitoring and measurement
Implement procedures to monitor and measure the progress of projects against the targets
which have been set, the performance of processes against the written criteria using
calibrated equipment (verify monitoring records) and regularly check (audit) the
company’s compliance with legislation that has been identified as relevant to your
business. The most effective way of doing this is through regular progress meetings.
Non-conformance and corrective and preventive action
Implement procedures to enable appropriate corrective and subsequent preventive action
to be taken where breaches of the EMS occur such as process control problems, delays in
project process, non-compliance with legislation, incidents etc.
Records
Implement procedures to enable the keeping of the records that are generated by the
environmental management system. The Annex to the Standard suggests those that are
likely to be required.
Environmental management system audit
Implement a procedure to carry out audits of each part of the EMS and company
activities and operations to verify compliance with the EMS and with ISO 14001. Audit
results must be reported to top management. A typical audit cycle is one year but more
critical activities will require auditing more frequently.

Step 5: Management Review

At regular intervals (typically annual), top management must conduct through meetings
and record minutes of a review of the EMS, to determine that it is still appropriate and
effective or to make changes where necessary. Top management will need to consider
audit results, project progress, changing circumstances and the requirement of ISO 14001
for continual improvement, through setting and achieving further environmental targets.

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2.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment

Lifecycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects and
potential impacts associated with a product (ISO 1996). It provides the methodology to
evaluate the potential environmental burdens of a product system or activity over the entire
period of life cycle It is an established environmental management tool for assessing
environmental impacts of products, especially since the 1990s (Frankl & Rubik 2000). As a
systematic tool, LCA analyses and assesses environmental impacts over the entire
lifecycle of a product. LCA involves tracing out the major stages and processes involved
over lifecycle of a product/process/system covering raw materials extraction,
manufacturing, product use, recycling and final disposal, identifying and quantifying
relevant environmental impacts at each stage. LCA aims to facilitate a systems view in
product and process evaluation (Joshi 2000) and can be considered as one of the major
approaches in the field of industrial ecology.
Lifecycle assessment is an objective process to evaluate the environmental burdens
associated with a product, process, or activity by identifying energy and materials used
and wastes and emissions released to the environment, and to evaluate opportunities to
achieve environmental improvements.

It involves collecting data on raw materials used, energy consumption and wastes
released to the environment (air, water and land). Data is collected for every stage of the
life cycle, from mining of raw materials through to processing, distribution, use, reuse,
maintenance, and recycling, final disposal and all transportation involved, using literature
studies, interviews, measurements, theoretical calculations, data banks and qualified
guesses.

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Based on a relevant functional unit for the system under study, this data is then calculated
and modeled into a Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), which in turn is classified, characterized
and evaluated to determine the environmental impacts of the system.
As a last step, the improvement assessment can be performed to identify and evaluate the
options for reducing the environmental and possibly the economical burdens of the
system.

2.3.3.1 Objectives of LCA

The prime objectives of carrying out a LCA are:
 To provide a picture as complete as possible of the interactions of an activity with the
environment
 To contribute to the understanding of the overall and interdependent nature of the
environmental consequences of human activities; and
 To provide decision−makers with information which defines the environmental effects of
these activities and identifies opportunities for environmental improvements

2.3.3.2 Methodology of LCA

Full LCA methodologies are codified in the ISO standard series 14040 (ISO 1996).
Carrying out an LCA consists of four main phases (ISO 1996):

First phase: Goal and scope definition

Clearly defining goal and scope of an LCA is of crucial importance in order not to
provide confusing results and misleading interpretations (Frankl & Rubik 2000). Thus,
the following questions should be considered:
• What is the purpose of the LCA?
• What is the spatial and temporal scope of the LCA?
• What are the functional units to be assessed?
• Who is the target group?

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• Which decisions must the LCA support?

• What is the extent of these decisions?
• Which product/solution is to be assessed, and which alternatives to be compared?

Second phase: Inventory analysis

The inventory analysis phase accounts for input and output flows of materials, energy,
water and pollutants. This phase’s reliability affects the complete assessment. Therefore
it is necessary to follow the precise standards for data collecting, calculation
procedures, allocation rules etc., i.e. SETAC (1993) and ISO (1996). Two key questions
are to be answered:
i. What is the system to be assessed (defining systems)?
ii. What are the system’s boundaries?

Third phase: Impact assessment

The impacts assessment phase implies the selection of impact categories, classification
and characterization of environmental impacts based on the inventory analysis,
regarding goal and scope. The impacts assessment procedure is codified in ISO standard
14042, though the impacts are often context−specific and can thus hardly be generalized
(Frankl & Rubik 2000). The identification of impact categories depends on the goal of
the particular LCA. General impact categories are resources depletion, human health as
well as ecological and global impacts. These impacts are operational zed by specific
impacts such as global warming, ozone depletion, acidification or eutrophication. In the
characterization phase, the impacts are analyzed, quantified and calculated, requiring
scientific knowledge about load−response relationships. For that purpose, the inventory
data needs to be analyzed by modeling approaches, like the use of equivalency factors
(e.g. ozone depletion potential) or toxicological data.

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Fourth phase: Interpretation

The interpretation phase organizes the results of the inventory analysis and impact
assessment in a comprehensible way in order to handle them by decision makers.
The findings allow a global view on the lifecycle of products and/or processes. With
respect to the goal and scope of the study conclusions and recommendations may be
formulated (Frankl & Rubik 2000).
As a basis for a decision−making processes considering environmental aspects, the
LCA results point out various options for improvements and supports other
environmental concepts, tools and systems (e.g. eco-labelling, environmental
management system).
To interpret the results of LCAs ‘confidence limits’ are indispensable from an ecological and
an economic perspective. If these limits show a wide range of uncertainty the ecologic
benefits of an investment become questionable and in this case the results can lead to
misjudgements.

2.4 PROTOTYPING TECHNIQUES

To ensure design success it is crucial to make a prototype as part of the design process. The
prototype should be tested to find out if the concept is feasible and establish whether objectives
have been achieved. Contrary to prototyping, simulation packages and 3-D modelling softwares
can be used to verify functionality of a proposed design.

2.4.1 Rapid prototyping

Rapid Prototyping is a new kid on the block of prototyping technologies. These are
computer based technologies which makes it possible to quickly build a 3D model of a
physical object directly from a computer aided design (CAD) file. The most common
rapid prototyping processes include Steriolithography, Selective Laser Sintering, Fused
Deposition Manufacturing and Laminated Object Manufacturing. The researcher would

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have loved to use one of these processes in the prototyping process but the technological
gap that exists between first and third world countries was the first limitation.

