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Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (abbreviated
as H–R diagram, HR diagram or HRD) is a
scatter plot of stars showing the relationship between
the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities and
their stellar classifications or effective temperatures.
The diagram was created independently in 1911 by
Ejnar Hertzsprung and by Henry Norris Russell in
1913, and represented a major step towards an
understanding of stellar evolution.

Historical background
In the nineteenth century large-scale photographic
spectroscopic surveys of stars were performed at
Harvard College Observatory, producing spectral
classifications for tens of thousands of stars,
culminating ultimately in the Henry Draper An observational Hertzsprung–Russell diagram with
Catalogue. In one segment of this work Antonia 22,000 stars plotted from the Hipparcos Catalogue
Maury included divisions of the stars by the width of and 1,000 from the Gliese Catalogue of nearby
their spectral lines.[1] Hertzsprung noted that stars stars. Stars tend to fall only into certain regions of
described with narrow lines tended to have smaller the diagram. The most prominent is the diagonal,
going from the upper-left (hot and bright) to the
proper motions than the others of the same spectral
lower-right (cooler and less bright), called the main
classification. He took this as an indication of greater sequence. In the lower-left is where white dwarfs
luminosity for the narrow-line stars, and computed are found, and above the main sequence are the
secular parallaxes for several groups of these, subgiants, giants and supergiants. The Sun is
allowing him to estimate their absolute magnitude.[2] found on the main sequence at luminosity 1
(absolute magnitude 4.8) and B−V color index 0.66
In 1910 Hans Oswald Rosenberg published a diagram (temperature 5780 K, spectral type G2V).
plotting the apparent magnitude of stars in the
Pleiades cluster against the strengths of the calcium K
line and two hydrogen Balmer lines.[3] These spectral lines serve as a proxy for the temperature of the
star, an early form of spectral classification. The apparent magnitude of stars in the same cluster is
equivalent to their absolute magnitude and so this early diagram was effectively a plot of luminosity
against temperature. The same type of diagram is still used today as a means of showing the stars in
clusters without having to initially know their distance and luminosity.[4] Hertzsprung had already
been working with this type of diagram, but his first publications showing it were not until 1911. This
was also the form of the diagram using apparent magnitudes of a cluster of stars all at the same
distance.[5]
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Russell's early (1913) versions of the diagram included Maury's giant stars identified by Hertzsprung,
those nearby stars with parallaxes measured at the time, stars from the Hyades (a nearby open
cluster), and several moving groups, for which the moving cluster method could be used to derive
distances and thereby obtain absolute magnitudes for those stars.[6]

Forms of diagram
There are several forms of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, and the nomenclature is not very well
defined. All forms share the same general layout: stars of greater luminosity are toward the top of the
diagram, and stars with higher surface temperature are toward the left side of the diagram.

The original diagram displayed the spectral type of stars on the horizontal axis and the absolute visual
magnitude on the vertical axis. The spectral type is not a numerical quantity, but the sequence of
spectral types is a monotonic series that reflects the stellar surface temperature. Modern observational
versions of the chart replace spectral type by a color index (in diagrams made in the middle of the
20th Century, most often the B-V color) of the stars. This type of diagram is what is often called an
observational Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, or specifically a color–magnitude diagram (CMD), and it
is often used by observers.[7] In cases where the stars are known to be at identical distances such as
within a star cluster, a color–magnitude diagram is often used to describe the stars of the cluster with
a plot in which the vertical axis is the apparent magnitude of the stars. For cluster members, by
assumption there is a single additive constant difference between their apparent and absolute
magnitudes, called the distance modulus, for all of that cluster of stars. Early studies of nearby open
clusters (like the Hyades and Pleiades) by Hertzsprung and Rosenberg produced the first CMDs, a few
years before Russell's influential synthesis of the diagram collecting data for all stars for which
absolute magnitudes could be determined.[3][5]

Another form of the diagram plots the effective surface temperature of the star on one axis and the
luminosity of the star on the other, almost invariably in a log-log plot. Theoretical calculations of
stellar structure and the evolution of stars produce plots that match those from observations. This
type of diagram could be called temperature-luminosity diagram, but this term is hardly ever used;
when the distinction is made, this form is called the theoretical Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
instead. A peculiar characteristic of this form of the H–R diagram is that the temperatures are plotted
from high temperature to low temperature, which aids in comparing this form of the H–R diagram
with the observational form.

Although the two types of diagrams are similar, astronomers make a sharp distinction between the
two. The reason for this distinction is that the exact transformation from one to the other is not trivial.
To go between effective temperature and color requires a color–temperature relation, and
constructing that is difficult; it is known to be a function of stellar composition and can be affected by
other factors like stellar rotation. When converting luminosity or absolute bolometric magnitude to
apparent or absolute visual magnitude, one requires a bolometric correction, which may or may not
come from the same source as the color–temperature relation. One also needs to know the distance to
the observed objects (i.e., the distance modulus) and the effects of interstellar obscuration, both in the
color (reddening) and in the apparent magnitude (where the effect is called "extinction"). Color
distortion (including reddening) and extinction (obscuration) are also apparent in stars having

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significant circumstellar dust. The ideal of direct comparison of theoretical predictions of stellar
evolution to observations thus has additional uncertainties incurred in the conversions between
theoretical quantities and observations.