2.4.2 Finite element analysis, (FEA)

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed
for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A
company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's
specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or
structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition. In case
of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet
the new condition.

How does Finite Element Analysis Work?

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This
mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how
the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain
density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular
area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node
density than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of:
fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high
stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh
element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material
properties to the object, creating many elements.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for
minimization or maximization:

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 Mass, volume, temperature

 Strain energy, stress strain

 Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration

 Synthetic (User defined)

Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models
consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material
then vary with the amount of deformation.

Vibration analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact.
Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibration frequency of the material
which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.

Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing
the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where
crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the
damage tolerance of the material.

Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material
or structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer
refers to constant thermo-properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

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Results of Finite Element Analysis

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by
showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical
stresses within. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the
manufacturing costs which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.

2.5 CONCLUSION
After studying literature on paint manufacturing, the wastes that are generated such as
dust and spills, and the health effects of the pigment raw materials used, it was
discovered that other techniques such as Design for the Environment can be applied to
help reduce dust emissions.

CHAPTER THREE:
METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Research methodology is a collective term for the structured process of conducting
research. There are many different methodologies used in various types of research
which can be quantitative (for example, measuring the number of times someone does
something under certain conditions) or qualitative (for example, asking people how
they feel about a certain situation, http://www.blurtit.com/q462869.html).

3.1 DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT METHODOLOGY

DFE is a concept that promotes green cleaning and recognizing safer consumer and
industrial and institutional products through safer product labeling, identify safer
chemicals, including life cycle considerations, through alternatives assessment and define
best practices in areas ranging from auto refinishing to nail salon safety. The Design for

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the Environment concept was used as an approach to prevent pollution, and prevent the
risk pollution presents to humans and the environment.

In this research, the following steps were used in implementing DFE;

1) Analyse opportunities
2) Promote DfE within the company
3) Set goals and identify strategies
4) Apply DfE tools
5) Develop the product
6) Market the product
7) Evaluate

3.2 DFE TOOLS

3.2.1 Cleaner Production Assessment

CPA was used as a DfE tool and, in particular, for;
 promoting DfE within the company,
 set goals and identify strategies and
 analyse opportunities through identifying, quantifying and finding options to
minimize wastes.
The Cleaner Production Assessment was carried out through the following steps:

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Fig 3.1: The Cleaner Production Assessment methodology

(Adapted from Darozhka, S, Cleaner Production Assessment, Borki-Molo, BUP EM Course
Teachers Conference, 30 June 2006)

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3.2.2 ISO 14001

Fig 3.2: Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle of the management system.

ISO 14001 was used as key DFE tool for implementing a system that will help an
organization improve its environmental performance. It was implemented according to
the same Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle as in Fig 3.2.

3.2.3 Life Cycle Assessment

This DFE tool was used to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product,
process, or activity by identifying energy and materials used and wastes and emissions

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released to the environment, and to evaluate opportunities to achieve environmental

improvements. The assessment was carried out as follows.

Fig 3.3: Steps for Life Cycle Assessment

3.3 DESIGN FOR EXPERIMENTS

Design of Experiments is the branch of applied statistics which deals with planning,
conducting, analyzing and interpreting controlled tests to evaluate the factors that control
the value of a parameter or group of parameters, (http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/data-
collection-analysis-tools).In this research, design for experiments was recommended for
use in the prototyping stage of DFE product development process.

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Finite Element Analysis, (FEA) could be used as a tool to verify whether the proposed
design was able to perform to the researcher’s specifications prior to manufacturing or
construction as it provides the following functions;
• Structural and motion analysis;
• Design parameter sensitivity analysis;
• Design optimization, (Dong, 2006).

3.4 RESEARCH METHODS

Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed in data collection, presentation
and analysis.

3.4.1 Data collection

The function of this research design was to provide for the collection of relevant
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The data gathering tools
that were used include; field study (personal observation), interviews, questionnaires,
experiments and literature review.

i. Observation method:
Marshall, C., Rossman, G., (1989) define observation as the systematic description of
events, behaviours, and artefacts in the social setting chosen for study. Participant
observation is considered a staple in anthropological studies, especially in ethnographic
studies, and has been used as a data collection method for over a century (Kawulich, B.B,
2005).
The reason why direct observation was used in the research was that it yielded
information which people are normally unwilling or unable to provide (Marshall, C.,
Rossman, G., 1995). DeWalt, K and DeWalt, B (2002) suggested that participant

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observation be used as a way to increase the validity of the study, as observations may
help the researcher have a better understanding of the context and phenomenon under
study, (see Appendix A). They highlighted that the validity is stronger with the use of
additional strategies used with observation, such as interviewing, document analysis, or
surveys, questionnaires, or other more quantitative methods. More so, the information
collected by observer is not representative of the culture, (Johnson and Sackett, 1998).

ii. Interviews

Intercept interviewing was conducted through talking to people in their offices. It

involved the use of judgmental sampling thus the interviewer had guidelines as to whom
to “intercept”. In-depth interviews were useful for getting the story behind a participant’s
experiences, (Valenzuel D and Shrivastava P, 1998) and getting detailed information
about a person’s thoughts and exploration on new issues in depth were required (Boyce C
and Neale P, 2006).
The interviewing method had drawbacks such as discomfort of the interviewer to talk to
certain people such as senior management and bias of interview responses so as to prove
that the system working well or it can be to prove that it’s not working well (Boyce C and
Neale P, 2006). Other challenges that were faced through the use of interviews in
included the following;
 Interviewer was uncomfortable to talking to certain ethnic or groups.
 Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to
correctly judge select the right interviewee.

iii. Survey

A structured survey was carried out where formal lists of questions were asked to all
plant operators. In this research, the questions were open ended and they were used to

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collect factual information and to collect ‘baseline’ information which can then be
tracked over time to examine changes,
(www.kirklees.gov.uk/community/yoursay/Questionnaires.pdf). The reason why
questionnaires were used in survey includes their ability to collect many different kinds
of information and their quickness and low cost as compared to observation and
experimental method. Nevertheless, some drawbacks were faced which included the
inability of respondents to answer because they couldn’t remember or never gave a
thought to what they do and why, (see Appendix B).

iv. Experimental method

Experimental design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his
hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and
dependent variables, (Key J.P., 1997), thus it is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way.
This method was used in coming up with conclusions which were not capable of being
verified with observation. In this research, to determine level of dust emissions, vacuum
air pumps were used to draw air through a pre-weighed filter at a fixed flow rate for a
known time. The filter was then weighed to determine how much dust was present in a
volume of air. The pump was first placed on a working area and was then attached to a
person exposed to dust.

3.4.2 Data presentation and analysis

Tables, charts were used to present the collected data. Some of the data was presented as
raw data in the form of appendices in the document. Graphical methods and
mathematical tools were used to interpret and analyse the data gathered.

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3.5 CONCLUSION
The DFE approach was employed to prevent pollution using CP, ISO 14 001 and LCA as
DFE tool. The identified product would be developed with the aid of Finite Element
Analysis.

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CHAPTER FOUR:

CLEANER PRODUCTION ASSESSMENT

4.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is concerned with the audit of the processes that was carried out. The
objectives of the audit were to identify, quantify and find options to minimize wastes. An
initial check was carried out by the researcher to ascertain the applicability of Cleaner
Production in the plant, (see Appendix A). The actual audit was then carried out through
a Cleaner Production Assessment done by the project team.

4.1 PVA PLANT

In an ideal world, all processes and unit operations in the company should be assessed,
nevertheless, the time constraint made it necessary to select the most important process
area. The PVA master mix feeding process was considered to be a problem by everyone
involved. Even though it didn’t entail a high financial loss, the feeding process did;

i. generate a large quantity of dust emissions,

ii. Use and produce hazardous chemicals

4.2 ASSESSMENT

4.2.1 Management commitment

The senior management was the first to embrace the project idea before it cascaded down
to low level managers. The management was committed to ensure that there is process
optimisation thereby by reducing wastes and pollution. The diagram that follows, Fig 4.1,
presents the management structure of the company.

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General
Manger

Finance Risk Manager Human Production Marketing

Manager Resources Manager Manager
Manager

Branch
Manager

Fig 4.1: Organogram

4.2.2 Project Team

The project team comprised of; Researcher, General Manager, Technical Consultant,
Production Manager, Paint Chemist, Trainee Paint Chemist, Production supervisor,
storage area foreman, operators and buyer. Though all the members contribute to at least
one of the stages, some were more involved than others. These members are given in

Table 4.1 that follows.

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Table 4.1: Project team

TEAM MEMBERS CONTRIBUTION

Managers  Formulate policies, objectives, goals, targets, and availing of

resources and technical information not known to operators
Researcher  The biggest contributor to Research and Development with input
information from other members and literature.
 Development and evaluation of proposed CP initiatives, (creativity).
Chemists  Provided paint chemistry information and MSDS

Operators  Provided the information on current operating practices during walk-

through inspection, (knowledge).
 Implementation and maintenance of agreed changes

4.2.3 Working Environment and Environmental Issues of the plant

In general, the working environment of the plant is not clean, (see Appendix B). The
raw material storage area and the disperser area have pigment dust and these cause
major environmental problems. There is no dust extractor at the master mix to
extract some of the dust. The workers have cotton work suits which they change
twice a week. They are provided with leather safety shoes which are corroded by
the chemicals used in the plant. Workers prefer working without masks as they say
they are irrelevant because they cause shortness of breath such that they end up
drawing in chemicals in search of breathing air. The workers haven’t been sent for
medical examination to assess the health effects of chemicals they handle in the
plant, (see attached questionnaire).

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4.2.4 Raw Material Audit

From the walk through that was carried out, (see Appendix C), the main inputs and
outputs of PVA paint manufacturing process are presented in Table 4.2 and Fig 4.3 is the
process flow diagram.

Table 4.2: Process inputs and outputs

Inputs Outputs
1. Power – electricity 1. Paint
2. Compressed air 2. Dust
3. Water 3. Spills
4. Raw materials 4. Waste rinse water
 Pigments 5. Sludge
 Extenders 6. Filter cartridges
 Resin/binder. 7. Noise
 Additives

Fig 4.2 Material cost and usage

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RAW MATERIALS MEASURED

Formulation

PREMIX

Mill base

Let down
DISPERSION

Fail

Dispersion test

MIX

Pass

Fail
Corrections
decided
Colour tests

Pass

LET-DOWN Yes

Fail
Specification tests
Rework

No

DISPATCH FILLING Pass DISPOSAL

Fig 4.3: Paint manufacturing process

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The inputs and outputs for each process stage are presented in Fig 4.4.

Fig 4.4: Schematic diagram of paint manufacturing indicating all inputs and outputs

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4.2.5 Establishing a focus

The main processing stages generating dust emissions and powder spills are raw
material measuring and premixing. They are also slight emissions that occur during the
dispersion process of paint. From the walk through inspection i t was found out that
about 60% of dust emissions are from disperser feeding at the premixing stage as a
result of fly out dust and empty raw material bags, 30% occurs during raw material
measuring and 10 % is from the actual dispersion process. The pie chart in Fig 4.5
that follows highlights the approximated concentration of dust emission in the various
processing stages can be best illustrated as in the pie chart below.

Fig 4.5: Dust concentration

4.2.6 Material balance

The actual input/output for all the master mix processes are found in Appendix D whilst
the consolidated input resources and raw material data, (see Appendix E and F). The

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material balance for the raw material measuring, premixing and dispersion process are
shown in Fig 4.6 that follows.

Fig 4.6: Material balance

4.2.7 Pollution Audit of the plant

Particulate Matter
Sampling of respirable fraction of airborne dust for the area as well as personal dose was
done (refer to point IV of section 3.4). Dust load upon the concerned (refer to section 4.1)
was considered and it was dust was carried out in the following locations:
 Storeroom
 Disperser unit

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Table 4.3 presents the Total Weighted Average (TWA) limit values of dust
exposure for 8hrs according to ACGIH and Factories Act. Table 4.4 presents the
levels of total dust concentration in different process stages in the PVA plant.

Table 4.3: Limit Values of Dust Exposure (TWA/8hrs)

Type of dust Threshold limit Threshold limit
values by values by
ACGIH Factories act

Nuisance dust (Total) 10mg/m3 10mg/m3

Nuisance dust (Respirable) 5mg/m3 5mg/m3

Table 4.4: Concentration of Dust in Various Sections

Section/Stage Type of Number of Observed Number of Prescribed
dust samples values times limit limit values
3
(mg/m ) is exceeded by ACGIH

Min Max

Storage area Mixed dust 5 1.1 2.4 none 5mg/m3

Pigment Mixed dust 5 1.3 4.1 2 5mg/m3

measurement
Disperser Mixed dust 5 4.3 7.8 5 5mg/m3
loading
Dispersion Mixed dust 5 1.3 4.1 1 5mg/m3

Though the minimum values are within limit, there maximum observed values go

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beyond limit as shown in Fig 4.6.