Interpretation
Most of the stars occupy the region in the diagram along the
line called the main sequence. During the stage of their lives
in which stars are found on the main sequence line, they are
fusing hydrogen in their cores. The next concentration of
stars is on the horizontal branch (helium fusion in the core
and hydrogen burning in a shell surrounding the core).
Another prominent feature is the Hertzsprung gap located in
the region between A5 and G0 spectral type and between +1
and −3 absolute magnitudes (i.e., between the top of the
main sequence and the giants in the horizontal branch). RR
Lyrae variable stars can be found in the left of this gap on a
section of the diagram called the instability strip. Cepheid
variables also fall on the instability strip, at higher
luminosities.

The H-R diagram can be used by scientists to roughly An HR diagram with the instability strip and
its components highlighted
measure how far away a star cluster or galaxy is from Earth.
This can be done by comparing the apparent magnitudes of
the stars in the cluster to the absolute magnitudes of stars with known distances (or of model stars).
The observed group is then shifted in the vertical direction, until the two main sequences overlap. The
difference in magnitude that was bridged in order to match the two groups is called the distance
modulus and is a direct measure for the distance (ignoring extinction). This technique is known as
main sequence fitting and is a type of spectroscopic parallax. Not only the turn-off in the main
sequence can be used, but also the tip of the red giant branch stars.[8][9]

The diagram seen by ESA's Gaia mission

ESA's Gaia mission showed several features in the diagram that were either not known or that were
suspected to exist. It found a gap in the main sequence that appears for M-dwarfs and that is
explained with the transition from a partly convective core to a fully convective core.[10][11] For white
dwarfs the diagram shows several features. Two main concentrations appear in this diagram following
the cooling sequence of white dwarfs that are explained with the atmospheric composition of white
dwarfs, especially hydrogen versus helium dominated atmospheres of white dwarfs.[12] A third
concentration is explained with core crystallization of the white dwarfs interior. This releases energy
and delays the cooling of white dwarfs.[13][14]

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Hertzsprung-Russell diagram Part of the diagram from ESA's

showing only white dwarfs with Gaia. The dark line likely
data from ESA's Gaia mission represents the transition from
partly convective to fully
convective red dwarfs

Role in the development of stellar physics

Contemplation of the diagram led astronomers to
speculate that it might demonstrate stellar evolution,
the main suggestion being that stars collapsed from
red giants to dwarf stars, then moving down along the
line of the main sequence in the course of their
lifetimes. Stars were thought therefore to radiate
energy by converting gravitational energy into
radiation through the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism.
This mechanism resulted in an age for the Sun of only
tens of millions of years, creating a conflict over the
age of the Solar System between astronomers, and
biologists and geologists who had evidence that the
Earth was far older than that. This conflict was only HR diagrams for two open clusters, M67 and NGC
resolved in the 1930s when nuclear fusion was 188, showing the main-sequence turn-off at
identified as the source of stellar energy. different ages

Following Russell's presentation of the diagram to a

meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1912, Arthur Eddington was inspired to use it as a basis
for developing ideas on stellar physics. In 1926, in his book The Internal Constitution of the Stars he
explained the physics of how stars fit on the diagram.[15] The paper anticipated the later discovery of
nuclear fusion and correctly proposed that the star's source of power was the combination of hydrogen
into helium, liberating enormous energy. This was a particularly remarkable intuitive leap, since at
that time the source of a star's energy was still unknown, thermonuclear energy had not been proven
to exist, and even that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been
discovered. Eddington managed to sidestep this problem by concentrating on the thermodynamics of
radiative transport of energy in stellar interiors.[16] Eddington predicted that dwarf stars remain in an
essentially static position on the main sequence for most of their lives. In the 1930s and 1940s, with an
understanding of hydrogen fusion, came an evidence-backed theory of evolution to red giants
following which were speculated cases of explosion and implosion of the remnants to white dwarfs.

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The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution
and explosion of a pre-supernova star, a concept put forth by Fred Hoyle in 1954.[17] The pure
mathematical quantum mechanics and classical mechanical models of stellar processes enable the
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to be annotated with known conventional paths known as stellar
sequences—there continue to be added rarer and more anomalous examples as more stars are
analysed and mathematical models considered.

See also
Asymptotic giant branch – Stars powered by Red clump – Clustering of stars in astronomy
fusion of hydrogen and helium in shell with an diagram
inactive core of carbon and oxygen Stellar birthline – Construct in astrophysics
Galaxy color–magnitude diagram – Chart Stellar isochrone – Curve on the Hertzsprung-
depicting the relationship between brightness Russell diagram representing stars of a
and mass of large star systems particular age
Hayashi track – Luminosity–temperature Stellar classification – Classification of stars
relationship in stars based on spectral properties
Henyey track – path taken by pre-main- Tip of the red-giant branch – Primary distance
sequence stars in the Hertzsprung–Russell indicator used in astronomy
diagram Color–color diagram – Astronomical diagram
Hess diagram – Diagram of stars in graphing two colour indices
astronomy

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External links
Omega Cen H-R (http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1017b/) animation of a Hertzsprung–
Russell diagram created from real Hubble data
JavaHRD (http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~javahrd/) an interactive Hertzsprung–Russell diagram as
a Java applet

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2/1/25, 7:46 AM Hertzsprung–Russell diagram - Wikipedia

BaSTI (http://albione.oa-teramo.inaf.it/) a Bag of Stellar Tracks and Isochrones, simulations with

FRANEC code by Teramo Astronomical Observatory
Leos Ondra: The first Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (http://www.leosondra.cz/en/first-hr-diagram/)
Who first published a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram? Hertzsprung or Russell? Answer: neither! (htt
p://www.portaltotheuniverse.org/blogs/posts/view/29476/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0210515064629/http://www.portaltotheuniverse.org/blogs/posts/view/29476/) 2021-05-15 at the
Wayback Machine

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