According t o Table 4.3, t h e a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f d u s t generated in workplace is
3
6.1mg/m whilst the limit is 5mg/m3. The amount of mixed dust concentration during
disperser loading is above the threshold values according to Factories Act and
ACGIH Environmental Standard.

Fig 4.7: Observed dust concentration

A further comparison of area dust concentration versus the personal dose was done and
is presented in Table 4.5 and graphically in Fig 4.8.

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Table 4.5: Comparison of area dust concentration with personal dose concentration
Section/Stage Type of Area dust Personal dose
dust concentration concentration

3 3
(mg/m ) (mg/m )

Storage area Mixed dust 2.1 (max 2.4) 1.1 (max1.7)

Pigment Mixed dust 1.2 (max 2.0) 3.9 (max 4.1)

measurement
Disperser Mixed dust 5.8 (max 6.1) 6.9 (max 7.8)
loading
Dispersion Mixed dust 3.22 (max 4.1) 2.1 (max 3.3)

Fig 4.8: Area dust concentration versus personal dose concentration

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In the storeroom area and during the dispersion process, the dust
concentration is more prone in the environment whilst the person is
more exposed during pigment measurement and disperser loading. Most
of the dust emissions occur during disperser loading and at the same
time, personal dose concentration is more pronounced than the
workplace area dust concentration which means that the employee has a
greater health risk.

4.2.8 Identification for Cleaner Production Opportunities

In order to identify the cleaner production opportunities it is advised to identify
causes of waste generation.
Causes of Waste Generation
The Ishikawa diagram that follows in Fig 4.9 shows the possible causes of dust
generation.

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Fig 4.9: Ishikawa diagram for dust creation

From surveying the plant, it was found that the various causes of dust generation in the
PVA plant are as follows;
i. Poor process and equipment design
 The way of disperser feeding through direct pouring of pigments in the disperser
tank creates a lot of dust.
 There was no dust extractor at the disperse unit that could have minimized the
amount of dust that is released into the environment.
 The spillage of powders was seen to be as a result of poor feeding technique as
well as poor workmanship.
ii. Poor Housekeeping:
 Untidiness was seen in the form of pigment spills on the disperser feeding area
floor
 Equipment is not wiped off of dust emissions that would have accumulated on
them

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 The emptied raw material bags were thrown on the pallet after emptying
resulting in dust creation on the floor.
iii. Wrong Raw Material
 The pigments that are used are in the form of powders which can easily fly out as
dust
iv. Poor workmanship
 The emptied raw material bags were thrown on the pallet after emptying resulting
in dust creation on the floor.
 The concentration of dust emission is not monitored neither is it measured.

4.2.9 Cleaner Production Opportunities

From the causes of dust generation identified, some cleaner production opportunities
were suggested. The cleaner production opportunities are presented in Table 4.4 that
follows.
Table 4.4: Cleaner Production Opportunities
CLEANER PRODUCTION OPPORTUNITIES PROCESS STAGE

Good housekeeping

1. Frequent cleaning of floors All

2. Frequent wiping off of dust on equipment and walls All

3. Load empty bags into a drum to avoid spillage of left over materials. Premixing

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Poor process and equipment design

1. Design of a material handling system to reduce dust Premixing

emissions and spillages during for disperser feeding.

2. Installation of a dust extractor

Premixing, Dispersion

Wrong Raw Material

1. Use pigments in paste form Premixing, Dispersion

Poor workmanship

1. Load empty bags into a drum to avoid spillage of left over materials. Premixing, Dispersion

2. Measure and control dust emissions in the plant Premixing, Dispersion, Raw
Material Measurement

4.2.10 Options of Cleaner Production Opportunities

The cleaner production opportunities to be applied for the PVA plant are assessed
basing on the technical, economical feasibility and their environmental impacts.
Information of cleaner production opportunities analysis is tabulated in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5: Cleaner Production Opportunities Analysis

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4.2.11 Feasibility Analysis

The technical feasibility analysis was assessed basing on the extent of technical
requirements. Economic viability analysis was done basing on the investment costs a n d
money savings from implementation o f cleaner production opportunities. The overall
economic viability was assessed as high, medium or low depending upon the pay back.
The overall environmental impact of the cleaner production opportunities was
assessed as high, medium and low based on reduction in the amount of dust
emissions.

In order to suggest option of cleaner production opportunities, the overall effective

rating were given. Environmental feasibility was very important to the PVA thus it
had a weightage of 50%. Technical and economical feasibility impact had 30%
and 20% weightage respectively. A range of points was chosen for each category as
follows:

Technical Feasibility (30%) Economic Feasibility (20%) Environmental Feasibility (50%)

Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High
0-10 11-20 21-30 0-5 6-10 11-20 0-10 11-29 30-50

Basing on the rate given cleaner production opportunities was selected. Table 4.6
presents the selecting of 7 cleaner production opportunities of the mill.

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Table 4.6: Rating of Cleaner Production Options

Cleaner Feasibility Total Overall

Production point
Opportunity Technical Economic Environmental Rank
30 20 50
1 25 5 10 40 6
2 25 5 5 35 7
3 20 18 15 53 4
4 15 10 40 65 1
5 20 10 25 55 3
6 0 20 40 60 2
7 25 5 12 42 5

4.3 CONCLUSION
From the results in the previous table, the priorities of the cleaner production
opportunities were obtained. Option 4 which is the design of a material handling system to
reduce dust emissions and spillages during for disperser feeding was strongly recommended.

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CHAPTER FIVE:

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

5.0 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of implementing ISO 14 001 was to assist Astra Paints company in continually
improving their environmental performance, whilst complying with any applicable legislation .
This chapter explores the stages for the successful implementation ISO 14 001 at Astra paints so that
there can be improved environmental performance in its production processes.

5.1 IMPLEMENTING ISO14001

An Environmental Policy Manual is created to establish a formal environmental policy at
Astra Paints. It is created by a project team and be discussed by senior management and its
contents are as follows.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY MANUAL OF

Astra Paints

This is copy number ……..

Issued to ……………………

This is a controlled copy

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Authorised and signed by ………………………….. (General Manger )

ASTRA PAINTS
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

The management and all who work at Astra Paints are committed to the care of the
environment and the prevention of pollution.
The organisation ensures that all its activities are carried out in conformance with the
relevant environmental legislation.
The organisation seeks to minimize waste arising, promote recycling, reduce energy
consumption, reduce harmful emissions and, where possible, to work with suppliers
who themselves have sound environmental policies.
An essential feature of the environmental management system is a commitment to
improving environmental performance. This is achieved by setting annual
environmental improvement objectives and targets which are regularly monitored and
reviewed. The objectives and targets are publicised throughout the organisation and
all staff are committed to their achievement.
In order to ensure the achievement of the above commitments, the organisation has
implemented an environmental management system which satisfies the requirements
of ISO 14001.
This Policy and the obligations and responsibilities required by the environmental
management s y s t e m have been communicated to all employees . The
pol i c y i s available to the public on request.
General Manager Date

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Contents
5.1.1. Introduction to Astra Paints
5.1.2. Environmental management system
5.1.3. Environmental policy
5.1.4. Planning
5.1.5. Implementation and operation
5.1.6. Checking and corrective action
5.1.7. Management review
Appendix A. Structure of the Environmental Management System

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5.1.1 Introduction to Astra Paints

Astra Paints is a manufacturer of domestic, industrial, automotive and wood coatings. Astra
Paints manufactures of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) paint, enamel paint and tints. This company is
located in Harare and it has been trading since 1962.
Astra Paints is committed to protecting the environment, and is ready to implement an
environmental management system which is described in this Environmental Management
Manual.
The organisation is a l r e a d y registered to the quality management Standard ISO 9001,
( I S O 9 0 0 1 : 2 0 0 8 ) therefore, where possible the requirements of ISO 14001 and ISO
9001 will be integrated into a common management system.

5.1.2 Environmental management system

As required by Clause 4.1 of the Standard, Astra Paints will create and implement an
environmental management system (EMS) which conforms to the requirements of ISO 14001.
The EMS is structured by means of the following documents:
 Environmental Policy.
 Environmental Manual.
 Registers of Environmental Aspects and Environmental Legislation
 Operating procedures

5.1.3 Environmental policy

As required by Clause 4.2 of the Standard, Astra Paints commitment to the environment is set
out in the Environmental Policy. The Policy is signed by the General Manger, displayed
on the notice board and should be communicated to all employees. The policy statement is
at the beginning of this Manual. The Policy is supported by specific objectives and targets
which are reviewed annually.

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5.1.4 Planning

5.1.4.1 Environmental aspects

As required by Clause 4.3.1 of the Standard, the organisation should examine its activities
and services to determine which of them have an impact on the environment, and where
possible the impact has been measured. The results of the analysis are presented in a
Register of Environmental Aspects.

5.1.4.2 Legal and other requirements

As required by Clause 4.3.2 of the Standard, the organisation should determine which
environmental legislation and regulations and any relevant codes of practice apply to its
activities. The information on legal and other requirements is presented in a Register of
Environmental Legislation. If changes to legislation require the organisation to make changes
in the way it operates, the relevant Operating Procedures will be revised or new Procedures
will be written.

5.1.4.3 Objectives and targets

As required by Clause 4.3.3 of the Standard, the organisation sets environmental improvement
objectives and targets. Annually, the General Manager at an environmental management
review meeting reviews the information contained in the Registers of Environmental Aspects
and Environmental Legislation, and selects which items shall be adopted as objectives and
targets for the coming year.
In setting these objectives and targets, the organisation is mindful of:
• The environmental Policy.
• The relative importance of the environmental aspects.
• Relevant legislation, etc.
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• The view of any interested parties.

• The need to prevent pollution in general.

5.1.4.4 Environmental management programme

As required by Clause 4.3.4 of the Standard, each objective or target is set out in an
environmental action plan which states the objective of the plan, who shall be responsible for
managing the project, and the stages and timescale.
The progress of environmental action plans is monitored by the Environmental/Risk Manager
and is reviewed at subsequent environmental management review meetings.
The process is described in Operating Procedure 13 ‘Environmental objectives and targets’.

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5.1.5 Implementation and operation

5.1.5.1 Structure and responsibility

As required by Clause 4.4.1 of the Standard, the General Manger sets up a management
structure and allocates responsibilities for environmental activities so that there is
effective management of the EMS. The management structure is shown in Fig 5.1.

Fig 5.1: Management structure

The responsibilities of individual jobs which will have an input to environmental performance
are described below. The General Manager ensures that adequate resources in terms of people,
skills and equipment are available to allow the proper exercise of these responsibilities.

General Manager

The General Manager has overall responsibility for the policies and activities of the
organisation. He chairs the environmental management review meetings, has the ultimate
responsibility for setting environmental objectives and targets, and authorizes the Environmental

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Policy.

All directors and managers

All Directors and Managers are committed to the Environmental Policy. They are responsible for
ensuring that they and their staff are aware of the requirements of the EMS and for training them
in the specific environmental responsibilities of each job.

Environmental ‘management representative’

The General Manger appoints a senior manager who, in addition to his other responsibilities,
acts as the ‘management representative’ with responsibility for ensuring that the requirements
of the Standard are implemented and maintained. This person is called the Environmental
Manager (and for Astra Paints this is the Risk Manager). Some of the Environmental Manager’s
responsibilities are:
 To set up the EMS in accordance with the requirements of ISO 14001.
 To keep environmental records.
 Dealings with statutory bodies.
 Environmental awareness training.
 To arrange internal environmental audits.
 To report on environmental performance to the management review meeting.

Production Manager
He is responsible for the control of the environmental aspects related to all manufacturing
activities and for emergency procedures.
Operator
He is responsible for maintaining work station and equipment so that it performs reliably.

5.1.5.2 Training, awareness and competence

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As required by Clause 4.4.2 of the Standard, all staff and new recruits receive environmental
awareness t r a i n i n g which includes the Environmental Policy, the major
e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts of the organization’s activities and an introduction to the EMS. All
staff are trained in the specific environmental impacts and responsibilities of their jobs, in
emergency procedures and in the potential consequences of departing from the specific
procedures. Operating Procedure 15 ‘Environmental training’ applies.

5.1.5.3 Communication
As required by Clause 4.4.3 of the Standard, procedures should be implemented for receiving,
documenting and responding to communications from external sources on environmental
subjects including complaints and requests for information and operating Procedure 16
‘Environmental communications’ applies.

5.1.5.4 Environmental management system documentation

There will be a Manual and Operating Procedures supported by:
 The Register of Environmental Aspects.
 The Register of Environmental Legislation.
Appendix J contains a cross referencing of the clauses of the Standard to the paragraphs of
this Manual, the Operating Procedures and other relevant documents.

5.1.5.5 Document control

As required by Clause 4.4.5 of the Standard, Operating Procedures will be implemented for
controlling all the documents which comprise the documented EMS, so that:
 They can be located, reviewed and revised as necessary.
 They are authorized before release and are circulated to named people or locations.
 Obsolete documents are removed from the locations where they are used.

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 Documents which need to be retained for historical or legal purposes are clearly marked
as withdrawn.
Operating Procedure in ISO 9001‘Document control’ refers.

5.1.5.6 Operational control

As required by Clause 4.4.6 of the Standard, Operating Procedures will be written and
implemented where they are needed to ensure compliance with the Environmental Policy,
legal requirements, control of significant environmental aspects and progressing the
environmental improvement plan. The Operating Procedures relating to the control of
operations is given in Appendix H.

5.1.5.7 Emergency preparedness and response

As required by Clause 4.4.7 of the Standard, possible emergency situations will be
identified and Operating Procedures be written to keep control of the situation and to
overcome any consequential environmental impacts.

5.1.6 Checking and corrective action

5.1.6.1 Monitoring and measurement

As required by Clause 4.5.1 of the Standard, monitoring and measurement activities are
controlled as follows:
• Internal auditors are required to draw attention to any environmental aspect which they
feel is not adequately represented or controlled in the EMS. Operating Procedure 21
‘Internal environmental audits’ refers.
• The action plans leading to the achievement of environmental objectives and targets are
regularly reviewed to ensure that satisfactory progress is being made. In this case
Operating Procedure 13 ‘Environmental objectives and targets’ refers.

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5.1.6.2 Non-conformance, corrective and preventive action

As required by Clause 4.5.2 of the Standard, any non-conformance or incident with
environmental significance is recorded and investigated, steps are taken to control any impact
caused, and when appropriate and depending on the seriousness of the incident, corrective or
preventive action is taken to prevent a recurrence. Operating Procedure 19 ‘Non-conformance,
corrective and preventive action’ refers.

5.1.6.3 Records
As required by Clause 4.5.3 of the Standard, all documents and records which form part of the
EMS are defined, identified, collated, indexed, filed and stored securely so that they will not
deteriorate and can be retrieved. Retention times are defined. This refers to Operating Procedure
20 ‘Environmental records’.

5.1.6.4 Environmental management system audit

According to Clause 4.5.4 of the Standard, internal environmental audits are carried out to
determine that the EMS has been properly implemented and maintained and that it conforms
to the requirements of the Standard. Auditors are appointed and trained. An audit schedule is
prepared annually so that every audit topic is audited at least once a year; the frequency of
audits depends on the importance of the topic and the outcome of previous audits.

5.1.7 Management review

As required by Clause 4.6 of the Standard, the General Manger and other Managers meet
every 3 to review the EMS to ensure its continuing suitability for the needs and objectives of
the organisation, and its adequacy and effectiveness. The meeting also sets and progresses
environmental objectives and targets.
The agenda includes the following items:
• Review of any actions outstanding from previous meetings.

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• Review of environmental performance arising from non-conformities and incidents,

complaints and audit findings.
• Confirmation of preventive actions.
• Review of progress towards the achievement of environmental objectives and targets.
• Review of the Environmental Policy, Environmental Management Manual and
Operating Procedures to ensure they are still consistent with, and relevant to, the overall
policies and objectives of the organisation.
• Review of the Register of Environmental Aspects and their relative environmental
impacts, leading to the setting of new environmental objectives and targets.
• Setting improvement action plans.

• Review of environmental training needs.

5.2 CONCLUSION
The implementation of ISO 14 001 will assist the company in continually improving its
environmental performance especially on dust emissions in the PVA plant under study.

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CHAPTER SIX:

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

6.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter explore the assessment of Life Cycle as a Design for Environment tool to assess the
environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with the feeding process. Emphasis was
made on the reduction and recovering options to reduce environmental impact.
.

6.1 METHODOLOGY FOR LCA

6.1.1 Goal and scope definition

6.1.1.1 Goal of the study

The purpose of the life cycle assessment was:
1. To carry out a detailed analysis of the life cycle of the disperser feeding at in the PVA
plant with emphasis on reduction and recovering;
2. Suggest possible improvements to reduce environmental impact;
3. Suggest possible changes at the site.
The study was done from the cradle to the grave. Its purpose was to assess the environmental
aspects and potential impacts associated with a process.

6.1.1.2 Functional unit

LCA was performed on a single batch of PVA paint thus the Functional Unit for this research the
disperser feeding process of 10000 of litres of paint was chosen.

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6.1.1.3 System boundaries

Nature boundary
This study is aimed on assessing the environmental impact. Reduction and recovery options of
dust are of primary importance but the impact of the actual dust emitted was not explored.
The environmental influence caused by the produced paint is not included. The assessment is not
based on any specific evaluation method but is derived from the discussion of some important
emissions and use of resources.
Geographical boundary
The disperser feeding operation under study is for PVA paint manufacturing that takes place at a
plant at Astra paints, Harare. The manufactured paint is of different types and the analysis of the
reduction/recovery options was made for all PVA paint types.
Time boundary
Every effort was made to obtain the most updated data from the Production Manager and the
data used is for the period 2011-2012.

6.1.1.4 Data quality

The data included in the study are measurable and recordable and were supplied by the process
stakeholders. Interviews with key persons have been performed through discussions at the plant
or by phone. More so, questionnaires have also been distributed to operators, (see Appendix).
Literature has been visited to gather on possibilities of dust reduction and recovering, (see
chapter two). No verification of the data has been done on the sites of production and recycling.
It has been impossible to obtain data from similar industries in paint production for
benchmarking hence there are uncertainties in data collected.

6.1.2 Life cycle

The life cycle of the disperser feeding process is presented in Fig 6.1 that follows.

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Fig 6.1: Life cycle of feeding process

1. Raw material measuring

Raw materials are measured out as per batch card from the raw materials section and sent to the
factory.

2. Transportation

The measured pigments are ferried to the disperser unit using a forklift.

3. Disperser feeding

Two operators carry a bag and hand it over two others who tear it off and pour pigments into the
disperser tank. The total amount of powders fed for 10 000liters of paint are about 7tonnes.

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4. Dispersion

This is a physical process where particles of the pigment are ground and dispersed throughout
the mixture. The functions of dispersion are disruption, wetting, mixing and stabilization of the
pigments.

5. Recover

The dust that is emitted during raw material measuring can be collected and be used as input
material for dispersion or other processes/products.

6. Reduce

The dust emissions that are produced during disperser loading can be reduced through
modification of the feeding system.

7. Recover

The dust that is emitted during dispersion can be collected and be segregated and used as input
material for dispersion or other processes/products.

8. Emit to the atmosphere

The amount of dust that is emitted to the atmosphere is about 7.8g/m3 on average.

6.1.3 Scenarios
Three different scenarios have been studied, that is, optimistic, realistic and worst-case:

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The optimistic scenario is what is desired to be the situation in the plant during feeding
operation.

The realistic scenario represents the current situation in the plant

Worst-case scenario is chosen to demonstrate the benefit of reducing and recovering pigment
dust.

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6.1.4 Results
The results of the LCA for disperser feeding are presented below.

6.1.4.1 Scenario 2
Energy consumption
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the process is not known
Resource consumption
The main raw materials used in disperser feeding to produce 10 000litres: about 6000kg of
pigment and 4000kg of water.

Dust emissions to air

The dust emissions in the plant occur during raw material measuring prior to feeding, feeding
operation and after feeding when actual dispersion takes place. The dust concentrations are as in
Fig 6.2

Fi 6.2: Dust concentration

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About 60% of dust emissions are from disperser feeding as a result of fly out dust and empty
raw material bags, 30% occurs during raw material measuring and 10 % is from the dispersion
process.

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This dust was not segregated but it mainly constituted titanium oxide, talc, kaolin, dolomite
(whiting), and carbon black. The concentration of each chemical in the dust would depend on the
type of paint being produced since the quantity of chemical fed depends on paint type as shown
in Table 6.1 and Fig 6.3 that follows.
Table 6.1: Raw material usage
SUP 1 DUP1 ACW
Consumption

kg % kg % kg %
Titanium
dioxide 1792 30 3350 62 261 14
Talc 6 0 17 0 12 1
Whiting 48 1 44 1 3 0
Kaolin 6 0 15 0 267 15
Iron
oxide 1734 29 1670 31 1260 70
Carbon
black 2384 40 300 6 0 0

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unit

Key: SUP1, DUP1 and ACW are paint types

Fig 6.3: Material consumption for SUP1, DUP1 and ACW

Thus for Dup1 paint, most of the dust is likely to be composed of titanium oxide, (62%) and iron
oxide, (31%), for ACW, its made up of iron oxide, (70%) mainly whilst for SUP 1it is carbon
black, (40%) and then iron oxide, (29%), and titanium oxide, (30%).
Assumption: Dust chemical composition varies linearly with the mass of chemical used.

6.1.4.2 Comparison of scenarios

Resource consumption
Resource consumption in the optimistic scenario will decrease by about 1% compared to the realistic
scenario and increase by 5% in the worst -case scenario.
Emissions to air

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Fig 6.4: Emissions to air for the feeding operation life cycle - Comparison of scenarios.

6.1.4.3 Is dust reduction and recovery worth the effort?

From data presented above, it can be seen that resource consumption and emissions to air in the
worst-case scenario are higher than in the realistic scenario. Nevertheless, the environmental
burden is lessened if there is a way to reduce emissions and also if some of the dust is recovered
through dust trapping mechanisms, (optimistic scenario). Consequently, dust emissions are
reduced and pollution is prevented.

6.2 CONCLUSION
In order to reduce dust emissions, and resource consumption, either the reduce option should be
adopted or the recover process is made more efficient.

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CHAPTER SEVEN:

PRODUCT SYTHESIS

7.0 INTRODUCTION
After applying CPA, ISO 14 001 and LCA as DFE tools, the next step is to begin designing,
developing and prototyping the new product. According to the CPA, the identified option must
be able to reduce dust emissions during disperser feeding. With ISO 14001 implementation,
there should be improved environmental performance as the organisation seeks to minimize
waste arising, and reduce harmful emissions and from L C A , t h e opportunity should achieve
environmental improvements by reducing environmental burden.

This chapter explore the optimal solution generation for the recommended DFE product.

7.1 DEVELOPING THE PRODUCT

7.1.1 Management Commitment

The management agreed to have a system developed for the reduction of dust emissions and
spillages during disperser feeding as recommended from the assessments and carried out.
Besides dust reduction, they however highlighted that the identified option should be able to fit
in the current plant without need for expansion.

7.1.2 Product Design

There are several techniques for powder feeding, however only those techniques that reduce dust
emissions are considered. Each solution is described in detail and the principle of operation is
outlined. Strengths and weaknesses of each design are fairly discussed with the intention of
evaluating the best design for the desired application. A selection criterion is used to choose the
best solution for recommendation for development.

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Possible Solution 1: Vibratory Feeding

Principle of Operation

The vibratory feeder unit is available in multiple different trough designs allowing the best
possible metered flow for dry powders. In a pneumatic feeder system, a compressed gas supply
with minimal flow is required to operate the unit which has the amplitude and frequency
adjustments through the supplied manifold. Fig 7.1 shows an example of a Vibro-feeder.

Fig 7.1: Pneumatic Vibro-feeder

Design analysis

Functionality

This design has an easy adjustment of feed rate with a capacity of 20g/hr to 5kg/hr. It can allow
the best possible metered flow for dry powders.

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Safety

The design is designed for the lab and R&D environment where explosion proof area
classification will prevent the use of any other vibratory feeder.

Maintainability

This design is fairly is easy to maintain as it may require highly skilled manpower for the
maintenance operations. It however, has a standard design hence modular components are used
to allow for interchangeability and serviceability.

Easy of manufacture

This design cannot be manufactured easily as specialized skills are required to produce it though
terms of actual production; CAD/CAM/CAE software can be employed to reach the required
design specifications.

Cost

This design is expensive to manufacture since most of the technologies required to manufacture
are not readily available.

Possible Solution 2: Screw conveyor

Principle of Operation

Screw conveyors are used horizontally or at a slight incline as an efficient way to move semi-
solid materials. A screw thread runs through the centre of a container, which dispenses amounts
of powder as it rotates, thus with each revolution of the screw, a fixed volume of material is
discharged. Screw conveyors are always control fed at the inlet by another conveyor or metering
device. Rotary valves, screw feeders, belt conveyors, grinders, or even other screw conveyors

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typically are connected to the inlet of a screw conveyor. Fig 7.2 that follows is an example of a
screw conveyor at an inclination.

Fig 7.2: Vertcal Screw Conveyor

Design analysis

Functionality

The machine is capable of meeting the required production rate of 1600kg/hr without any
difficulties. They can also reach required height of 3.5m since they can go up to 7.5m in length.
The design is semi-automated to reduce the human interaction.

Safety

This machine can design for safety to both the operator and the environment through the
incorporation of a trough cover which most manufacturers recommend to be put in-place before
an operations can start. Safety guards are also provided for dangerous components.

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Figure 0-1 Solution 2

Process optimization using Design for Environment concept in the input material of the disperser
unit

Maintainability

This design has mechanical mechanisms which can be maintained without problems. All
machine components are easily accessible on this machine. The machine is made of standard
components which are interchangeable.

Easy Of Manufacture

Local material is used for all components on this machine. The machine can be reduced to
subassemblies which can be manufactured easier then used to build the machine.

Cost

The cost of this design is fairly low since most of the components required on this machine are
readily available.

Possible Solution 3 Pin Feeding

Principle of Operation

By using techniques such as the Labman pin feeder, a set volume of powder can be rapidly
dispensed into vials, containers, tubes and dishes. This volume, as the density of the powders is
consistent, results in highly accurate and reproducible dispenses. Powders that differ in density
and consistency are fed in smaller dispenses, with multiple dispenses to achieve the final weight.
An illustration of a pin feeder is given in Fig 7.3 that follows.

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Fig 7.3: Pin Feeder

Design analysis

Functionality

This design is fully automated. Nevertheless, the required production rate of 1600kg/hr is
difficult to meet with this design since the machine is designed for smaller production volumes
which make use of smaller dispenses.

Safety

Chemicals having considerable calorific value can be harmful and this includes aluminium dust
and the dust of other metals. The greatest care should be used in handling them. To minimize the
danger of dust explosion resulting adequate ventilation must be provided. A water wash wet
collector should be used.

Maintainability

This design requires skilled manpower because of the precisions that are required in its
operations which otherwise makes it difficult to maintain.

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Easy of manufacture

This design is difficult to manufacture as high precision is required so that it can also disperse
powders with greater accuracy.

Cost

This design use compressed air which might not be available at the intended work place. The
extra cost of buying a compressor for this machine will eventually increase the cost of the
machine. This design is only cheap were air lines are already installed.

Selection Criterion

After analysis of each design the three solutions are compared against each other in order to find
the most suitable one for the problem at hand using a decision matrix. The attributes discussed in
the design analysis for each solution were used as the basic factors for the selection process.

Table 7.1: Decision matrix

Attribute Points Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

Functionality 30 15 25 15

Product Safety 30 25 30 15

Cost 10 5 6 3

Manufacturability. 20 10 15 8

Maintainability. 10 5 6 4

Total 100 60 82 45

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7.2 CONCLUSION
From the decision matrix solution 2 which is a screw conveyor proves to be the best for the
desired application. The design can reach the desired capacity of conveyance of 1600kg/hr and
has greater safety which reduces risks to the human and the environment. There are no
complicated manufacturing methods required for this design as this design has already find wide
application in powder conveyance such as for stock feeds, grains, cereals and wastes.

The researcher recommends this design for process optimization for disperse feeding as it is
capable of feeding raw materials in the disperser unit with minimum dust emissions. The design
details to be used in the screw conveyor are found in Appendices.

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CHAPTER EIGHT:

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the research conclusions on objectives achievement. Recommendations are
also made that aid in other beneficial improvements in the PVA paint plant.

8.1 CONCLUSIONS
The application of DFE tools helped to meet the set research objectives as follows;

Objective 1
To come up with a design that will reduce dust emissions by 56%
Results
The assessment carried out through Cleaner Production and Life Cycle resulted in the
identification of a DFE product that reduces dust emissions from a maximum of 7.8g/m 3 to a
threshold value of 5g/m3. Further to this, a DFE product was synthesized and design
specifications are given. This objective was successfully achieved.

Objective 2
To reduce potential health hazards in the plant by 50%
Results
The implementation of ISO 14 001 at Astra Paints improves environmental performance thus
consequently reducing risks and related potential health effects. Also the implementation of CPA
and LCA identify a DFE product that reduces dust emissions and health risks at the same time.
There, this objective was achieved.

Objective 3

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To improve plant productiveness thereby increasing competitive advantage.

Results
The DFE product that was identified was supposed to be developed fully. Prototype testing was
supposed to prove whether there had been an improvement in productiveness by analysis the
feeding rate of the proposed design. Nevertheless, the final product was not fully developed so
this objective was not successfully met.

8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

8.2.1 Health surveillance

Employer has the duty to arrange any appropriate health checks provide for the employees under
Regulation 11 COSHH (2002) which they are exposed to substances hazardous to health. Health
surveillance is important which the work-related ill health of the employees will be detect the
early signs of the ill health so the control measures can be taken to control it.

8.2.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Employer should provide adequate PPE in the plant. PVC gumboots should be provided to
reduce exposure to chemicals to operators. Other face masks which are more protective should
be provided to reduce inhalation of dust particles since the current ones in use are allowing dust
inhalation witnessed in nose discharge, (see attached questionnaire).

8.2.3 Risk Assessment

All employers must carry out a risk assessment. Under regulation 6 COSHH (2002) mention that
a COSHH risk assessment of the risk health that involve hazardous in substances should be
carried out. Approve Code of Practice ACOP is required to carry out the risk assessment as
required under the guidance which to reduce the hazard in the workplace. Employer should
ensure that the person who does the risk assessment and the inspection are competent person to
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the job. Risk assessments are recorded and are circulated to all employees and employer so they
are familiar with those risk and hazard. This reduces potential health hazards in the plant.

8.2.4 Training
Adequate training should be provided to operators so that they become conscious about risks
posed to them by the chemicals they handle. This ensures that they follow operational procedures
when carrying out their duties. They will be substantive reduction in potential health hazards.

8.3 CONCLUSION
The researcher recommends DFE technology for process optimization not only at the company
under study but other manufacturing entities. To prevent potential health risks associated with
pigment dust exposure, the mentioned recommendations should be implemented. It is essential
that the employer provides a safe workplace to prevent and minimize the possibility of ill health
that might be exposed to employees at work. Implementation of the control measures and
recommendations can benefits the company to protect its reputation as well as not to breach any
of the current health and safety legislation to avoid any unnecessary compensation claim.

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